Fraction of particular chemical elements in composition of powders subject to experiments in per cents.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-951-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-950-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-952-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"bb6fc82b35ad2c63618a9bc15aeb61ce",bookSignature:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap and Dr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11948.jpg",keywords:"MOSFET, CMOS, OFET, JFET, FinFET, Integrated Circuit (IC), Oxidation, Metallization, Semiconductor, Silicon (Si), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Silicon Carbide (SiC)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A researcher in the fields of microelectronics and electromagnetics. Member of IEEE, IET, IEM.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"24699",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24699/images/system/24699.jpg",biography:"Kim Ho Yeap is an Associate Professor at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. He is an IEEE senior member, a Professional Engineer registered with the Board of Engineers, Malaysia,a Chartered Engineer registered with the UK Engineering Council, and an ASEAN Chartered Professional Engineer (ACPE). He received his BEng (Hons) Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Petronas in 2004, his MSc in microelectronics from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 2005, and his PhD from Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman in 2011. In 2008 and 2015, respectively, Dr. Yeap underwent research attachment at the University of Oxford (UK) and Nippon Institute of Technology (Japan). Dr. Yeap is the external examiner and external course assessor of Wawasan Open University. He is also the Editor in Chief of the i-manager’s Journal on Digital Signal Processing. He has also been a guest editor for the Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences and Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. Dr. Yeap has been given the university teaching excellence award, and 22 research grants. He has published more than 100 research articles (including refereed journal papers, conference proceedings, books, and book chapters). Prior to joining the academic industry, Dr. Yeap worked in Intel corporation in the pre-silicon validation group. He was awarded 4 Kudos awards by Intel for his contributions in the design and verification of the microchip’s design for testability (DFT) features.",institutionString:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"454196",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalene",middleName:null,surname:"Goh Wan Ching",slug:"magdalene-goh-wan-ching",fullName:"Magdalene Goh Wan Ching",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr Magdalene Goh Wan Ching\r\nDesignation: Senior lecturer\r\nQualifications: Diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering (Inti College), BEng in Electrical\r\nEngineering & Electronics (University of Liverpool, UK), PhD in Solid State\r\nDevice Physics & RF Transistors Design (University of Liverpool, UK)\r\n\r\nProfessional Body\r\nMemberships:\r\n\r\nInaugural Senior Member, International Engineering & Technology Institute\r\n(IETI), Hong Kong\r\n\r\nBiodata: Dr. Magdalene Goh obtained her Diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering\r\nfrom Inti College before leaving for the UK to pursue her BEng in Electrical\r\nEngineering & Electronics and later on, her PhD. Prior to joining the academia,\r\nshe has worked for a few years in the industry in the areas of semiconductor\r\nprocess technology, silicon wafer characterizations, mask layout design,\r\nanalogue circuits design and design for testability (DFT). While in the academic,\r\nshe had served as a judge for Innovate Malaysia undergraduate final year\r\nprojects competition from 2012 - 2015. She had served as an external examiner\r\nfor a PhD candidate from VIT University, India in 2013, and an external examiner\r\nfor SEGi College Penang from 2014 – 2018. She has been actively involved with\r\nthe Penang Science Cluster in their radio telescope team since 2014, where she\r\nworks with a team of volunteers (from both academia and the industry in\r\nPenang) to create curricula in radio astronomy, for the purpose of introducing the\r\nconcepts of radio astronomy and radio telescopes to both school pupils and\r\ncollege students. She has been a member of the Astronomical Society of\r\nPenang since 2016.\r\n\r\nCourse Development\r\nExperience:\r\n\r\nSince joining WOU, Dr. Goh has developed eight courses, namely Control\r\nSystems, Microprocessors, Digital Communications, Microelectronics, VLSI\r\nDesign, Process Control & Instrumentation, Power Electronics & Drives and\r\nElectrical Power & Drives.\r\n\r\nResearch Interest: Dr. Goh’s research interests are in the areas of semiconductor physics and\r\nelectromagnetics. She also has strong interest in the field of astronomy and is\r\nworking with a group of volunteers to promote astronomy education in the\r\nsecondary schools in Penang. She had also worked with some interns on the\r\nradio telescope project at the Penang Science Cluster.\r\n\r\nResearch Projects and\r\nConsultancy Work:\r\nSelected Publications: Design of Radio Frequency Metal-Insulator-Metal (MIM) Capacitors. \r\n\r\nExperimental Investigation on Thermoelectric Generator for Battery - Charger\r\nBased Oven.\r\nAnalyzing the Physics of Radio Telescopes and Radio Astronomy (book\r\nchapters).\r\n\r\nConferences,\r\nSeminars and\r\nWorkshops:\r\n\r\nDr. Goh was appointed as one of the Technical Committee Member for the\r\nVirtual Conference on Electronics and Communication: Loading Intelligence on\r\nFuture Electronics (October 2020).\r\n\r\nHonorary\r\nAppointments and\r\nAwards:\r\n\r\nDr. Goh is a reviewer of the following journals:-\r\n1. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters.\r\n2. Journal of Electrical Engineering.\r\n3. Journal on Digital Signal Processing.\r\n\r\nOfficial\r\n\r\nDr. Magdalene Goh Wan Ching\r\nSenior Lecturer & Programme Coordinator of Bachelor of Technology in\r\n\r\nCorrespondence\r\nAddress:\r\n\r\nElectronics,\r\nSchool of Science & Technology\r\nWawasan Open University\r\n54, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah,\r\n10050 Penang\r\n\r\nEmail Address: magdalenegoh@wou.edu.my\r\nPersonal Homepage\r\n(optional):\r\n\r\nBTEL facebook page:\r\nhttps://www.facebook.com/groups/238200129533176/",institutionString:"Technology Wawasan Open University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444312",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Tikel",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444312/images/20015_n.jpg",email:"sara.t@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Owing to their benefits, they support the development of multiple disciplines in the field of engineering wherever a clear need exists to fabricate elements with a complicated shape, geometry and a distinctive structure. Such elements include individualised implants, representing living tissues, closely accommodated to a given patient based on the results of computer tomography or nuclear magnetic resonance or traditional plaster casts.
