Symptomatic difference between upper and lower UTI.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10549",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Preclinical Animal Modeling in Medicine",title:"Preclinical Animal Modeling in Medicine",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The results of preclinical animal research have been successfully implemented in various medical and biological practices. The use of animals in medicine is based on significant anatomical, physiological, and molecular similarities between humans and animals. Particularly, mammals that have vast biological commonalities with humans represent not only a valuable model to explore the mechanisms of varied human diseases, but also to define new diagnostic and treatment strategies. This book covers broad but important aspects of animal modeling for scientific medicine as well as for translational systems and biological sciences. Alternative methods such as cell culture and in vitro experiments that do not require the sacrifice of an animal are encouraged for scientific and medical studies.",isbn:"978-1-83968-805-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-804-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-806-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92923",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"preclinical-animal-modeling-in-medicine",numberOfPages:304,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"9604117cecaa0ae107ab2d03a4463148",bookSignature:"Enkhsaikhan Purevjav, Joseph F. Pierre and Lu Lu",publishedDate:"March 9th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10549.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2308,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 2nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 31st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 21st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 20th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"231585",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Enkhsaikhan",middleName:null,surname:"Purevjav",slug:"enkhsaikhan-purevjav",fullName:"Enkhsaikhan Purevjav",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/231585/images/system/231585.jpg",biography:"Dr. Enkhsaikhan Purevjav earned her MD from the Leningrad Pediatric Medical Institute (LMPI), Russia in 1989, followed by an internship and residency in pediatrics at the Mongolian National Medical University, a fellowship in pediatric cardiology at LPMI, and a Ph.D. in Medical Genetics and Molecular Biology from Shimane Medical University, Japan. Dr. Purevjav joined Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children’s Hospital as a postdoctoral trainee and instructor and then Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center as an assistant professor. She currently works as an associate professor at the University of Tennessee Health Science Center where she continues to study the genetics of heart diseases, specifically focusing on pediatric cardiomyopathies and arrhythmias.",institutionString:"University of Tennessee Health Science Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee Health Science Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"337466",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Joseph F.",middleName:null,surname:"Pierre",slug:"joseph-f.-pierre",fullName:"Joseph F. Pierre",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/337466/images/system/337466.jpg",biography:"Dr. Joseph F. Pierre is currently an Assistant Professor of Nutritional Sciences and Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison. The Pierre lab addresses a range of basic, translational, and clinical research questions focused on the gastrointestinal microbiome, nutrition, and gut physiology and disease. Dr. Pierre utilizes experimental models that include bariatric surgery, parenteral and enteral nutrition, gnotobiotics, and organoid approaches. Where relevant, his research examines microbiome community composition and function to investigate host-microbial interactions. Dr. Pierre received his BS in Natural Science and Ph.D. in Nutritional Sciences from the University of Wisconsin-Madison before completing a postdoc fellowship in Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition at the University of Chicago. He holds an adjunct faculty position at the University of Tennessee Health Science Center within the College of Medicine.",institutionString:"University of Tennessee Health Science Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee Health Science Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"346043",title:"Prof.",name:"Lu",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"lu-lu",fullName:"Lu Lu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346043/images/system/346043.png",biography:"Dr. Lu Lu is a professor in the Department of Genetics, Genomics and Informatics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC). His research focuses on the examination of genetic effects on complex traits. He and his colleagues have developed large resources for the study of systems genetics that include the largest mouse genetic reference population, which includes BXD recombinant inbred lines, high-density genotypes, thousands of phenotypes, hundreds of transcriptomic data sets, and whole-genome sequence for all 152 inbred BXD strains. All these resources provide great power for genetic analysis of complex traits and are being used by many researchers for their studies of polygenetic diseases. As Principal Investigator, he has been funded by seven NIH R01 grants and has published ~200 science papers within the last seventeen years.",institutionString:"University of Tennessee Health Science Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"694",title:"Genetic Engineering",slug:"engineering-biomedical-engineering-genetic-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"76560",title:"Recombinant Inbred Mice as Models for Experimental Precision Medicine and Biology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96173",slug:"recombinant-inbred-mice-as-models-for-experimental-precision-medicine-and-biology",totalDownloads:167,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recombinant inbred rodents form immortal genome-types that can be resampled deeply at many stages, in both sexes, and under multiple experimental conditions to model genome-environment interactions and to test genome-phenome predictions. This allows for experimental precision medicine, for which sophisticated causal models of complex interactions among DNA variants, phenotype variants at many levels, and innumerable environmental factors are required. Large families and populations of isogenic lines of mice and rats are now available and have been used across fields of biology. We will use the BXD recombinant inbred family and their derived diallel cross population as an example for predictive, experimental precision medicine and biology.",signatures:"David G. Ashbrook and Lu Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76560",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76560",authors:[{id:"337602",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"David G.",surname:"Ashbrook",slug:"david-g.-ashbrook",fullName:"David G. Ashbrook"},{id:"337603",title:"Prof.",name:"Lu",surname:"Lu",slug:"lu-lu",fullName:"Lu Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"80284",title:"Parenteral Nutrition Modeling and Research Advances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101692",slug:"parenteral-nutrition-modeling-and-research-advances",totalDownloads:75,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Parenteral nutrition (PN) provides nutritional support intravenously to individuals who have gastrointestinal (GI) failure or contraindication to enteral feeding. Since the initial development of PN, researchers have developed specialized formulas with complete macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins, minerals, and electrolytes to support patients’ metabolic needs. These formulas prevent malnutrition and optimize patient health, especially under long-term feeding circumstances. Although PN is commonly used and essential in preterm and malnourished patients, complications associated with PN feeding include gastrointestinal defects, infection, and other metabolic abnormalities such as liver injury and brain related disorders. In this chapter, we highlight an overview of PN and its association with abnormalities of microbiome composition as well as with gastrointestinal (GI), immune, hepatic, and neuronal disfunction. Within the gut, PN influences the number and composition of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) cells, altering adaptive immune responses. PN also modulates intestinal epithelium cell turnover, secretions, and gut barrier function, as well as the composition of the intestinal microbiome leading to changes in gut permeability. Collectively, these changes result in increased susceptibility to infection and injury. Here, we highlight animal models used to examine parenteral nutrition, changes that occur to the major organ systems, and recent advancement in using enteric nervous system (ENS) neuropeptides or microbially derived products during PN, which may improve GI, immune cell, hepatic, and neuronal function.",signatures:"Roshan Kumari, Lydia M. Henry and Joseph F. Pierre",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80284",authors:[{id:"337466",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Joseph F.",surname:"Pierre",slug:"joseph-f.-pierre",fullName:"Joseph F. Pierre"},{id:"427563",title:"Ms.",name:"Lydia M.",surname:"Henry",slug:"lydia-m.-henry",fullName:"Lydia M. Henry"},{id:"427564",title:"Mrs.",name:"Roshan",surname:"Kumari",slug:"roshan-kumari",fullName:"Roshan Kumari"}],corrections:null},{id:"75629",title:"Gut Feeding the Brain: Drosophila Gut an Animal Model for Medicine to Understand Mechanisms Mediating Food Preferences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96503",slug:"gut-feeding-the-brain-em-drosophila-em-gut-an-animal-model-for-medicine-to-understand-mechanisms-med",totalDownloads:336,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster is a most powerful animal model for exploring fundamental biological processes and modeling molecular and cellular aspects of human diseases. It provides the flexibility and tool box with which scientists can experimentally manipulate and study behavior as well as gene expression in specific, defined population of cells in their normal tissue contexts. The utility and increasing value of a sophisticated genetic system of flies, the tool box available for studying physiological function, functional imaging, neural circuitry from gut to brain, taste receptors expression and controlling gene expression by determining the specific cells in the intestine, makes fly gut the most useful tissue for studying the regulation of feeding behavior under changing internal state. To understand the intestine and its connectivity with the brain, Drosophila has proved an ideal model organism for studying gut brain axis aspects of human metabolic diseases. Various markers and fly lines are available to characterize the expression of transgenes in the intestine. The newly generated genetic tools aim to streamline the design of experiments to target specific cells in intestine for genetic manipulations based on their type and location within physiologically specialized intestinal regions. This chapter will be useful for understanding post-ingestive sensing system that mediate food preferences and to investigate fundamental biological processes and model human diseases at the level of single cells in the fly gut. Furthermore, the utility of adult fly gut can be extended to the study of dietary and environmental factors relevant to health and disease by screening for cells and micro circuits stimulated by internal state or the consumption of various nutrients.",signatures:"Zoha Sadaqat, Shivam Kaushik and Pinky