\nPorous structures are much desired in medicine, especially where a porous element is to replace a missing bone. In such a situation, the task of the fabricated element is to stimulate a regeneration process of the adjacent bone tissue through an osteoconductive and osteoinductive activity. Osteoconduction is a process of bone loss regeneration consisting of the in-growth of osteoblasts—which are bone-forming cells originating from the adjoining bone stock—into the porous implant. In osteoinduction, though, the differentiation of mesenchymal cells is stimulated in the environment of osteoblasts. The cells represent a connective embryonic tissue occurring only in the embryonic period, from which all types of connective tissues, bone tissue, cartilage tissue and muscle tissue are created. In order for titanium scaffolds fabricated with SLS technologies to fulfil their role well in a patient’s organism, they should be characterised by the appropriate size of pores, appropriate porosity, as well as strength permitting usage in bone implants functioning as scaffolds, which become a substructure and a support for the bone growing into them. Literature data shows [1–12] that the size of pores allowing the development of the bone growth process into the created scaffold, varies between the minimum of 50–200 µm and the maximum of 500 µm and the porosity of such a scaffold should not exceed 50%. A satisfactory result of a manufacturing process of porous titanium materials is seen when an element is achieved with open pores, characterised by an appropriate level of porosity and sufficiently good strength properties, which should be similar to the corresponding properties of a living bone tissue. Bone porosity is referred to as the volume fraction of the fluid phase filling the pore space of a bone in a given bone volume unit. The bone fluid phase consists of blood vessels together with blood, nerve fibres, bone cells and extracellular bone fluid. A cortical bone has the density of 1.99 g/cm3. It has the longitudinal compressive strength of 131–224 MPa and the longitudinal bending strength of 79–151 MPa. The transverse compressive strength of a cortical bone is 106–133 MPa and bending strength is 51–56 MPa [13, 14].
\nAdditive manufacturing enables to create objects with the final shape while allowing to control the manufactured element in each part of its volume. An advantage of AM technologies, as compared to competitive fabrication methods of porous materials with space fillers [10–12], is also an ability to fabricate without applying costly and time-intensive casting moulds, as a result of which the product achieved does not contain external admixtures which are often present in cast products. The maximum possible reduction of wastes generated in a manufacturing process as compared to waste-generating machining is ranking AM technologies higher than traditional manufacturing processes applied until now. The entire additive manufacturing process takes place in an atmosphere of inert gas, which prevents the creation of unwanted products of the reactions occurring between a material used for fabrication of elements and air components. Selective laser melting (SLM) technology, due to its advantages, is very well suitable for manufacturing in line with the make-to-order concept of individualised craniofacial implants, including palate implants.
An additive manufacturing process carried out with the SLM technique begins at the sage of computer design of 3D models of objects planned to be manufactured in reality. The key benefit of the concept is that no constraints exist as to the shape and filling of a virtual model at the design stage; it allows representing an anatomical structure of organs, bones and human and animal tissues very accurately [15–20]. One of the specific aspects in this domain, being the subject of a series of experiments performed by the authors of this chapter, is the designing and manufacturing of porous biomimetic implants replacing a patient’s palate loss. The loss may result from a genetic defect or a mechanical injury, or a neoplasm. A palate implant designed individually for each patient is a scaffold, the structure of which is made of open pores. A porous structure is to ensure appropriate growth conditions on the surface of pores for living cells by ensuring availability of nutrients. The computer-aided design of virtual models is preceded by a clinical stage at which accurate data is acquired from a patient regarding a 3D shape and dimensions of one’s palate loss. The data can be acquired in the course of examinations conducted with computer tomography or nuclear magnetic resonance, or with traditional plaster casts, the shape of which is then transferred to a computer with a 3D scanner. Regardless the option chosen, the outcome of such activities is a virtual solid implant model of a palate which is further processed into a porous model.
\nA unit cell which, when multiplied many times, will create a porous scaffold structure, is required to create a virtual porous palate implant. A unit cell can be chosen from the available database being part of commercial software or it can be individually designed according to individual preferences. When designing a unit cell, it is significant to model it in such a way that it is symmetrical relative to all the axes of symmetry, which guarantees the correct transformation of a virtual solid model into a porous model, without errors on the created lattice. Unit cells according to a custom design are shown in Figure 1. All the designed unit cells inscribe themselves into a cube with the side of 500 µm. A type A cell (Figure 1a) has the shape of a spatial cross with arms with the dimensions of 100 × 100 μm. A type B cell (Figure 1b) is a cross with its arms 100 μm thick and has small quadrangle openings in such arms with the side of 100 μm. A type C cell (Figure 1c) is a cube with the side of 300 μm, on each wall of which tongues are arranged symmetrically in the form of smaller cubes with the side of 100 μm. A type D cell (Figure 1d) is a skeleton of a cube with the sides equal to 100 μm.
Unit cells according to a custom design: (a) type A: spatial cross; (b) type B: cross with openings; (c) type C: cube with tongues; (d) type D: cube skeleton.
A solid implant model and the applied unit cell are saved in
Virtual solid implant model and a corresponding porous model created after transformation: (a) top view; (b) bottom view.