Kain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75629",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75629",authors:[{id:"306728",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinky",surname:"Kain",slug:"pinky-kain",fullName:"Pinky Kain"},{id:"335402",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoha",surname:"Sadaqat",slug:"zoha-sadaqat",fullName:"Zoha Sadaqat"},{id:"345539",title:"Mr.",name:"Shivam",surname:"Kaushik",slug:"shivam-kaushik",fullName:"Shivam Kaushik"}],corrections:null},{id:"75702",title:"Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96738",slug:"duchenne-muscular-dystrophy-animal-models",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a complex and severe orphan disease. It develops when the organism lacks the expression of dystrophin - a large structural protein. Dystrophin is transcribed from the largest gene in the human genome. At the moment, there is no cure available. Dozens of groups all over the world search for cure. Animal models are an important component of both the fundamental research and therapy development. Many animal models reproducing the features of disease were created and actively used since the late 80’s until present. The species diversity spans from invertebrates to primates and the genetic diversity of these models spans from single mutations to full gene deletions. The models are often non-interchangeable; while one model may be used for particular drug design it may be useless for another. Here we describe existing models, discuss their advantages and disadvantages and potential applications for research and therapy development.",signatures:"Tatiana V. Egorova, Ivan I. Galkin, Yulia V. Ivanova and Anna V. Polikarpova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75702",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75702",authors:[{id:"340316",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tatiana V.",surname:"Egorova",slug:"tatiana-v.-egorova",fullName:"Tatiana V. Egorova"},{id:"340335",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna V.",surname:"Polikarpova",slug:"anna-v.-polikarpova",fullName:"Anna V. Polikarpova"},{id:"340337",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan I.",surname:"Galkin",slug:"ivan-i.-galkin",fullName:"Ivan I. Galkin"},{id:"346667",title:"MSc.",name:"Yulia V.",surname:"Ivanova",slug:"yulia-v.-ivanova",fullName:"Yulia V. Ivanova"}],corrections:null},{id:"79211",title:"Left Ventricular Noncompaction Cardiomyopathy: From Clinical Features to Animal Modeling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101085",slug:"left-ventricular-noncompaction-cardiomyopathy-from-clinical-features-to-animal-modeling",totalDownloads:129,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiomyopathy or disease of the heart muscle involves abnormal enlargement and a thickened, stiff, or spongy-like appearance of the myocardium. As a result, the function of the myocardium is weakened and does not sufficiently pump blood throughout the body nor maintain a normal pumping rhythm, leading to heart failure. The main types of cardiomyopathies include dilated hypertrophic, restrictive, arrhythmogenic, and noncompaction cardiomyopathy. Abnormal trabeculations of the myocardium in the left ventricle are classified as left ventricular noncompaction cardiomyopathy (LVNC). Myocardial noncompaction most frequently is observed at the apex of the left ventricle and can be associated with chamber dilation or muscle hypertrophy, systolic or diastolic dysfunction, or both, or various forms of congenital heart disease. Animal models are incredibly important for uncovering the etiology and pathogenesis involved in this disease. This chapter will describe the clinical and pathological features of LVNC in humans and present the animal models that have been used for the study of the genetic basis and pathogenesis of this disease.",signatures:"Enkhsaikhan Purevjav, Michelle Chintanaphol, Buyan-Ochir Orgil, Nelly R. Alberson and Jeffrey A. Towbin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79211",authors:[{id:"231585",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Enkhsaikhan",surname:"Purevjav",slug:"enkhsaikhan-purevjav",fullName:"Enkhsaikhan Purevjav"},{id:"345566",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey A.",surname:"Towbin",slug:"jeffrey-a.-towbin",fullName:"Jeffrey A. Towbin"},{id:"425381",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Michelle",surname:"Chintanaphol",slug:"michelle-chintanaphol",fullName:"Michelle Chintanaphol"},{id:"425382",title:"M.D.",name:"Buyan-Ochir",surname:"Orgil",slug:"buyan-ochir-orgil",fullName:"Buyan-Ochir Orgil"},{id:"425383",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nelly R.",surname:"Alberson",slug:"nelly-r.-alberson",fullName:"Nelly R. Alberson"}],corrections:null},{id:"76811",title:"Experimental Animal Models of Cerebral Ischemic Reperfusion Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97592",slug:"experimental-animal-models-of-cerebral-ischemic-reperfusion-injury",totalDownloads:37,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Restitution of blood flow in the ischemic region helps liberate cells from mortification in any tissue or organ. Reperfusion post cerebral ischemia worsen the condition and lead to “cerebral reperfusion injury”. In cerebral reperfusion injury, significant changes observed are infarct size, behavioural deficits, hematoma formation, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative stress markers representing the extent of brain injury. Experimental In vivo models mimicking pathological and neurological processes are key tools in researching cerebral reperfusion injury and potential therapeutic agents’ development. This review explains currently used In vivo models like middle cerebral artery occlusion model, emboli stroke model, two-vessel occlusion model of forebrain ischemia, four-vessel occlusion model of forebrain ischemia, photochemical stroke model, collagenase induced brain haemorrhage model, autologous whole blood induced haemorrhage model. This review provides contemplative facts to setup authentic and relevant animal models to study cerebral reperfusion injury.",signatures:"Prabhakar Orsu and Y. Srihari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76811",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76811",authors:[{id:"341478",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Prabhakar",surname:"Orsu",slug:"prabhakar-orsu",fullName:"Prabhakar Orsu"},{id:"414970",title:"Dr.",name:"Y.",surname:"Srihari",slug:"y.-srihari",fullName:"Y. Srihari"}],corrections:null},{id:"76410",title:"Mouse Models of Acute Kidney Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97523",slug:"mouse-models-of-acute-kidney-injury",totalDownloads:395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is a poor prognosis in hospitalized patients that is associated with high degree of mortality. AKI is also a major risk factor for development of chronic kidney disease. Despite these serious complications associated with AKI there has not been a great amount of progress made over the last half-century. Here we have outlined and provided details on variety of mouse models of AKI. Some of the mouse models of AKI are renal pedicle clamping (ischemia reperfusion injury), Cisplatin induced nephrotoxicity, sepsis (LPS, cecal slurry, and cecal ligation and puncture), folic acid, and rhabdomyolysis. In this chapter we describe in detail the protocols that are used in our laboratories.",signatures:"Navjot Pabla, Yogesh Scindia, Joseph Gigliotti and Amandeep Bajwa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76410",authors:[{id:"345349",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aman",surname:"Bajwa",slug:"aman-bajwa",fullName:"Aman Bajwa"},{id:"345350",title:"Dr.",name:"Navjot",surname:"Pabla",slug:"navjot-pabla",fullName:"Navjot Pabla"},{id:"345351",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh",surname:"Scindia",slug:"yogesh-scindia",fullName:"Yogesh Scindia"},{id:"351420",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Gigliotti",slug:"joseph-gigliotti",fullName:"Joseph Gigliotti"}],corrections:null},{id:"75497",title:"Animal Pain Models for Spinal Cord Stimulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96403",slug:"animal-pain-models-for-spinal-cord-stimulation",totalDownloads:231,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spinal cord stimulation (SCS) is an electrical neuromodulation technique with proven effectiveness and safety for the treatment of intractable chronic pain in humans. Despite its widespread use, the mechanism of action is not fully understood. Animal models of chronic pain, particularly rodent-based, have been adapted to study the effect of SCS on pain-like behavior, as well as on the electrophysiology and molecular biology of neural tissues. This chapter reviews animal pain models for SCS, emphasizing on findings relevant to advancing our understanding of the mechanism of action of SCS, and highlighting the contribution of the animal model to advance clinical outcomes. The models described include those in which SCS has been coupled to neuropathic pain models in rats and sheep based on peripheral nerve injuries, including the chronic constriction injury (CCI) model and the spared nerve injury model (SNI). Other neuropathic pain models described are the spinal nerve ligation (SNL) for neuropathic pain of segmental origin, as well as the chemotherapy-induced and diabetes-induced peripheral neuropathy models. We also describe the use of SCS with inflammatory pain and ischemic pain models.",signatures:"Joseph M. Williams, Courtney A. Kelley, Ricardo Vallejo, David C. Platt and David L. Cedeño",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75497",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75497",authors:[{id:"337591",title:"Ph.D.",name:"David L.",surname:"Cedeño",slug:"david-l.-cedeno",fullName:"David L. Cedeño"},{id:"337596",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Vallejo",slug:"ricardo-vallejo",fullName:"Ricardo Vallejo"},{id:"346305",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph M.",surname:"Williams",slug:"joseph-m.-williams",fullName:"Joseph M. Williams"},{id:"346306",title:"Ms.",name:"Courtney A.",surname:"Kelley",slug:"courtney-a.-kelley",fullName:"Courtney A. Kelley"},{id:"346307",title:"Mr.",name:"David C.",surname:"Platt",slug:"david-c.-platt",fullName:"David C. Platt"}],corrections:null},{id:"76040",title:"An Overview of Glaucoma: Bidirectional Translation between Humans and Pre-Clinical Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97145",slug:"an-overview-of-glaucoma-bidirectional-translation-between-humans-and-pre-clinical-animal-models",totalDownloads:233,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glaucoma is a multifactorial, polygenetic disease with a shared outcome of loss of retinal ganglion cells and their axons, which ultimately results in blindness. The most common risk factor of this disease is elevated intraocular pressure (IOP), although many glaucoma patients have IOPs within the normal physiological range. Throughout disease progression, glial cells in the optic nerve head respond to glaucomatous changes, resulting in glial scar formation as a reaction to injury. This chapter overviews glaucoma as it affects humans and the quest to generate animal models of glaucoma so that we can better understand the pathophysiology of this disease and develop targeted therapies to slow or reverse glaucomatous damage. This chapter then reviews treatment modalities of glaucoma. Revealed herein is the lack of non-IOP-related modalities in the treatment of glaucoma. This finding supports the use of animal models in understanding the development of glaucoma pathophysiology and treatments.",signatures:"Sophie Pilkinton, T.J. Hollingsworth, Brian Jerkins and Monica M. Jablonski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76040",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76040",authors:[{id:"342969",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica M.",surname:"Jablonski",slug:"monica-m.-jablonski",fullName:"Monica M. Jablonski"},{id:"342970",title:"Ms.",name:"Sophie",surname:"Pilkinton",slug:"sophie-pilkinton",fullName:"Sophie Pilkinton"},{id:"346686",title:"Dr.",name:"T.J.",surname:"Hollingsworth",slug:"t.j.-hollingsworth",fullName:"T.J. Hollingsworth"},{id:"349145",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Jerkins",slug:"brian-jerkins",fullName:"Brian Jerkins"}],corrections:null},{id:"75476",title:"An Overview of Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Clinical, Pre-Clinical Animal Models and Bidirectional Translation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96601",slug:"an-overview-of-age-related-macular-degeneration-clinical-pre-clinical-animal-models-and-bidirectiona",totalDownloads:333,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a multifactorial disease that results from a complex and unknown interplay among environmental, genetic, and epidemiologic factors. Risk factors include aging, family history, obesity, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertension, along with cigarette smoking, which is the most influential modifiable risk factor. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in numerous genes such as complement factor H (CFH) pose some of the known genetic risks. The pathophysiology in AMD is incompletely understood, but is known to involve oxidative stress, inflammation, dysregulated antioxidants, lipid metabolism, and angiogenesis. Animal models have been integral in expanding our knowledge of AMD pathology. AMD is classified as non-exudative or exudative. Because there is no perfect animal model that recapitulates all aspects of the human disease, rodents, rabbits, and non-human primates offer different advantages and disadvantages to serve as models for various aspects of the disease. Scientific advances have also allowed for the creation of polygenic pre-clinical models that may better represent the complexity of AMD, which will likely expand our knowledge of disease mechanisms and serve as platforms for testing new therapeutics. There have been, and there continues to be, many drugs in the pipeline to treat both exudative and non-exudative AMD. However, Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved therapies for exudative AMD that mainly target angiogenic growth factors are the only therapeutics currently being used in the clinics. There remains no FDA-approved therapy for the non-exudative form of this disease. This chapter contains a basic overview and classification of AMD and multiple animal models of AMD are highlighted. We include an overview of both current FDA-approved treatments and those in development. Lastly, we conclude with a summary of the important role of pre-clinical studies in the development of therapeutics for this highly prevalent disease.",signatures:"Jonathan Rho, Paul Percelay, Sophie Pilkinton, T.J. Hollingsworth, Ilyse Kornblau and Monica M. Jablonski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75476",authors:[{id:"342969",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica M.",surname:"Jablonski",slug:"monica-m.-jablonski",fullName:"Monica M. Jablonski"},{id:"342970",title:"Ms.",name:"Sophie",surname:"Pilkinton",slug:"sophie-pilkinton",fullName:"Sophie Pilkinton"},{id:"346686",title:"Dr.",name:"T.J.",surname:"Hollingsworth",slug:"t.j.-hollingsworth",fullName:"T.J. 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Evaluation of Brucellar spondylodiscitis may be performed using a large variety of methods, including plain radiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, histological analysis, blood test, and bacteria culture. This chapter focuses on these preclinical models of Brucellar spondylodiscitis. The requirements for preclinical models of Brucellar spondylodiscitis, pearls and pitfalls of the preclinical model establishment, and comprehensive analyses of Brucellar spondylodiscitis in animals are also depicted.",signatures:"Xiaoyu Cai, Tao Xu, Maierdan Maimaiti and Liang Gao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77375",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77375",authors:[{id:"339646",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Liang",surname:"Gao",slug:"liang-gao",fullName:"Liang Gao"},{id:"339649",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoyu",surname:"Cai",slug:"xiaoyu-cai",fullName:"Xiaoyu Cai"},{id:"422988",title:"Dr.",name:"Tao",surname:"Xu",slug:"tao-xu",fullName:"Tao Xu"},{id:"422989",title:"Dr.",name:"Maierdan",surname:"Maimaiti",slug:"maierdan-maimaiti",fullName:"Maierdan Maimaiti"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7728",title:"Synthetic Biology",subtitle:"New Interdisciplinary Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc50b31cb749d94a5aa38999a712ae2f",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",bookSignature:"Madan L. 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\r\n\tSince the introduction of the first sub-picosecond lasers in the 1990s, the interest in femtosecond optics has grown rapidly. A femtosecond pulse is an electromagnetic pulse with a time duration of one femtosecond (10-15 seconds) or less. Understanding the behavior of the ultrashort light pulses makes it possible to develop ultra-fast lasers with a wide range of applications in such areas as micro-machining, chemical analysis, material processing, spectroscopy, and medical imaging.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will be a compilation of works presenting recent advances and progress in femtosecond optics. It aims to focus on developing femtosecond laser systems, the study of the interaction of femtosecond light pulses with the matter, application of ultrafast nonlinear optics, and manipulation of ultrashort pulses to fill the need for a thorough and detailed account of femtosecond optics. We hope this book will be useful for engineers and managers, for professors and students, and for those who are interested in laser science and technologies. The rise of robotic technology continues in the new century, taking firm steps towards becoming a part of humanity day by day. Robots have become a part of both industrial production and human life, increasingly taking their place in factories, hospitals, schools, the military system, streets, and homes. As a result of this rapid involvement of robotic structures in modern life, scientists are accelerating both theoretical and applied studies on robotic manipulators. This book focuses on the latest developments in kinematics, dynamics, control, simulation tools, optimization, and structural design of serial, parallel, and hybrid robot manipulators. I would like to thank all the authors who will contribute to the book with their novel ideas in advance. During the last years, there was intense research on Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) and related disorders, which were found to have a strong association with the HLA-B27 allele. Further studies showed that 92% of the population variance is due to genetic factors, and only a fraction of AS genetics can be explained by the influence of HLA-B27. Updated information on the genomic and auto-immune knowledge on AS is an important component of this book, calling attention to markers of disease activity, possible pathways, and the interaction with the gut microbiome, which are a step forward in the knowledge of the pathophysiology of AS, providing markers which are targets for the more recent biologic therapies.
\r\n\r\n\tAn update on clinical manifestations, their assessment, monitoring, and imagiology, including peripheral arthritis, enthesopathy, and extra-articular findings, and, the differential diagnosis with other diseases which evolves with axial and peripheral calcifications will be provided.
\r\n\tAn important component of this book must be dedicated to the more recent treatments namely with biologic therapies but focusing also on new small molecule inhibitors and experimental therapies.
Diabetes is a global threat that affects the quality of life, and it is estimated that it will affect 220 million people by the year 2020 worldwide. Morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients are caused by infections. Evidence suggests that, urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common bacterial infections among diabetic patients. According to American Diabetes Association (ADA) report, patients suffering from type 2 diabetes are more likely to have a urinary tract infection (UTI) and repeat UTI than patients without diabetes. Symptomatic bacteriuria in patients with diabetes is serious and warrants proper clinical attention for diagnosis and treatment. High glucose concentration in the urine can provide a rich source of nutrients for bacteria. Therefore, bacteria can multiply and make foundation for infection also. High glucose concentration in the urine can allow urinary colonization by microorganisms. Moreover, multiple mechanisms were involved in UTI patients with diabetes. Diabetic female, diabetic overweight, and diabetic obese patients are having the highest risk of UTI. In general diabetic population, other risk factors associated with urinary tract infection were found to be diabetic nephropathy, diabetes with hypertension, and insulin therapy. Emphysematous pyelonephritis, emphysematous cystitis, renal and perinephric abscesses, urosepsis, and bacteremia are the complications of diabetes-associated UTI. Longer hospitalization, recurrence of UTI, relapse and re-infection, bacteremia, azotemia, and septic shock are the outcomes of diabetes-associated UTI [1].
Diabetes is a persistent disease. This disease is characterized by increase of blood glucose level. The reasons of increase of blood glucose level may be either insufficient production of insulin, a hormone that regulates the blood glucose level, or the insulin produced cannot be used properly. Frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger are the common symptoms of diabetes. Uncontrolled blood sugar level can cause many complications. These complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney disease, foot ulcers, damage to the eyes, diabetic ketoacidosis, etc. Diabetes mellitus can be described as group of metabolic disorders causing increase in blood sugar level due to defect in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both [2]. The digestive system breaks carbohydrates, sugars, and starches found in many foods into glucose, which is a type of sugar that enters the bloodstream [3]. By the action of the hormone insulin, cells throughout the body absorb glucose and use it for energy. Diabetes develops when the body does not produce enough insulin or is unable to use insulin effectively or both. Insulin is produced in the pancreas. Clusters of cells found in the pancreas are called islets. Pancreas having islets, which contain beta cells, produces insulin and releases it into the blood.
Type 1 diabetes also called as insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type I diabetes occurs due to β-cell destruction, usually leading to absolute insulin deficiency).
Type 2 diabetes also called as noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type II diabetes occurs due to a progressive loss of insulin secretion).
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) (diabetes detected in the second or third trimester of pregnancy that is not clearly overt diabetes).
Specific types of diabetes due to other reasons, for example, monogenic diabetes syndromes (such as maturity-onset diabetes of the young [MODY] and neonatal diabetes), diseases associated with exocrine pancreas (such as cystic fibrosis), and drug- or chemical-induced diabetes (such as use of glucocorticoid, in the treatment of HIV/AIDS or after organ transplantation).
Type 1 diabetes occurs in childhood, mainly due to destruction of pancreatic β-cell islets through autoimmune-mediated, causing complete insulin deficiency. Type 2 is more associated with adults and elderly people, which are mainly due to insulin resistance or abnormal insulin production. The exact reason of pancreatic failure and insulin resistance is unknown, but they are associated with disease condition, food habit, and environmental impact. Diabetic patients are more susceptible to various type of infection such as skin diseases and carbuncles [4].