Pristine titanium and Ti6Al4V titanium alloy, which, as per the international standard [21], is dedicated to biomedical applications, is a material used for the fabrication of actual objects which are to act as individualised palate implants. Titanium is classified as a light metal with a density of
Powder | Al | V | C | Fe | O | N | H | Others total | Others each | Ti |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ti | – | – | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.14 | 0.01 | . 0.004 | . <0.4 | . <0.01 | Remainder |
Ti6Al4V | 6.35 | 4.0 | 0.01 | 0.2 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.003 | ≤0.4 | ≤0.1 |
Fraction of particular chemical elements in composition of powders subject to experiments in per cents.
Results of qualitative chemical composition analysis: (a) pristine titanium; (b) TiAl6V4.
Powders used in laser sintering process: (a) pristine titanium; SEM image; (b) Ti6Al4V titanium alloy; image from stereoscopic microscope.
Pristine titanium and titanium Ti6Al4V alloy powders are an input material from which porous implants for medical uses are manufactured in a selective laser sintering process. Preparatory measures are taken before the actual manufacturing process, during which, after transferring a 3D virtual scaffold model to an SLM device, the virtual object is placed in a working chamber in the adequate position, i.e. on the relevant edge and under the right angle. The selection of the adequate virtual model position in a working chamber is an important aspect due to the following factors: the amount of powder needed to carry out a manufacturing process once, the mechanical properties of the scaffolds produced [25] and the number of supports needed to generate scaffolds. The purpose of the supports is to support the produced actual object and to secure it against collapse under its own weight. In the next stage, the virtual model is divided into layers parallel to the working platform surface of the device on which it is to be manufactured. The number of layers depends on the parameter set by the operator, i.e. powder layer thickness to be given before each melting. The following manufacturing conditions are also selected prior to commencing a fabrication process of an actual object: laser power, scanning rate, distance between consecutive remelting paths and the laser beam diameter. Before starting the selective laser melting process, titanium powder is heated in a vacuum in the surrounding of shielding gas at an elevated temperature (160–200°C) to remove any moisture from the powder, as necessary.
\nThe actual selective laser melting process serves to produce metallic scaffolds encompasses the selective melting of powders point after point and layer after layer using a high-power laser [30–34] with a device the diagram of which is shown in Figure 5. A process of object manufacturing by SLM was carried out from the bottom, i.e. from the working platform side. Each layer produced is adhering to the preceding one until the process is completed [35, 36]. Powder is fed from a magazine holding loose material and is then distributed with a specific quantity with a shaft travelling across a working platform, which is descending by the exact height of the layer being sintered, whose thickness corresponds to one layer of virtual 3D model section. The excess powder is collected with a roll to a second empty magazine. A computer-controlled laser beam is melting the powder (Figure 6) in a specifically predefined manner and in selectively picked points. A powder layer is deposited and melted selectively in an alternate fashion, until the entire, permanently integrated real object is created. The excess powder, removed from a working platform, can be re-used, by collecting it into a separate special magazine, after being finely sifted in subsequent fabrication processes [37, 38]. An example of a scaffold observed with a bare eye, whose size matches the palate loss of one of the patients participating in clinical trials, is shown in Figure 7, showing, respectively, view from the top (Figure 7a) and from the bottom (Figure 7b). This scaffold, manufactured using Ti6Al4V titanium alloy powder, was removed mechanically from the working platform and supports were removed.
Schematic of the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) device; an own picture prepared on the basis of Refs. [
Sintering of individual powder layers in SLM process [
Example of scaffold manufactured with SLM method from Ti6Al4V powder, whose shape matches the palate loss of a patient: (a) top view; (b) bottom view.
The scaffolds created were subjected to microscopic observations using a scanning electron microscope. It was observed that the surface topography of the created scaffolds shows a porous, regular latticework-shaped structure. It was also found that the pores of the scaffolds produced are open, which was one of the designers’ key assumptions due to the fact that this material, acting as an implant, is to grow through a patient’s living tissue. Microscope observations of the studied material’s surface topography indicate also the presence of singular, spherically shaped powder grains on its surface, which were deposited there due to adhering to the scaffold surface remelted in an SLM process. Figure 8 shows a surface topography of the scaffolds manufactured with Ti6Al4V powder with the SLM method using the pre-produced virtual models comprised of multiplied unit cells created by the author, of, respectively, type A (Figure 8a), type B (Figure 8b), type C (Figure 8c) and type D (Figure 8d).
Surface topography of scaffolds manufactured as multiplication of units cells of type A (a), type B (b), type C (c) and type D (d).
On the one hand, scaffolds are made of robust materials such as pristine titanium and Ti6Al4V titanium alloy and on the other hand, they have a distinct structure consisting of open pores and possess interesting mechanical properties such as tensile and compressive strength. The tensile strength of material is determined according to the dependency (Eq. (1)) [39], using for calculations the results of strength tests determining the maximum tensile strength and a known field area of the sample cross section. The dependency (Eq. (2)) [39] allows to calculate the compressive strength of material using data such as the maximum compressive strength values obtained during strength tests and the sample cross section. The shape and dimensions of the samples designed to perform tensile and compressive strength tests are shown in Figure 9.
Samples for strength tests designed by computer: (a) for tensile strength; (b) for compressive strength.
where:
\nThe strength properties of scaffolds depend on the size of their pores, laser path curve and unit cell arrangement in the space of a system of coordinates [25]. Table 2 shows the results of experiments made after selecting the optimum conditions of executing a manufacturing process, such as the size of scaffold pores of 250 μm, a laser path with an improved curve and unit cell arrangement at the angle of 45° relative to the axis of abscissa of the system of coordinates.