Gestational diabetes is other type of diabetes, which is mainly associated with pregnancy. It occurs in the 4% of pregnancies in US, usually during the third trimester. It causes increased perinatal morbidity and mortality unless properly diagnosed or managed. Genetic defects of β-cell function or insulin action is also a type of diabetes mellitus commonly called maturity onset diabetes. Neonatal diabetes mellitus is also a type of diabetes, in which first 3 months of life insulin is required for the maintenance of blood glucose level in. It may be caused by intrauterine growth retardation and defects of chromosome. The heart, blood vessels, eyes, kidneys, and nerves can be damaged by diabetes, leading to disability and premature death.
Infections are frequent causes of morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients. Evidence suggesting that urinary tract infection (UTI) is the most common bacterial infections among diabetic patients. High glucose concentration in the urine can provide a rich source of nutrients for bacteria [5, 6]. Therefore, bacteria can multiply and make foundation for infection; also, high glucose concentration in the urine can allow urinary colonization by microorganisms. Moreover, some of the immunological defects like impaired neutrophil function, reduced T cell-mediated immune response, low levels of prostaglandin E, thromboxane B2, and leukotriene B4 may contribute to the increased risk for infection. Other conditions such as bladder dysfunction (incomplete bladder emptying) caused by autonomic neuropathy also may contribute to the increased risk for infection [7, 8]. UTI in diabetes can lead to severe complications including bacteremia, renal abscess, and renal papillary necrosis. In some cases, diabetes modifies the genitourinary system and may cause damage to the organ, which leads to pyelonephritis. This type of UTI occurs 15 times more frequently in diabetic patients. Therefore, early diagnosis and correct treatment are very important for diabetes patients with UTI [9, 10]. Molecular reasons for an increased frequency of UTI in diabetic patients include depression in the function of polymorphonuclear leucocytes especially during acidosis, dysfunction of chemotaxis, and phagocytosis [10]. High blood glucose levels may cause nerve damage, affecting the ability of the bladder to sense the presence of urine and thus allowing urine to stay for a long time in the bladder and increasing probability of infection [11].
Various types of UTI in patients with diabetes include
Asymptomatic bacteriuria
Acute cystitis
Complicated lower UTI (including catheter-associated UTI)
Uncomplicated pyelonephritis
Complicated pyelonephritis/urosepsis
The chance of occurrence of UTIs in diabetic patients used to increase many folds due to several factors. Multiple potential mechanisms unique to diabetes may cause increased risk of UTI in diabetic patients. Elevated renal parenchymal glucose levels create a positive environment for the growth and multiplication of microorganisms, which is one of the precipitating factors of pyelonephritis and renal problem such as emphysematous pyelonephritis. Several problems in the immune system, including humoral, cellular, and innate immunity, may help in the pathogenesis of UTI in diabetic patients [12, 13, 14]. Lower urinary interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 levels were found in diabetic patients with UTI. An outline of process involved in pathogenesis of urinary tract infection in diabetic patients is mentioned in Figure 1.
Process involved in pathogenesis of UTI in patients with diabetes.
Some suggested host related mechanisms include [15]:
Presence of glycosuria
Increased adherence to uroepithelial cells
Immune dysfunction
The presence of glycosuria is responsible for the growth of different microbial strains. Among all
Geerlings et al. [17] in their study reported that urine samples with glucose concentrations between 100 and 1000 mg/dL, which comes in the range of moderate to severe glucosuria, were responsible for enhanced bacterial growth after 6 h, compared with normal urine.
Flagella provide the bacteria with mobility and may interact with the superficial bladder cell through TLR5. Further adhesion is provided by type 1 fimbriae binding to uroplakin 1A or β1-integrin, which also promote internalization into the cell. Complement secreted upon bacterial infection binds to the bacteria and promotes interaction with the bladder through CD46. In the kidney, P fimbriae of the bacteria bind to glycosphingolipids on the surface of renal epithelial cells. Bacterial invasion is further promoted by TLR4 and TLR5.
The uroepithelium is having a very important property of flexibility by which it will allow filling and emptying of the bladder and at the same time impermeable to fluid and able to cope with the varying pH, osmolality, and toxicity, for example, high ammonium concentration. It is composed of different layers of cells with the umbrella or facet cells lining the lumen are multinuclear, large cells with uroplakin facing the urine. Uroplakins are proteins contributing to the impermeability of the epithelium but can also act as a receptor for type 1 fimbriae on the uropathogenic
The important step in the pathogenesis of UTIs is the adherence of uropathogens to the bladder mucosa. Therefore, adhesins (fimbriae) are important virulence factors. Although virulence factors have been distinguished best in
It is observed that hyperglycemic environment alters immune function in patients with diabetes. Several aspects of immunity may be affected, including polymorphonuclear leukocyte function and adhesion, phagocytosis, and chemotaxis. This may play a part in the pathogenesis of urinary tract infections in patients with diabetes. Lower urinary concentrations of interleukin-8 and interleukin-6 in women suffering from diabetes have been shown to correlate with a lower urinary WBCs count that may contribute to the increased incidence of UTIs in this patient group [28].
If UPEC comes in contact with the epithelium, within minutes, the antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin is secreted and acts on the bacteria. Within hours, cytokines and chemokines are produced and their signaling will start to fix professional immune cells to the site of infection. The bacteria on the other hand will try to circumvent the immune defense in different ways. One is to enter the cell cytoplasm and form intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs) in order to “hide” from the immune response [29]; another is to down regulate the immune response with different modes of signaling. Depending on the number of bacteria, the host status, and the virulence factors they carry, the bacteria will either survive in the urinary tract or be eliminated and washed out with the urine [29].
If this first line of defense against pathogens entering the urinary tract fails, an inflammatory response is initiated. Attachment to the bladder uroepithelial cells by bacterial fimbriae allows for close contact between host and pathogen. Trans-membrane signaling through TLRs leads to the production of inflammatory mediators such as chemokines with subsequent recruitment of professional immune cells to the infectious focus. Chemokine IL-8 is required for neutrophil recruitment and activation in the urinary tract [30].
When the inflammatory response subsides, bacteria may still be left in the bladder epithelium. Bacteria that form IBCs can escape the different steps in host defense and treatment with antibiotics will be less efficient because of poor antibiotic penetration into the IBCs. From the IBC, bacteria can be expelled from the cells by a TLR4 mediated mechanism or in mature IBCs, and bacteria form filamentous structures and then separate from the cell to colonize adjacent cells. The cells may also be exfoliated, allowing the underlying immature cells to be exposed to further UPEC invasion. Here, they can turn into quiescent intracellular reservoirs (QIRs) for weeks, only to re-emerge to cause recurrent infections. Pyelonephritis may develop if the bacteria ascend further in the urinary tract. In the kidney, bacteria may cause damage of tissue and reach the blood circulation, causing septicemia, commonly called urosepsis. This increases the mortality from 0.3% in pyelonephritis to 7.5–30% in urosepsis [31].
UTIs are classified based on laboratory data, clinical symptoms, and microbiological findings. Practically, UTIs have been divided into uncomplicated and complicated UTIs and sepsis. The present guidelines give an outline of a tentative improved system of classification of UTI based on various factors as follows: (Guidelines on Urological Infections by European Association of Urology)
Classification based on grade of severity of infections and symptoms
Classification based on underlying risk factors
Classification based on anatomical level of infection
Classification based on microbiological findings
Classification based on complications
Upper and lower UTI can be suspected in diabetic patients with most common symptoms. Symptoms vary in upper and lower UTI. Table 1 highlights the symptomatic difference between upper and lower UTI.
Lower UTI | Upper UTI |
---|---|
| Costovertebral angle pain/tenderness fever and chills, with or without lower urinary tract symptoms |
Symptomatic difference between upper and lower UTI.
Diagnosis of urinary tract infection can be done by following methods.
All women with recurrent UTI should undergo a physical examination to evaluate urogenital anatomy and vaginal tissues estrogenization. Postvoid residual urine volume also should be measured. Diabetes screening is indicated in patients with other risk factors like family history and obesity. Most women do not need extensive urologic investigations. However, women who suffer infection with organisms which is not common causes of UTI, such as
Emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN) is a severe and necrotizing form of multifocal bacterial nephritis along with gas formation within parenchyma of the kidney. So far, more than 200 cases have been reported in literature. Underlying poorly controlled diabetes mellitus is present in up to 90% of affected patients [28].
The commonest offending organisms are Klebsiella and
EPN needs a radiological diagnosis. Conventional radiography may indicate gas bubbles overlying the renal fossa. Ultrasonography (US) characteristically shows an enlarged kidney that contains high amplitude echoes within the renal parenchyma. Computed tomography (CT) is the imaging procedure of choice, which confirms the presence and extent of parenchymal gas.
A descriptive, cross sectional study was conducted on UTI and antibiotic sensitivity pattern among diabetic patients in National Academy of Medical Sciences (NAMS), Mahabouddha, Kathmandu, Nepal. According to this study,
A study was conducted to find out the prevalence of UTI in diabetic patients. A total of 1470 diabetic patients (847 women and 623 men) were included in the study, admitted to the Diabetes Clinic of the Emergency Clinical County Hospital Timişoara between January and December 2012. According to this study, 10.7% in overall population had positive urine cultures. In this population, almost 78% of patients were having asymptomatic bacteriuria. The most frequent bacteria involved in UTI are
About 10.5% of type 2 and 12.8% of type 1 diabetic patients had UTI. There is no significant difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes (p = 0.45); 4.5% of men and 15.3% of women developed UTI, an extremely significant difference (p < 0.0001)
Chiţă et al. concluded that urinary tract infections are more prevalent in diabetic patients. Because of the high proportion of asymptomatic forms among diabetic patients, the urine culture should be done in all hospitalized patients with diabetes.
The pathogens involved in causing urinary tract infection in diabetic patients and their frequency are mentioned in Table 2.
Gram-negative microorganisms | Frequency (%) | Gram-positive microorganisms | Frequency (%) |
---|---|---|---|
56.75 | Alpha | 33.33 | |
21.62 | 66.66 | ||
9.54 | 0 | ||
4.05 | |||
4.05 | |||
4.05 |
Pathogens of UTI in diabetes.
Generally, treatment of UTI is similar in both diabetic patients and nondiabetic patients [5]; however, the choice of antibiotics in UTI patients with diabetes is one of the important considerations in the therapeutic management. Possible drug interactions between antimicrobials and antidiabetics or certain antibiotics may lead to impaired glucose homeostasis.
UTI treatment in diabetes patients depends on various factors including [5];
Presence of symptoms
Presence of infection in the bladder (lower UTI) or also involves the kidney (upper UTI)
Presence of urologic abnormalities
Severity of systemic symptoms
Occur with metabolic alterations and renal function
Moreover, UTI treatment varies based on patient’s age, sex, infecting agent, underlying disease, and whether there is lower or upper urinary tract involvement. Several clinical trials revealed that increasing trends of resistance to many antimicrobials with the increasing trend of antibiotic resistance in
Acute cystitis treatment should be tailored according to culture results, if obtained. Apart from proper glucose control, one of the following UTI treatments is mandatory for acute cystitis management [36].
Hospitalization should be done for the patients with severe symptoms for initial intravenous antibiotic therapy [5, 36]. Empiric antibiotics treatment: broad-spectrum cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, piperacillin-tazobactam, or carbapenems should be started [37]. Severe sepsis presenting patients or those known to harbor-resistant uropathogens or the patients who have received multiple antibiotic courses should receive broad-spectrum coverage, guided by current urinary culture report. Treatment should be tailored when culture reports are available.
There are several types of antimicrobial agents such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics. Likewise, there are several types of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. Microorganisms are responsible for various infectious diseases and sometimes leading to death. Antimicrobial agents play an essential role in decreasing morbidity and mortality associated with infections. Antimicrobial agents increased the life expectancy and quality of life. Different antimicrobial agents and their mechanism of action are mentioned in Table 3.
Antimicrobial agents | Effect on bacteria | Mechanism |
---|---|---|
Penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, polypeptide antibiotics | Bactericidal | Inhibition of cell wall synthesis |
Lincosamides, aminoglycosides, macrolides, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol | Bacteriostatic | Inhibition of protein synthesis |
Quinolones, metronidazole | Bactericidal | Inhibits DNA synthesis |
Rifamycins | Bactericidal | Inhibitions of RNA transcription |
Sulfonamides | Bacteriostatic | Competitive inhibition |
Different antimicrobial agents and its mechanism of action.
Prevent and treat infection
Increased the expected life spans of human being
Prevent or treat infection after surgery (C section, organ transplants, joint replacements, etc.)
Prevent or treat infection at the time of chemotherapy treatments
Antimicrobial drugs decrease the morbidity and mortality caused by food-borne, water-borne, and other poverty-related infections
Resistance to antibiotics and other types of antimicrobial agents is growing and represents the single greatest challenge in the treatment of infectious diseases today. According to WHO, “AMR occurs when microorganisms change when they are exposed to antibiotic and antimicrobial drugs.” Due to anti microbial resistance, antimicrobial agents turning ineffective and infections persist in the body, increasing the risk of spread to others. AMR affects the effective prevention, and treatment of infections caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi. WHO says that AMR is a growing and alarming threat to global public health that requires lot of action from the government. Moreover, people should get a lot of awareness message regarding antimicrobial resistance. An antimicrobial resistance developing microorganisms are sometimes called as “superbugs” [38].
As per WHO cost analysis data, health care cost of resistant infections is higher than nonresistant infections because of
Longer duration of illness
Additional tests
Use of more expensive drugs
Global WHO statistics says that a total of 480,000 people develop multidrug resistant TB each year, and drug resistance is starting complication in treatment of HIV and malaria as well.
Emergence of penicillinase-producing
Major reasons for increasing antimicrobial resistance:
Ineffective infection-control practices
Noncompliance with infection-control practices
Using sub-optimal dose of antibiotics for prophylaxis and treatment of infection
Multiple comorbidities in hospitalized patients
Prolonged hospitalization
Increased number and duration of intensive care unit stays
Colonized patients transfer from hospital to hospital
Grouping of colonized patients in long-term-care facilities
Major mechanisms for acquired antimicrobial resistance:
Enzyme that degrades the antimicrobial agent
Enzyme that alters the antimicrobial agent
Mutation in the antimicrobial agent’s target which reduces the antimicrobial agent binding.
Posttranslational or posttranscriptional modification of the antimicrobial agent’s target, which reduces binding of the antimicrobial agent
Reduced uptake of the antimicrobial agent
Active efflux of the antimicrobial agent
Antimicrobial agent target overproduction
Urinary tract infections are more common in the diabetic patients. Diabetic patients are severely affected with urinary tract infection. Treatment of UTI without proper diagnosis may lead to antimicrobial drug resistance. Treatment with antimicrobial agents should be started on the basis of culture reports. Only bacteriuria with symptoms of UTI should be treated with antibiotics to avoid the spread of drug resistant pathogens in the society. This practice can reduce the morbidity and mortality in diabetic patients suffering from urinary tract infection. The multidrug resistant pathogens are a challenge to society.
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) represent one of the most common and most costly occupational health problems globally [1]. Developing countries are disproportionately affected where working conditions could be poor due to acute lack of awareness on ergonomic issues, education and training [2]. MSDs have also been associated with high levels of health-related presenteeism, absenteeism and sick leave among teachers [3]. MSDs are conditions that affect the body’s muscles, joints, tendons, ligaments, nerves, bones and their local blood supply. Most work-related MSDs develop over time and caused by either work itself or the worker’s working environment [4].
School teachers, in general, have been shown to report a high prevalence of MSDs relative to other occupational groups [5], with prevalence rates of between 40% and 95% according to a systematic review conducted in 2011 [1]. These high prevalence rates among teachers are associated with individual, work-related and psychosocial factors. Some studies have investigated the relationship between MSDs in teachers and their working conditions. The work tasks of teachers involve a wide variety of duties and responsibilities that may involve prolonged sitting and standing, use of inappropriate furniture, awkward postures likely adopted when writing on the board, helping students with their work or when helping students during extracurricular sporting activities. Furthermore, teachers might adopt awkward postures when reading, marking students’ work or preparing lessons. The constant loading of the muscles in the neck, shoulders and the back eventually leads to aches, pains or discomfort [5, 6]. In some instances these activities may be carried out under unfavorable working conditions. Psychosocial risk factors such as poor mental health, low supervisor or colleague support, low job satisfaction, high job stress and high psychological job demands have also been associated with development of MSDs [1]. Preventive programmes are required for management of these disorders and this should ideally be at organizational level rather than individual level [7].
Historically, evaluation of MSDs has involved use of many different methods ranging from broad approaches to specific techniques. Widely accepted approaches for determining the prevalence of MSD and favoured by researchers include self-developed questionnaires [8, 9, 10] and the Standardized Nordic Questionnaire [11, 12, 13, 14]. Self-developed questionnaires can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured [8] and employ open vs. closed, single vs. multiple responses, ranking, and rating [15, 16]. The Standardized Nordic questionnaire was developed by a Swiss company for analysis of musculoskeletal symptoms. It has both the General the Specific Questionnaire. The General Questionnaire is a graphic in which the human body is split into nine anatomical regions, whereas the Specific Questionnaire focuses on anatomical locations where musculoskeletal problems are more common [9]. The fundamental benefit of using these questionnaires is that they examine the severity of symptoms, their impact on work and leisure activities, the overall duration of symptoms, and sick leave.
Other MSDs evaluation methods include pilot study surveys and questionnaires like the pilot tested surveys, [17, 18, 19], questionnaires such as the Northwick Neck Pain Questionnaire [20], Health Questionnaires [21], Job Content questionnaires [22] and the Subjective Health Complaints Questionnaire [6]. While questionnaires are a cost-effective and manageable method to collect data, they can create recall bias and make follow-up difficult, particularly when anonymous reporting is used [1]. Disregard of physical examination and assessment pervades diagnosis of MSD even though they could likely produce more accurate results. These methods are considered expensive and time consuming and therefore rarely used [1].
The majority of the research used self-reported questionnaires to assess MSDs. Self-reporting has limitations such as participants not being honest, introspective inability, wrong interpretation of questions, recall [23] and sampling bias. The participant recall bias could lead to under or overestimation of MSDs [24]. Additionally, self-reporting could lead to respondents reporting all pain as MSDs [25]. It is also not possible to establish any causal-effect associations through self-reporting [26]. The presence of MSDs is only dependent on the participants\' self-reports and not on an objectively validated diagnosis.