Strength test type | Field area of sample cross section (mm2) | Material | Maximum force acting on sample (N) | Strength (MPa) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tensile strength test | 9 | Ti | 324 | 36 | |
Ti6Al4V | 423 | 47 | |||
Compressive strength test | 121 | Ti | 15 125 | 125 | |
Ti6Al4V | 27 346 | 226 |
Results of tensile and compressive strength tests made for scaffolds produced with Ti and Ti6Al4V powders (values in the table rounded to integers).
The average tensile strength value of laser-sintered scaffolds of Ti6Al4V powder is 47 MPa and is over 30% higher than the strength of scaffolds produced in the same conditions using pristine titanium powder, as presented in Figure 10. The characteristic of progression of tensile curves proves that both the porous titanium and porous Ti6Al4V titanium alloy are elastic-plastic materials with a clearly marked elastic strength and yield strength. Similar as in the case of tensile strength, a scaffold made of titanium alloy possesses much higher compressive strength than a titanium scaffold. The difference is much higher, though, because the compressive strength of the material made of Ti6Al4V is 225 MPa and is 80% higher than the compressive strength of a titanium sample (120 MPa). Figure 11 shows charts presenting a dependency between compressive stress and deformation for the porous materials sintered with a laser using, respectively, Ti and Ti6Al4V powders.
Dependency between tensile stress and extension recorded for porous materials sintered with laser from Ti and Ti6Al4V powders.
Dependency between compressive stress and deformation recorded for porous materials sintered with laser from Ti and Ti6Al4V powders.
Pristine titanium and its Ti6Al4V alloy, of which scaffolds are made which are to act as implants of palate fragments, are the materials broadly used in medicine as implants due to their low density, a beneficial strength-to-yield stress limit ratio, good corrosive resistance and biocompatibility. A further improvement in those materials’ properties such as biotolerance and osteoconduction is possible by employing surface treatment. Thin layers are deposited permanently onto the surface of implants made of metallic biomaterials intended for long use in a human organism, most often with the following methods [40–43]: plasma sputtering, electrophoresis, physical vapour deposition (PVD) and chemical vapour deposition (CVD), sputter coating and electrochemical deposition. Where layers are deposited onto the surface of porous biomaterials with complicated shapes, it is very important to be able to accurately control the growth mechanisms enabling to constitute a very thin layer with its thickness measured at a nanoscale, but most of all, it is essential to be able to deposit geometrically complex areas uniformly. One method, i.e. atomic layer deposition (ALD), gives such an opportunity now, as shown in Figure 12a, against optional methods. The ALD method is a variant of the CVD method characterised by the cyclic use of alternate precursor pulses with strong reactivity with a chamber purged with inert gas between such pulses (Figure 12b). By applying strongly reactive precursors, which—after supplying them into a chamber—are reacting immediately with a substrate by forming a monolayer and preventing a further reaction, each cycle increases the layer thickness by a strictly specified value within the range of 0.01–0.3 nm. The number of cycles performed preconditions the final thickness of the deposited layer. The authors of this chapter, in the course of their own works, have performed a series of experiments consisting of the deposition of atomic TiO2 layers onto scaffolds sintered from Ti/Ti6Al4V and have carried out for this purpose, respectively, 550, 1050 and 1550 cycles.
Atomic layer deposition: (a) ALD method versus other methods; (b) process cyclicity.
The ALD technique enables to deposit a chosen chemical compound more uniformly across the entire surface of the part being treated, also if this part has a porous structure, as is the case with scaffolds. The thickness of the layers deposited by ALD is determined with a spectroscope ellipsometer equipped with special software. The average thickness of layers deposited by ALD technique for the said cases of 550, 1050 and 1550 cycles is 55.95, 98.90 and 148.73 nm, respectively. The difference in the thickness of the deposited TiO2 layers on the studied area does not exceed 2 nm, which can be analysed in detail by studying layer thickness distribution maps. The best results were obtained for a layer deposited in 1050 cycles. A difference in the thickness of the deposited layer in this case does not exceed 1.1 nm across the entire area of the surface-treated item. Bar charts for each number of cycles, presenting the thickness of the deposited TiO2 layer in the particular measuring points and the corresponding layer thickness distribution maps, are shown in Figure 13.
Layer thickness and thickness distribution map of TiO2 layered deposited by ALD for: (a) 550 cycles; (b) 1050 cycles; (c) 1550 cycles [
Changes in sample colour depending on the number of the executed ALD cycles, hence depending on the thickness of the deposited TiO2 layer, is an interesting phenomenon observed with a bare eye (Figure 14) and in a light stereoscopic microscope (Figure 15). The uncoated element, with silver-metallic colour, undergoing surface treatment with ALD becomes, successively: brown-gold (550 cycles), dark blue (1050 cycles) and light blue with silver shade (1550 cycles).
Cubic scaffolds viewed with a bare eye, including scaffolds without surface treatment (a) and scaffolds coated with TiO2 layer during 550 (b), 1050 (c) and 1550 (d) cycles.
Stereoscopic images of scaffolds, including scaffold without surface treatment (a) and scaffolds coated with TiO2 layer during 550 (b), 1050 (c) and 1550 (d) cycles.
The topography of scaffolds’ surface coated with layers deposited by ALD is distinct for their irregularities measured at a nanometric scale, the number of which is rising proportionally to the number of the deposited layers. In particular, a layer deposited in 550 cycles has a rather uniform granular structure and the larger clusters of atoms are occurring on it only occasionally. In the case of a layer deposited in 1050 cycles, clusters of atoms with the diameter of about 1 µm occur every several microns. The biggest clusters of atoms, forming ’islands’ with the length of up to several microns, exist in the case of a layer deposited in 1550 cycles, as shown in Figure 16.