Following the systematic review on MSDs among school teachers that was done in 2011 by Erick and Smith [1], substantive research has been carried out on the subject. Globally studies have been conducted among nursery to secondary school teachers on MSDs generally and/or on specific body sites such as neck and/or shoulder, back, upper and/or lower limbs. Recently it was estimated that approximately 1.71 billion people globally have musculoskeletal conditions [27]. A previous systematic review of MSDs among school teachers which was based on papers published between 1981 and 2011 revealed that these conditions affect between 39% and 95% of teachers [1]. The prevalence rates of MSDs among school teachers reported on studies carried out after this review range between 21.1% and 96%.
A substantive amount of research on MSDs among teachers has been conducted in the past ten years in Asia. The prevalence rates of general MSDs in the region range between 21.1% and 93.7% with high prevalence rates of 90.7–93.7% reported among school teachers in China [28]. Similarly, 87.3% and 80.1% of secondary school teachers in Saudi Arabia [23] and primary school teachers in Malaysia, respectively [29] reported ever experiencing MSDs. Furthermore, in a study carried out in Pakistan [30] and another study from Saudi Arabia [31], 82.7% and 79.2% female school teachers reported MSDs, respectively. Prevalence rates of MSDs ranging between 60.3% and 74.5% were reported among school teachers in other Asian countries [8, 32, 33, 34, 35]. Low prevalence rates of MSDs have been reported among primary teachers in another study conducted in Malaysia (40.1%) [36] and male secondary teachers in Saudi Arabia [21].
Relatively few studies have been carried out to investigate the prevalence of MSDs among teachers South America. In Chile, the 12-months prevalence of MSDs among school teachers was 88.9% [26] while in Bolivia it was 86% [37]. A 7-days MSDs prevalence of 63% was reported among Bolivian school teachers [37]. In a study of chronic musculoskeletal pain among Brazilian teachers in Londrina, 43% reported experiencing chronic pain in the past 12 months [38].
A high prevalence rate of MSDs was reported among Egyptian nursery school teachers (96%) [39]. In Botswana, a 12-months prevalence of MSDs among primary and secondary school teachers was 83.3% [40]. The prevalence rates of MSDs among teachers in two studies carried out in Ogun State [10] and Enugu State, Nigeria [41] were 70.47% and 70.2% [41], respectively.
As reflected above, MSDs appear to be highly prevalent in the teaching profession with the high prevalence reported among nursery schools. MSDs studies carried out in Europe were specific to different body sites.
Although most of the studies investigated ‘neck pain’ and ‘shoulder pain’ separately, some combined these and reported on them as neck and/or shoulder pain (NSP). In a study conducted in Durban, South Africa a 12-months prevalence of NSP among primary school teachers was 80.4% [42], In Chile, 68.6% of school teachers reported NSP in the last 12 months [26]. Similarly, in two separate studies conducted in Malaysia, 60.1% of secondary [43] and 56.5% of primary [29] school teachers reported NSP. Parallels could be drawn to a study conducted in Ethiopia where 57.3% of teachers reported NSP [13]. In a study conducted in China, almost half (48.7%) of school teachers reported experiencing NSP in the previous 12 months [44]. These studies show that MSDs of the neck/shoulder are highly prevalent.
Even when neck pain is reported separately, there is still evidence that it is a prevalent MSD among school teachers with studies from different countries reporting prevalence rates above 50% with high levels reported in Turin, Italy at 75.6% [45]; followed by Nigeria at 57% [41, 46], Botswana at 50.2% [40] and Bolivia at 47% [37]. Other countries however reported low prevalence rates of neck pain among teachers. Low prevalence of neck pain have been reported among Saudi female teachers (11.3%) [47] and Nigerian teachers (3.2%) [10].
High prevalence rates of shoulder pain were reported by teachers in China (73.4%) [44]. Parallels could be drawn to the results of a study that was conducted in Nigeria where 62.3% of teachers reported shoulder pain. Most of the studies reported prevalence rates ranging between 41% and 57.5% [12, 21, 23, 30, 32, 33, 34, 46, 48, 49]. However, low prevalence rates were reported in studies conducted among female teachers in Malaysia (22.2%) [36] and Saudi Arabia (20.6%) [47] and primary school teachers in Egypt (15%) [50] and Ogun State, Nigeria (11.7%) [10]. Lessons could be learnt from these places on factors associated with these low rates of shoulder pain.
When compared to other MSDs, upper extremities appear to be less prevalent. A study that was conducted in Brazil reported that 14% of teachers experienced upper limb pain [38]. Wrist/hand pain was reported by 26% teachers in Chuquisaca, Bolivia [37], 23.4% in Turkey [51] and 16.2% secondary female teachers in Saudi Arabia over 6 months [31] and 7.4% in another study conducted among female teachers in Saudi Arabia over 3 months [47]. Elbow pain on the other hand was reported by between 5.6% and 16% of teachers in studies carried out in Italy [45], Turkey [51], and Malaysia [36]. Although prevalence rates for MSDs of the upper extremities were generally low across most countries, there were a few countries where prevalence rates could go above 40% as was the case among primary school teachers in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia who reported hand/fingers pain in the last 6 months [29].
In this section, the prevalence of back pain among school teachers is discussed. Limited studies reported general back pain whilst majority separated low back pain and upper back pain. The prevalence of general back pain was reported in studies conducted in Qassim, Saudi Arabia (74.4%) [11], Minas Gerais, Brazil (58%) [52], Turkey (42.7%) [34] and Iran (39%) [12].
When compared to other MSDs among school teachers, low back pain (LBP) appears to have been the most studied. High prevalence rates of low back pain have been reported in studies conducted in Spain [53], Jordan [54] and Ekpoma State, Nigeria [46] where 96.5%, 92.3% and 85% school teachers reported low back pain respectively. Almost three-quarters of teachers in Turkey (74.9%) [34], Northern Ethiopia (74.8%) [55], Putrajaya Malaysia (72.9%) [9] and Italy (70.6%) [45] reported experiencing LBP in the past 12 months. Most of the studies reported prevalence rates between 35.3% and 68% [14, 23, 24, 31, 32, 42, 47, 56, 57]. However, some studies reported low prevalence rates. One quarter of female teachers in Terengganu, Malaysia [36] and school teachers in Kanpur, India [58] reported LBP in the previous 12 months. In Abha City, Saudi Arabia [21] and Ogun State, Nigeria [10], one fifth of teachers reported LBP while in Brazil 13% of them also reported LBP [38]. LBP is common among teachers regardless of the geographical location. This is a concern as LBP is a leading cause of disability in both developing and developed countries [44].
Upper back pain does not appear to have been studied as much as LBP. Although 84% of preschool teachers in Turin, Italy reported experiencing upper back pain [45] it appears this pain is not as prevalent as LBP. This is evidenced by prevalence rates reported in studies carried out in Enugu State in Nigeria [41], Peshawar, Pakistan [30] and Thailand [33] where 47.4%, 43.3% and 36.1% of school teachers reported upper back pain, respectively. In Terngganu, Malaysia, one quarter of female primary school teachers reported upper back pain experienced in the previous 12 months [36]. Lower prevalence rates were reported among female Saudi teacher (17.7%) [47] and teachers in Ogun State in Nigeria (1.1%) [10].
Several studies have investigated MSD in the lower extremities such as the knees, leg, hips, ankles and feet. In a study conducted in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia, almost half of the primary school teachers reported lower extremities pain in a period of 6 month [29]. However, a lower prevalence of 13% was reported in a study of Brazilian teachers [38]. The prevalence rates of knee pain among different school levels ranged between 26.3% and 49%. About 49% of nursery school teachers in Ekpoma State in Nigeria reported knee pain [46] while it was reported by 41% of secondary school teachers in Hail, Saudi Arabia [23]. Parallels could be drawn to the results of studies conducted in Enugu State of Nigeria [41] and Turin, Italy [45] where 39.3% and 38.7% of teachers and nursery school teachers reported knee pain respectively. One third of teachers in Turkey [34] and Terengganu, Malaysia [36] reported knee pain in the last 12 months while in Saudi Arabia one quarter reported the same condition in the past 3 months [47].
The prevalence rates of leg pain among teachers ranged between 38.7% and 65.2%. The highest prevalence rate was reported by school teachers in Ogun State in Nigeria [10] while the lowest was reported by preschool teachers in Turin, Italy [45]. Hip pain was reported by between 15.4% and 45.3% of teachers in Enugu State in Nigeria [41], nursery schools in Ekpoma State in Nigeria [46], female teachers in Saudi Arabia [47] and teachers in Turkey [34]. Some studies combined hip and thigh pain and was reported by 49.6% preschool teachers in Italy [45] and 18.4% of teachers in Terenggamu, Malaysia [36] in the past 12 months.
The prevalence of ankle pain was relatively common among teachers ranging between 12.3% and 48.4%. Female teachers in Pakistan reported the highest prevalence rate of this pain (48.4%) [30]. Although nursery school teachers have been thought to be at increased risk of ankle pain due to activities which require sustained periods of kneeling, stooping, squatting or bending [59], only 31% of nursery school teachers in Ekpoma State, Nigeria reported ankle pain [46]. Some studies studied ankle and feet pain combined and the highest prevalence (85.5%) was reported in a study conducted among school teachers in Abha City, Saudi Arabia [60]. However, relatively low prevalence was reported in studies carried out in Terenggamu, Malaysia [36] and preschool teachers in Italy [45] where this pain was reported by 32.5% and 16.8% of the study population, respectively.
MSDs have been previously reported to be more prevalent among nursery school teachers because of the kind of work they do. This chapter confirms the previous findings because when compared to other school teachers, high numbers of nursery teachers reported general MSDs, upper back pain, neck and/or shoulder, knee and elbow pain. This has been attributed to that nursery school teachers perform a wide variety of tasks and combine basic health childcare and teaching duties, and those that require sustained mechanical load and constant trunk flexion [59, 61]. Furthermore, nursery school teachers have been found to have elevated prevalence of MSDs due to activities which require sustained periods of kneeling, stooping, squatting or bending [59]. The high prevalence of MSDs of different body sites among teachers is a concern as this population consists of high numbers of members of the society. Teachers ill-health does not only affect them but high likely to affect learners. Therefore, it is crucial to establish work-related factors that affect this population to put in place control measures that will reduce prevalence and progression of these conditions. The following section discusses work-related factors associated with teachers reporting MSDs.
A large proportion of MSDs have been associated with adverse work conditions. Increased risk of these disorders have been reported in occupations with repetitive work tasks, awkward postures and heavy lifting as well as psychologically demand work environments. The section will discuss work-related factors associated with MSDs among school teachers.
In a study carried out in both rural and urban areas of Bolivia, teachers working in rural areas were more than two to almost four times more likely to report any work limiting musculoskeletal pain during the last 12-months and for work limiting pain in at least three parts of the body than teachers in urban areas. The study also found that work limiting pain in ankles was higher in rural than urban school teachers [37]. These findings have been attributed to that apart from the teaching responsibilities, teachers in rural areas work closely with the rural communities which could be both physically and psychologically demanding. For this reasons, there is often concentration of professionals in urban areas as opposed to rural areas which in turn impacts on the quality of education and increased inequalities between the two areas [37].
Carrying heavy loads have also been associated with MSDs among school teachers. Brazilian teachers in Londriana region who reported carrying didactic materials were almost two times more likely to report upper limbs pain than those who did not report carrying heavy materials [38]. Lifting loads with hands was also associated with LBP among secondary school teachers in Putrajaya, Malaysia. Teachers who reported lifting loads with hands were at increased risk of developing LBP than those who did not report so [9]. Carrying weight has also been significantly associated with MSDs among secondary school teachers in Fiji [62].
Prolonged computer use has previously been associated with MSDs of different body sites among school teachers. Brazilian teachers in Minas Gerais region who reported using computer or tablet within 5 h and for 6 or more hours during the COVID -19 pandemic were 1.12 times and 1.27 times more likely to report back pain compared to those who did not report computer or tablet use [52]. Primary school teachers in Samsun Turkey who reported daily computer use were at increased risk of neck pain when compared to those who did not indicate daily computer use [34]. Prolonged computer use leads to prolonged sitting. Activities of prolonged sitting and computer use are unsafe acts favorable for the development of neck/shoulder pain, back pain and upper limb pain among teachers [44]. This may also be attributed to a sustained forward head posture and/or constant neck flexion which cause static overload of neck and shoulders muscles. When combined with repetitive movements associated with a mouse, touchpad or keyboard can increase the likelihood of shoulder and/or neck pain [48].
Awkward postures have been found to contribute to reporting of MSDs. This is evidenced by the results of a study among primary school teachers in Cairo, Egypt where awkward posture was associated with MSDs [50]. Furthermore, teachers who reported awkward arm position at work in a study conducted in Botswana were 1.4 times more likely to report LBP than those who did not report awkward arm position [63]. In another study conducted in Botswana, teachers who had reported awkward arm position when working were at risk of shoulder pain, upper back pain and wrists/hands pain [40]. Teachers in Gondar town of Ethiopia who had reported static head down posture and elevated arm over shoulder were 2.26 times and 2.71 more likely to report shoulder/neck pain than those who did not report the awkward postures [13]. Similarly, Chinese teachers who reported prolonged static posture were more likely to develop NSP and LBP than those who did not report static posture. Teachers who reported that they acquired posture characterized by twisting were also at increased risk of LBP than those who did not report so [44]. Bending has been significantly associated with MSDs among secondary school teachers in Fiji [62].
Stretching to write on the board placed school teachers in Thailand at increased risk of repetitive strain injuries [33]. Writing on the board has also been strongly associated with MSDs of different anatomical areas such as upper limbs pain, LBP and lower limbs pain among Brazilian teachers in Londrina region [38]. Forward-bending and backward bending of the head for a prolonged time when writing on the board has been significantly associated with NSP among primary school teachers in South Africa [42]. Shoulder pain may occur as a result of working with raised arms unsupported for a considerable time, a characteristic synonymous with teachers’ work as they write on the board. Awkward postures caused by sustained muscle stretching particularly overhead are likely to induce neck and/or upper limbs pain in teachers. Awkward postures affect MSDs of different body areas. This is so because the broad activities which teachers participate in such as reading, marking, lesson preparation lead to prolonged sitting periods, bending to assist students at student level, writing on and reading from the board put strain on different body areas.
Prolonged sitting and standing have been associated with MSDs of different body area. A study of Chinese teachers in Guang dong Province, found that those who reported prolonged sitting were at risk of reporting NSP and LBP than those who did not report prolonged sitting. NSP was also experienced by those teachers who reported prolonged standing than those who did not [44]. Prolonged standing has also been associated with LBP among Egyptian teachers [55] and general MSDs among male secondary school teachers in Saudi Arabia [32]. Prolonged sitting has also been significantly associated with NSP among Gondar teachers in Ethiopia [13], with LBP among secondary school teachers in Putrajaya, Malaysia [9] and among primary school teachers in Durban, South Africa [42] and foot pain among Saudi teachers in Abha Sector [60]. Prolonged standing and sitting were also significantly associated with MSDs among female school teachers in Pakistan [30] and secondary school teachers in Fiji [62]. Standing and sitting for a long period, working in a head down posture for long periods, bending/twisting upper body have been significantly associated with MSDs among preparatory government school teachers in Cairo, Egypt. The study further found that prolonged working in the same posture, helping students into flexing posture and repeating the same movement of arms or hands many times per minute were also significantly associated with MSDs [39].
Previous research indicates that inappropriate furniture contributes to development of MSDs. A significant association has been found between MSDs and school furniture among school teachers in two separate studies carried out in Egypt [39, 50]. Uncomfortable work chair/table was significantly associated with MSDs among female school teachers in Pakistan [30]. In China, school teachers who reported uncomfortable back support were about two times more likely to report NSP and LBP compared to those who did not report so [44]. Women teachers, nurses and sonographers in Sweden who reported that they were dissatisfied with computer workstation arrangements were 1.2 times more likely to report neck pain and shoulder pain respectively than those who reported that they were satisfied [64].
Similarly, school teachers in Enugu State of Nigeria who reported using teaching board with height of 180–190 cm and more than 190 cm were 3.5 times and 4.6 times more likely to report neck pain, respectively than those who used teaching board that was less than 180 cm. Furthermore, those who reported using a teaching board with height of 180–190 were also at increased risk of pain in one or both elbows [41]. These heights may lead to adoption of prolonged neck extension positions when writing on or reading from the board and ultimately contribute to neck pain.
Although it is assumed that physically school teachers’ work is varied and relatively light [64], research on this study population has demonstrated that they are exposed to high workloads. Rapid physical activity has been significantly associated with shoulder pain, wrists/hands pain and hips/thighs pain among school teachers in Botswana [40]. Similarly, primary school teachers in Samsun, Turkey who reported physical activity were two times at risk of neck pain when compared to those who did not report physical activity [34]. Walking up and down stairs was associated with LBP among secondary school teachers in Putrajaya, Malaysia [9].
High workload has been significantly associate with MSDs among preparatory teachers in Egypt [39]. Addis Ababa teachers who reported high work load were four times increased risk of reporting LBP than those who were not [14]. This is consistent with results of primary school teachers in Egypt where job demand was significantly associated with MSDs [50]. Physical workload has also been associated with feet pain among women teachers, nurses and sonographers in Sweden [64]. In Londrina, Brazil, high number of students in a classroom were associated with upper limbs pain [38].
The association between high job demand and MSDs might be due to the nature of teachers’ work which by its nature is physically demanding. When the physical work load is reduced, the impact of job demand and onset of MSDs is reduced [65]. Apart from teaching students, teachers are also involved in lesson preparation, assessments of students’ work and being involved in the extracurricular activities such as sports. Teachers also participate in different school committees. These may cause teachers to suffer adverse mental and physical health issues due to the variety of job functions [1].
School teachers are considered to experience high level of psychological stress [64]. High psychological job demands have been associated with LBP [63], upper back pain and shoulder pain among school teachers in Botswana [40]. Similar results have been reported among secondary school teachers in Malaysia where those who reported high psychological job demands were at increased risk of developing LBP compared to those who reported low psychological job demands [43]. Psychological job demands have been associated with neck, shoulder, hands, lower back and feet pain among women teachers, nurses and sonographers in Sweden [64]. It has been suggested that the more psychological demands needed for a particular task, the greater the possibility to develop any kind of MSDs regardless of the body area [66].
The study of teachers working in governmental primary schools in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia found that those who reported a poor or fair work social environment were at increased risk of LBP than those who had good work environment [14]. Similarly teachers in another study conducted in Gondar town in Ethiopia, who reported to have stress were more likely to report LBP than those who did not report stress [57]. Mild to moderate and severe to extremely severe stress have been associated with experiencing LBP and NSP among secondary school teachers in Malaysia [43].
High anxiety and very low colleague support have been associated with MSDs among preparatory teachers in Egypt [39]. Parallels could be drawn to results of Malaysia secondary school teachers who were found to be at increased risk of LBP and NSP due to mild to moderate and severe to extremely severe anxiety [43].