AFM image of surface topography of layer deposited in 1,550 cycles: (a) 2D; (b) 3D.
The nanometric thickness of titanium dioxide layers deposited by ALD results in the fact that the layers deposited can be observed in a scanning electron microscope only for very high magnifications of 150 kx. A clear difference between a scaffold surface without surface treatment (Figure 17) and scaffold surface covered with a TiO2 layer in ALD (Figure 17b) can be observed only when such high magnifications are used. The scaffold surface, immediately following fabrication, is smooth with clear longitudinal bands arranged every several dozens of nanometres, corresponding to the laser activity direction. The deposited atomic TiO2 layer, when magnified 150 kx, is visible as a ’sheep’, i.e. a set of numerous adjacent oval granules of which only few have larger diameter.
SEM image of scaffold surface: (a) without surface treatment; (b) with TiO2 layer deposited in 1550 cycles.
Currently, there is a high social demand for individualised implants, which would significantly improve the quality of life of patients with partial palate losses caused by mechanical injuries, tumorous diseases or cleft palate. The methods currently in use, such as metallic or polymeric prostheses, do not meet users’ expectations as they often lack durability, convenience and aesthetics. A porous scaffold with its dimensions and shape perfectly suited to a patient plate loss made of a biocompatible material (Ti or Ti6AlV4) and additionally coated with a nanometric layer of osteoconductive titanium oxide seems to be a breakthrough solution. Modern CAMD software allows converting data acquired at a clinical stage into a 3D solid model of a palate loss piece. The model is then converted into a porous model through the multiplication of a unit cell whose dimensions and shape may be designed according to a patient’s individual preferences. The pores existing in the material structure have the diameter of approx. 500 μm and should be open, because a scaffold, in its intended conditions of use, is to grow through a patient’s living tissue. The experiments made confirm that the selective laser melting technology allows, following process conditions’ optimisation, to produce biomimetic objects with a structure featuring open pores, as this was confirmed in microscopic (SEM) examinations. The objects have sufficiently good mechanical properties such as bending and compressive strength, which are similar to the properties of a cortical bone. The biotolerance and osteoconduction of laser-sintered scaffolds can be additionally improved through surface treatment allowing to cover a complex geometrical surface, such as a porous scaffold structure, uniformly from all sides. The treatment is carried out by the deposition of atomic layers and the deposited layer is 50–150 nm thick depending on the number of cycles.
All the results, images and detailed diagrams presented in this chapter have been developed in the framework of the BIOLASIN project entitled ’investigations of structure and properties of newly created porous biomimetic materials fabricated by selective laser sintering’ headed by Prof. L.A. Dobrzański, funded by the Polish National Science Centre in the framework of the ’Harmony 4’ competitions. The project was awarded a subsidy under the decision DEC-2013/08/M/ST8/00818.
For many 1990s-era computer science students, the science fiction book
Around the time I read the book, I sent 66 electronic mail messages to academic researchers at US-based universities who publicly announced they did virtual reality research formally. Thirty-seven of those recipients replied enthusiastically with details on their research agendas, hardware and software infrastructures, and thematic aspects of VR they intended to explore. Two suggested they had immediate funding available if I could get accepted to their campus’ PhD program. Six responders suggested I should pursue working with Fred Brooks at the University of North Carolina. Six responders suggested I pursue working with Tom Furness [5] at the University of Washington. Soon thereafter I realigned my life to take the latter recommendation seriously. I wasn’t the first to imagine the potential of VR to improve quality of life for those who would be willing to immerse themselves in 3-D cyberspace.
At the time I landed on the University of Washington campus in Seattle, the Human Interface Technology Laboratory, affectionately known as the HIT Lab, contained a remarkable amount and variety of VR-enabling software and hardware [2]. The HIT lab also employed a highly-effective cybrarian, Toni Emerson, who performed the lead editor role of the USENET group sci.virtual.worlds, which grew to have an avid international readership. Researchers around the world could be read posting VR-related ideas and news at any moment during any 24 h day. As a result, an endless stream of VR-based conversation and news flowed through the HIT Lab. The simple text correspondence built a collegial sense of community.
The HIT Lab worked on research grants with industrial, governmental, and academic sources of funding. The work those grants funded varied from building VR-related hardware, to building software, to performing design and development work in virtual world creation, to testing the effects of VR on human beings immersed in a wide variety of virtual experiences for extended periods of time. Funders seemed motivated to visit the lab often. I understood why. The experiences provided within immersed computer graphics were thought provoking. The human energy level in our 10,000 square foot lab space was high 24/7.
A significant change in career path occurred for some of us when we veered away from PhD work in computer graphics hardware and algorithms, to focus more on the coupling of computing platforms with human perception and cognition. Dr. Furness convinced us that the lab benefitted from being firmly located within an Industrial Engineering department, as not enough people were working on the coupling of the fruits of computer science research with the full capabilities of the human being.
Many of us in the lab decided to focus on VR as a tightly-coupled system between man and machine. By the time we defended our doctoral theses, our department had been renamed as Industrial and Systems Engineering. I had spent so much time applying VR to social spaces and investigating data streams coming from natural systems that the addition of systems to the name alleviated concerns about feeling like a fraud or imposter in the industrial world.
Whenever I walked into the lab to start a long work shift, I could not help but have a nagging thought that the HIT Lab experience deserved to be expanded to avail the experience to more people. The vision of what we were working on seemed to suggest we ourselves should be working and playing in immersed 3-D cyberspace as we worked on VR. An undercurrent of ethical arguments emerged as thoughts from time to time, as well as a burning desire to make greater access possible because it seemed technically possible—and because even more books, movies, and radio broadcasts were telling stories within that context.