Teachers in Tehran, Iran who reported low job satisfaction were more likely to develop low back when compared to those who reported high job satisfaction [56].
Low skill discretion and low supervisor support have been significantly associated with reporting low back and neck and/or shoulder pain among Malay teachers, respectively [43].
Some factors have shown a protective effect against MSDs among school teachers. These include factors such as workplace support, regular physical exercise and perceived better health.
A protective effect was demonstrated for Botswana teachers who reported high supervisor support. These teachers were less likely to report neck, upper back pain and hip/thigh pain as compared to those who reported low supervisor support [40]. High supervisor support was also a protective factor against LBP among Kenyan teachers [24]. Ethiopian teachers in Amhara region who reported satisfaction with work environment and culture were showed decreased odds for reporting LBP and those who had an office were also less likely to report LBP [57].
Nursery and primary school teachers who reported that there were three of them per class were less likely to report upper back, low back pain and pain on one or both ankles or feet [41].
In a study carried out among women teachers, nurses and sonographers, those who reported high job control were less likely to report shoulder, hands, lower back and feet pain. The study further demonstrated that those in leadership were less likely to report neck, shoulder and lower back pain [64].
Physical exercise of more than 5 h per week was associated with reduced odds of reporting upper back pain [40] and LBP [63] among school teachers in Botswana. This was in comparison to teachers who reported five or less hours of weekly exercise. Similarly, teachers in Amhara region in Ethiopia who exercised were less likely to report LBP compared to those who did not exercise [57]. Chinese school teachers who reported exercising for seven or more hours per week were less likely to experience NSP compared to who exercise for less than 7 h per week [44]. Parallels could also be drawn to the results of a study conducted among Ethiopian teachers where those who exercised reported decreased odd of NSP compared to those who did not exercise [13]. Physical exercise was also associated with decreased odds of reporting neck pain among Iranian teachers [67], and upper back pain and LBP among school teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria [41]. Exercise habits also had a protective effect against neck and upper extremity pain among teachers in Turkey [51]. Saudi teachers who reported that they were involved in sports were less likely to report foot pain [60].
As reflected above, MSDs are common among teachers with different contributing factors. This means that management of these need to evaluate risk factors for MSDs carefully before coming up with interventions to address them. The interventions for disorders need to be contextualized for them to be effective and to take into consideration, the risk factors for these conditions and how they interact with each other. MSDs disproportionately affect females compared to their male counterparts among school teachers in Saudi Arabia [23]. Aging and improper postures have also contributed to experience of MSDs among teachers in Punjab [68].
Preventive programmes are required for management of these disorders and this should ideally be at organizational level rather than individual level [7] and also use health promotion approaches to them prevent repetitive strain injury (RSI) [33]. Previous research speak to prevention measures to reduce back pain [24]. In a study conducted among Chinese teachers, there was a statistically significant improvement in attitudes, awareness, symptoms on neck and back pain after 6 and 12 months post intervention. Researchers had administered a multi-faceted workplace intervention comprising of health education through lectures, workplace ergonomic training and public awareness materials using posters and brochures and assessed pre and post intervention effects of the workplace programme [28]. Similar findings were reported among nursery school teachers who underwent an Extension oriented exercise programme to prevent LBP in nursery school teachers. The programme was found to alleviate LBP among teachers who received brochure and exercise programme done by a physiotherapist compared to those who received only the brochure [33]. Preventive interventions focusing on posture have also been shown to work including reducing amount of time on awkward postures such as knee bending among pre-school teachers in Germany [69].
Individual coping strategies are an important consideration for managing MSDs among teachers. This is because teachers may engage or prefer certain self-help therapies which may not necessarily be effective in prevention and management of MSDs as reported in one study where teachers used thermal spring therapy and/or painkillers to cope with their MSD pain [70]. Coping mechanism used by people suffering from MSDs can be influenced by gender and social class. This has been shown in one study where men in lower social class were found to prefer avoidant coping mechanisms compared to female counterparts while females in low social class used less problem solving methods to cope with MSDs [71]. Maintaining regular physical activity both at work and at home has demonstrated benefits for physical education teachers in terms of experiencing MSDs and their overall health and wellbeing especially their cardiovascular health [72] indicating a need to approach management of MSDs using a comprehensive risk based approach.
The importance of a comprehensive multi-faceted programme to tackle MSDs is underlined by findings from a systematic review which demonstrated that massage therapy alone, a common mode of treatment for MSDs had limited benefits among patients with neck and back pain and no statistically significant benefits when compared to other treatments [73]. Additionally, patients diagnosed with MSDs commonly have other medical conditions including mental health and gastrointestinal conditions with those patients more likely to report a severe form of MSDs [74]. These patients may benefit from a holistic approach to the MSDs. A model of managing MSDs therefore requires further exploration and consideration. This is the bio-psychosocial (BPS) model of pain management.
The model consists of three factors operating in the patient’s life which are the environment, biological and cognitive factors [75]. The model posts that biomedical approaches alone have not been effective in managing pain especially MSDs and therefore a more holistic approach consisting of managing the patient biological factors, their environment and the way they think about pain, cognitive factors is key.
The model brings together an appreciation of how the risk factors already alluded to can all be incorporated effectively in a workplace programme for prevention and management of MSDs. The risk factors can seem to be too many and overwhelming to tackle for both patient and healthcare providers. However by designing a programme consisting of biological risk factors relating to the person and disease itself, cognitive factors and the environment in which illness occurs. The BPS model emphasizes the importance of making health within the patients’ context taking into consideration the patients’ sociocultural beliefs about illness, worries and concerns they may have about the meaning of the illness for their job and them as a person and possible coping mechanism that they have which may enhance or detract from effective interventions. Likely benefits of the bio-psychosocial model are echoed by Waddell who estimates that incapacity and sickness absence from these disorders could be reduced by up to 50% [76] and expounds on the key components of the BPS model of disability.
An important question to consider is why the public, the employers and employees must be concerned about effective prevention and management of MSDs in general and more importantly among teachers. There are bound to be costs encountered by the employee, the employer and the public because of the employees’ inability to perform their duties effectively. The costs can be both tangible and intangible, direct and indirect. Assessing the impact of MSDs must therefore take a 360° view of who is affected and how are they affected. The impact can be felt at individual level and societal level.
MSDs present with symptoms of pain, fatigue and functional limitations [71]. They have also been shown to adversely affect the physical and emotional components of quality of life and a likely cause of future ill health and disability [26]. Work performance is another impact of MSDs shown to affect academic teachers due to lack of adequate mental and physical rest from work even while at home [77]. A study among teachers in Botswana also noted that the effect of MSDs included functional limitations and at times career change with important implications for limited resources [40]. Increased sick leave among female teachers as well as rising levels of depression were found to be associated with having MSDs in Turkey [70]. It is clear that with symptoms experienced from these disorders, individual teachers are likely to experience functional limitations at home and at work.
Treatment of MSDs in general has been shown to provide economic benefits in terms of keeping people employed and earning an income in addition to reducing sickness absence from work. A study done among adults with MSDs in the UK, where 54% were employed, it showed that an average of 3.8 days were lost due to work absenteeism. The study further found that reduced functional limitations led to a reduction in the patients’ ability to remain in employment, higher chances of claiming disability benefits and sickness absence [78], which all add to the economic costs of MSDs. Patients experiencing MSDs in another UK study reported that their MSDs contributed significantly to their inability to work (74%) with a quarter reporting inability to find a suitable job because of the MSDs, low job satisfaction (68%) and half experiencing limited career choices and similar proportion experiencing reduced household income [74]. These were however not all teachers but it is likely that even teachers would experience similar challenges given the physical and psychological demands of their role as teachers and the nature of MSDs. These economic cost of MSDs has long been established. Canada reported an estimated economic cost due to MSDs as early as two decades ago at 26 billion Canadian dollars with the bulk of the costs being due to healthcare resource utilization and disease sequelae [79].
The impact of MSDs among teachers on other aspects of the society are not well studied. For example, the impact on the pass rates of their students, career choices of their students and psychological wellbeing of the students. It is expected that students will experience some anxiety related to sickness absence of their teacher or having a temporary teacher to replace their substantive teacher. It is also possible that the temporary teacher may not have the same qualifications and experience as the substantive teacher, they may also not have the organizational context or institutional memory which would help them to navigate the school environment and the so called difficult students effectively. This is an important area of future research.
Although self-administered questionnaires have recall biasness, introspective inability and may be subject to wrong interpretation of questions, they have been commonly used to investigate MSDs. This chapter demonstrated that MSDs are common among teachers despite of their geographical location. Additionally, MSDs are a cause of pain and suffering for teachers globally. Some countries have higher than average prevalence rates for all MSDs. Physical and psychosocial risk factors have been associated with MSDs of different body regions. Factors such as high supervisor support, high job control and regular physical exercise have been shown to have a protective effect against MSDs. Due to the effects of MSDs on individual life, work attendance and productivity it is important to manage these. Because MSDs tend to affect more than one body site and are mediated by multiple factors, a workplace approach to managing these should be holistic and as comprehensive as reasonably practicable. Future research using longitudinal study designs should be conducted to establish the casual effect of work-related and psychosocial factors in development of MSDs. Research is also needed to identify innovations that can reduce the prevalence of these disorders.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"},selectedSubseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry"}}},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"bookSubject",path:"/subjects/1092",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"1092"},fullPath:"/subjects/1092",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()