Work for my masters thesis in computer science, entitled “3D Collaborative Multiuser Worlds for the Internet” [3], provided me ample opportunity to spend time in the various online VR platforms—a subset referred to as
Because the various platforms we met in existed in the labs of research organizations, the quality of communications was high. Those of us meeting in there, from all over the world, were building a 3-D cyberspace and imagining all it could become. Twenty-five years later, what we imagined is far from being mainstream, but the technology to build it has continued to improve and evolve.
I had leveraged a paper I published entitled “VRML As a Superset of HTML: An Approach to Consolidation” to first gain access to researchers at the HIT Lab [4]. That paper suggested that 3-D cyberspace might be a useful veneer for organizing all the 2-D content that was rapidly being amassed and distributed in the early years of the World Wide Web. The lab investigated that opportunity from a high-tech perspective, but many of us there shared a vision regarding lower cost implementations.
In 1994, the HIT Lab collaborated with a Fujitsu research lab to build a shared 3-D cyberspace, named GreenSpace, shared by participants meeting there while physically in Seattle and Tokyo [5]. A Silicon Graphics Onyx machine hosted that cyberspace’s visual content and processed the various peripherals that immersed each participant in VR. Four dedicated ISDN phone lines passed voice and data packets between the two locations on opposite sides of the Pacific to create a shared presence. Open Inventor software facilitated the building and management of the cyberspace experience. The lab celebrated upon demonstrating that two groups of people could share an experience in 3-D cyberspace with a million dollars’ investment of technology.
A year later, eight members of the HIT Lab got together to work on a version of GreenSpace that could run on Pentium 2 Intel personal computers, using a graphics accelerator board, and the emergent World Wide Web. The Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) of Taiwan provided the funding, the graphics boards, and a couple of highly-capable collaborators to work with us to find a common ground culture for the distributed cyberspace we created. Our team comprised of two computer scientists, an information scientist, an artist, three virtual world designers, and an architect who eventually married an architect on the GreenSpace team.
We worked with Pentium 2 hardware early in the project but soon got the desktop VR experiences running on Sun Microsystems, Digital Equipment Corp, and other UNIX-flavored machines, thanks to Java 3D software and its capable Java virtual machine that made cross-platform applications easier to develop. The first experience we created on the Virtual Playground framework was a virtual outdoor mall that included embedded web browsers that streamed 2-D and 3-D content on virtual billboards.
The billboards could render most web pages that were HTML-driven, as well as show VRML-based 3-D models and examples of video on some of the underlying hardware flavors. We named that virtual world Netgate Mall and spent significant time discussing what culture we would like to enable for visitors who came to visit through Internet communication channels [6].
Upon sharing Netgate Mall with our research partners in Taiwan, an artist collaborator there built a Taiwanese version of the visual architecture for the mall that shared the same bounding boxes for navigation pathways (Figure 1). As had been demonstrated with GreenSpace, 3-D cyberspace on the desktop could be configurable, and thus personalized, without degrading human communications for many applications. We used the Taiwanese version to run a shared cyberspace world for 10–14 year-old children to use in Taiwan, with a general public access point in a Kaohsiung museum for those who did not have access to the hardware and bandwidth otherwise.
Netgate Mall Taiwanese version based on Virtual Playground software.
Sun Microsystems provided a phone hotline to us so we could call them anytime with questions or feature requests related to developing and debugging Java 3D-based applications. Within 18 months, we had used Java 3D and a framework of core Virtual Playground modules to create a virtual cadaver lab [7], virtual watershed world [8], and to integrate our applications to comply with an open 3-D cyberspace interaction specification developed through a California-based creative commons (Figure 2). A computer science undergraduate student ported much of the Virtual Playground GUI API architecture from Java to C++ to create BlueSpace, which then let him extend the head’s up display and terrain engine.
Screenshots of example 1990s-era HIT Lab experiences in 3-D cyberspace. Virtual Big Beef Creek (on left) coordinated planning and geospatial organization of physical data collection (with accessible 3-D photographic perspectives). Virtual Cadaver Lab expanded a popular 2-D interactive anatomy atlas into 3-D cyberspace where self-testing was possible for learning taxonomical awareness of gross anatomy characteristics.
Digitalspace hosted a workshop of the third annual digital biota conference [9] for attendees who were interested in standardizing the usability methods of desktop VR and messaging that coordinated the virtual experience between 3-D cyberspace participants. We adapted our flavors of 3-D cyberspace technologies to validate the specification and focus the creative commons on expanding the project base in which the specification could be verified. We spent a lot of time together in 3-D cyberspace envisioning possible futures.
I worked on demonstrating an in-browser solution that could provide a desktop VR entry point for participants who had not had any 3-D content experiences. A team in Turin, Italy created a native Java engine that supported 3-D cyberspace experiences. The whole engine could be downloaded in less than 100 kilobytes to plug-in to the standard Java virtual machine. Another team outside of Melbourne, Australia created the 3-D models that conformed to the engine’s content loading functionality. We developed JavaScript code that drove the user experience through an HTML skin and made the skin configurable.
The first application we made available with a web-browser based engine was a configurable classroom intended to be shared by school teachers who were thinking through ramifications of the Columbine school shooting. The funder also provided a discussion room for school teachers to discuss their retirement investments and the insurance products provided by their employer.
The lab also maintained a virtual world created with the VRML plug-in and LiveConnect facilities provided by the Netscape web browser [10]. That world ran well enough for us to run masters’ thesis experiments with four synchronous participants connected in 3-D cyberspace at a time—exploring hypotheses negotiated with an advisement committee. Soon after, Netscape lost significant market share as Microsoft’s web browser took over as the leading market share browser on personal computers running the Windows operating system.
As the new millennium arrived, we had accumulated a large enough sample size of 3-D cyberspace experiences to develop a preference for specialized experiences—those that were designed for subsets of professional roles that could benefit from participating in visual environments that facilitated their roles and built community around them. We had experienced enough accumulated hours in 3-D cyberspace, though mostly by way of the desktop VR version, that every day our minds lingered there, as if in parallel lives. We concluded that creating a general Metaverse, as described in the book
As a result, we formed deeper bonds with other academic departments on campus. I turned my attention to designing other useful 3-D cyberspace experiences for oceanographers. I chose oceanographers because they studied one of the two large 3-D volumes in which life thrived on the planet. The atmospheric scientists that studied the spaces where birds soared seemed to be ahead technology-wise thanks to a popular human interest in weather and weather forecasts. The 3-D world of life inside of human anatomy also seemed to be ahead technologically, thanks to the support of medical practices.
As we were contemplating 3-D virtual experiences to spur on insight regarding the nature of tsunamis and underwater earthquakes, and volcanos that can produce them, hurricane Katrina devastated the gulf coast of the United States [11]. A representative of the Federal Emergency Management Agency came to our lab to share stories of how the emergency response effort in New Orleans had been deemed suboptimal. Dr. Furness and I spent hours listening and then suggesting ideas on how VR could improve future hurricane response efforts. We began to attend emergency operations meetings at the campus, city, county, and regional level and concluded that the typical resident in a community crisis lacked situation awareness more than the emergency responders, even though they were physically based in that community.
We attended one particular meeting of many that drove that point home. A red-faced emergency operation center director, who had over 30 years of EOC experience, railed against the audacity of his county’s residents in response to a severe wind event that had blown through the county just south of Seattle’s. Overnight, over 250,000 households had lost power through thousands breach points on the power grid. Many linemen were working 16-hour days to restore power and yet hundreds of residents were calling in to the emergency operations center to complain that power wasn’t being restored fast enough. He yelled to anyone listening that 2-week outages should have been expected, given the number of qualified workers who could repair the electric grid, and the number of homes in the dark.
Our personal experiences in 3-D cyberspace strongly suggested emergency preparedness could be a ripe place to benefit by having a thriving VR experience for residents to explore and engage in with others—including EOC personnel when available. We put together three hypotheses to test our instincts and then worked with three other advisors to whittle down our enthusiasm to a reasonable scope of experiments to perform.
We published the results in four papers [12, 13, 14, 15] and a dissertation [16], comparing results of a physical hospital evacuation scenario drill with a virtual one. In the virtual drill, emergency responders explored the physical environment in which the evacuation was to take place by way of a software application. They could study the hospital’s physical layout, transfer points to transportation, the county’s road network, and 23 other hospital locations that agreed in an official memo of understanding to accept patients in an emergency.
Those in the study had access to a simulator where they could watch evacuation paths and timings for any patient in any room, based on time and motion studies done with physical evacuation efforts (Figure 3). They could watch simulated transport of vehicles carrying patients to destination hospitals.
The software support services for an emergency response hospital evacuation simulation application (top). Participants preferred 2-D artifacts to explore and interact with the situation as it unfolded (bottom). The 2-D hospital floor layout was used often in day-to-day operations, but patient characteristics were encoded in color for active patients from data sheets used in day-to-day operations.
A server computer communicated with the simulation clients that provided the graphical user interface for participants. The server kept track of 86 key variables on simulated patients, simulated emergency responders, transport vehicles, and events that required dynamic diversions to evacuation plans (e.g. traffic congestion). The hospital emergency response coordinator challenged the behavior of those variables as she became familiar with the client application I iterated upon in preparation of the experiments.
Adapting the server to feed a 3-D cyberspace version of the training and participation interface would be trivial and add an immaterial computational demand. Every object in the simulation was tied by gravity to a ground plane. The effort to port the participant experience to 3-D cyberspace would require significant effort in comparison.
Earthquake, tornado, and fire events have been included in the SimCity game application since the 1990s. Players can watch the effect of those community crises and gain insight into how urban planning matters in facilitating resilience and recovery. The third-person view of a comprehensive emergency response effort is useful. The first-person view provides an opportunity to compare a limited situation awareness in comparison—highlighting the importance of communication between all those limited views, in order to attempt to create a third-person view from first-person experiences.
Dr. Furness and I came to the conclusion that one of the roles in an emergency operation center should be a dedicated situation awareness specialist who spends much of his time in 3-D cyberspace piecing together situation awareness from the first-person reports of emergency responders—coordinated with 3-D graphical assets. Modeling and computational support would be provided by way of a coupled computing environment that contained heuristic-based equations and forecasting equations. The immersed VR role would be available to the command and control leadership in the EOC to answer questions regarding feasibility and appropriateness of actions and to evoke insight that command and control might not be considering.
I came to the conclusion that the 3-D cyberspace that would be developed for EOC personnel and emergency responders should also be made available to the general public by way of a 3-D cyberspace experience. Immersive VR might build compassion for the cognitive demands, under urgent conditions, of the first response effort. Immersive VR would give access to experiencing the delegation of roles involved, so as to prepare the public with reasonable expectations for interacting with those roles in an emergency. Overall, the immersive VR perspective would build up experiential knowledge to go with any more abstract knowledge the public has of their community.
Upon revisiting the thoughts from earlier days of building 3-D cyberspace experiences in a research lab, we consider advancements in computing, development tools, and communications protocols. We see an expansion of VR peripherals into the hands, and onto the heads, of the general public. To build a 3-D cyberspace to support the Metaverse, or a local community preparedness awareness, we have many options to advance the process from the technologies we used previously.
A popular approach among our students, and the students of other teaching colleagues, for creating virtual reality experiences is by way of a pipeline approach where 3-D models are generated in freely downloadable modeling software (e.g. Blender), brought into other freely downloadable software (e.g. Unity Engine) to become part of a 3-D application, and then ported to a VR environment (e.g. Oculus) to be experienced immersively.
At the time of the hospital evacuation simulation software use, a 3-D hospital model (X3D format) was available for participants to explore within a web browser, but participants preferred the 2-D floor layouts that we provided for testing the usefulness of simulation software. Since then, the popularity of the three.js, webGL-enabled 3-D, library makes a hospital model integration easier [17]. For example, the same 3-D hospital model can be used within a Java-based application, JavaScript-based application, and Unity Engine-based application.
Figure 4 shows a 3-D model of one floor of the simulation software hospital, loaded within the Blender software in which the model is iterated upon to improve the design. The model can be exported to OBJ, GlTF, or any other file format for which the three.js library has developed a loader service to rapidly get it inside of a JavaScript-driven 3-D experience.
One floor of the simulation’s emergency evacuation hospital as contained in a 3-D model for 3-D cyberspace use, as seen within the Blender software used to embellish and maintain it.
The Unity Engine-based application is readily made available for virtual reality use by way of XR plug-ins available from the online Unity Store. Android build support readily enables Oculus flavor VR from both Windows and Mac OS X operating systems. The Unity Engine can also import OBJ and GlTF file formats to enable interactive 3-D experiences that are OpenXR compliant. As a result, a 3-D cyberspace readily provides a virtual hospital in which to have meaningful experiences such as preparing for an emergency evacuation (Figure 5).
An immersive cyberspace perspective of the 3-D model seen in
Because our resultant experience is OpenXR compliant, we could pursue extending it’s usefulness through dissemination by way of other delivery formats such as A-Frame [18] and Networked A-Frame [19]. At the time of this writing, Collabora, HTC, Microsoft, Oculus, SteamVR, and Varjo provided OpenXR runtimes in which 3-D Cyberspace experiences could be delivered [20].
As we watched participants perform the virtual hospital evacuation activity, we noticed participants using the 2-D interface effectively without any apparent cognitive difficulties. All participants were given versions of the software to practice its use, but participants reported they only needed 2 h at most to feel comfortable as the interface was built from artifacts (maps, forms, and other documents) that participants used regularly in equivalent paper-based formats.
To gain confidence in suggesting a 3-D interface would be useful, we thought about our own time spent recording time and motion data associated with moving about in the hospital and in evacuating human beings with their necessary equipment (wheelchairs, gurneys, respirators, etc.). Having spent time doing those tasks, we could readily cognate about them with the 2-D interface. But we could not do so easily beforehand.
We forget that as humans we had to learn how to use 2-D maps as abstractions of the 3-D physical world they represent. As a result, we learn differently through 2-D abstractions than we learn interacting with the physical world. A goal in using an emergency response simulator is to improve learning with regards to the activities, context, and heuristics associated with a scenario. Some compelling evidence from neuroscience experiments suggests 3-D adds additional value even when a 2-D interface is available [21]. Conclusions reached include:
Another recent study of 3-D virtual environment interfaces concluded that “findings showed different condition correlations with the traditional tasks and the comparison between the two systems have revealed that 3-D is able to generate lower reaction times, higher correct answers, and lower preservative responses in attentional abilities, inhibition control, and cognitive shifting than the 2-D condition” [22].
Common sense suggests that mental fluidity is valuable under the urgent response demands of a community-wide emergency response scenario.
We perform a thought experiment to consider the evolution of 3-D interfaces forward in time to when they would be a more dominant norm. We imagine that once 2-D interfaces no longer need to be learned for many day-to-day activities, participants would not be fluent in their use. Other large primates have an easier time using 3-D interfaces than 2-D interfaces, which seems reasonable because they have not encountered the 2-D abstractions in their day-to-day lives.
As a species we have built a cyberspace that is primarily made up of one-dimensional text and two-dimensional documents. Today’s cyberspace is entrenched in part by that history and the expectation we have created that the destinations we want to visit will be 2-D at most. As a species we have also created an extensive number of 3-D models and have developed technologies to better capture physical 3-D reality in a virtual facsimile. Google Street View technology enables 3-D exploration along street locations whereby maps of our physical world provide context. Run a virtual reality application and that widely shared data provides a primitive 3-D cyberspace experience that has the promise of getting more mature rapidly. Of course large corporations continue to work on their own versions of a Metaverse using their proprietary hardware and software as well.
With a web-accessed 3-D cyberspace available, 3-D computer graphics take on additional value as a potential contribution to useful cyberspace experiences. Whether they are used for that purpose grows as a cultural question but shrinks as a technical question as a result of our progress. Exploring the cultural question rapidly expands into many sub-questions—many of which are perhaps useful to consider anyway:
What are we trying to accomplish as a species?
How do we experience our sense of community?
How useful is it to experience each other independent of space and time?
How are the physical world and virtual world co-evolving?
Should we enable a 3-D cyberspace first and explore what it is good for?
Do we build demonstration uses of 3-D cyberspace and watch as usefulness grows from specific use cases?
The potential use and reuse of computer graphics grows as the interest in connected 3-D cyberspace grows. When revisiting the emergence of the worldwide web in the early 1990s, we remember computer graphics integrating to create a cyberspace that felt like a global encyclopedia of information resources. The potential exists to revisit that time with today’s 3-D technologies available so as to develop other trajectories of world wide information connectivity, with computer graphics providing a sense of continuous 3-D space in which to provide meaningful experiences. The reader is encouraged to participate in its development and exploration.
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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/1140",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"1140"},fullPath:"/subjects/1140",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()