Probiotics beneficial health effects.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83768-400-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-399-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-401-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3e168136bc7435be0c6bbe1d7adec1f4",bookSignature:"Prof. Marwa Zakaria, Prof. Tamer Hassan and Prof. Laila Sherief",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12194.jpg",keywords:"Beta Thalassemia Major, Transfusion Dependent Beta-Thalassemia, Microcytic Hypochromic Anemia, Mutations, Beta Thalassemia Intermedia, Non-transfusion Dependent Thalassemia, Hb E Disease, Alpha Thalassemia, Genetic Counseling, Newborn Screening, Prenatal Diagnosis, Gene Therapy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 14th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 28th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Marwa Zakaria completed her post-graduate training in Pediatric Nutrition at Boston University School of Medicine, USA. She is an Associate Professor and senior consultant of Pediatrics in the Faculty of Medicine at Zagazig University and a member of the International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP), the European Hematology Association (EHA), and the Egyptian Society of Hematology.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Professor at Zagazig University and an active member at EHA, SIOP, HAA, and ESPHO. Dr. Hassan is a guest speaker at numerous pediatric oncology and hematology meetings and he had over 50 international research publications in Pediatrics and Pediatric Hematology and Oncology.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Professor at Zagazig University, president of Sharkia Thalassemia Association, and member of the Egyptian national guidelines committee (NEGC) for evidence-based clinical practice. Prof. Sherief has over 50 international publications and many national publications and is an editorial board member in 17 international journals and Peer Reviewer for more than 38 international journals.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"187545",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Zakaria",slug:"marwa-zakaria",fullName:"Marwa Zakaria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187545/images/system/187545.jpeg",biography:"Associate Professor and senior consultant of Pediatrics at the Faculty of Medicine at Zagazig University, and Sharkia Medical Insurance, Zagazig, Egypt. She is an active member in SIOP, EHA, HAA and ESPHO. \r\nDr. Zakaria completed her post-graduate training in Pediatric Nutrition at Boston University School of Medicine, USA. She participated in many international pediatric and hematology conferences, EHA, SIOP, Pan Arab, ISTH and was a guest speaker at numerous pediatric hematology and oncology meetings. During her career, she published over 40 international research publications and acts as reviewer in international and national peer-reviewed journals. She is chief editor of 3 online books and author of five online book chapters. She is also an active member of the Egyptian national guidelines committee (NEGC) for evidence- based clinical practice. As well, Dr. Zakaria is a co-investigator in four international hematology clinical trials and sub-investigator in five international hematology Clinical trials.\r\nShe finished professional training and workshops: ICH GCP, EHA-master class 2015-2018, Training from Wilkins-Barrick society of neurooncology Marrakesh, International Preceptorship Thalassemia Preceptorship Beirut, International Preceptorship including Thalassemia Preceptorship in Beirut, Lebanon and International Hemophilia Preceptorship in Saint Luc Hospital, Brussels, Belgium. 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He had over 50 international research publications in Pediatrics and Pediatric Hematology & Oncology.\r\nHis professional training and workshops include ICH GCP Online (2013& 2016),training in pediatric stem cell transplantation unit at Ulm University (2007-2008), Completion of bite size master Class EHA- 2016, Completion of master Class EHA- 2017. He also attended Hemophilia Preceptorship in Saint Luc Hospital, Brussels, Belgium and ITP Preceptorship in Dmitry Rogachev National Research Center of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Immunology, Moscow.\r\nHe is editor of online book and author of 6 online book chapters. He is an academic editor for the Medicine (Baltimore) Journal and a reviewer for many international journals(Hemophilia, Medicine, Oncology letters, Child neurology, Global Pediatric health, Journal of international medical Research, Current cancer therapy reviews, World journal of pediatrics). He is the primary investigator in 4 internationals clinical trials and sub-investigator in 10 international clinical trials.",institutionString:"Zagazig University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Zagazig University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"110940",title:"Prof.",name:"Laila",middleName:null,surname:"Sherief",slug:"laila-sherief",fullName:"Laila Sherief",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS1HqQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-19T09:40:38.jpg",biography:"Professor Laila Sherief has been a long-serving member of the Zagazig University community in Egypt. She first graduated with honours from the Zagazig University and then went on to do her internship and residency there before becoming a lecturer, an Associate Professor then a Professor in Paediatric in the Faculty of Medicine. Prof. Sherief has published extensively in national/international medical journals and at medical conferences. She has over 50 international publications and many national publications and acts as a Peer Reviewer for more than 38 international journals, including Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, Pediatrics International, Journal of Coagulation & fibrinolysis, Medicine, BMC Endocrinal Disorders, Transfusion Medicine and Cancer Chemotherapy & Pharmacology. She is editorial board member in 17 international journals as BMC Pediatric, Frontiers in Genetics, Hematology case reports, Archives of hematology case reports and reviews, and Annals of Medical case reports. She supervised 83 master and MD thesis in Pediatric, Pediatric Hematology & Oncology and Clinical pathology\r\nProf. Sherief frequently attends national and international conferences and maintains memberships in many professional societies as International Society of Paediatric Oncology (SIOP), International Society of Haemostatis and Thrombosis (ISTH)., Egyptian Society of Pediatric Haematology & Oncology (ESPHO) and Egyptian Societies of thalassemia. She is the president of Sharkia thalassemia Association, Egypt, and member of the Egyptian national guidelines committee (NEGC) for evidence- based clinical practice. She was a member of the scientific committee for promotion of professors of pediatrics in the Supreme Council of Universities in Egypt from 2013 to 2016.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Zagazig University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Cultivation of economically important bamboos is often threatened by fungal infection and diseases which eventually result from serious damages on bamboo cultivation [4]. A number of foliage diseases (e.g., leaf spots and leaf blight) of bamboos have been recorded. However, fungi cause comparatively less damage to bamboo than culm diseases [5]. For example, during 1988–1990, 5300 hectares of bamboos were affected by
Ascostromata of
The term “fungorum bambusicolorum” (bambusicolous fungi), was first used by Iwao Hino [14], though the author did not give a definition. “Bambusicolous” means “living on bamboo” [3]. Kevin D. Hyde and colleagues in 2002 defined bambusicolous, which embodies fungi growing on any bamboo substrates, including leaves, culms, branches, sheathes, flowers, rhizomes, and roots [3]. Subsequently, the phrase “Bambusicolous fungi” has been widely used by mycologists worldwide [15, 16].
Lembosia Léveillé is the first mycologist, who mentioned the presence of a fungus on bamboo. In 1845, he described
In 1854, Miles J. Berkeley recorded
Number of fungi described from bamboo until 2017.
Recent contributions to the knowledge of bamboo-associated ascomycetes were the following. An article in 2000 reviewed 189 species of fungi, of which were 80 ascomycetes, 40 coelomycetous, and hyphomycetous fungi on bamboo substrates [34]. Kevin D. Hyde and colleagues reviewed bamboo fungi in detail in 2002 [3]. A total of 80 fungi were recorded on submerged bamboo in 2003, see [35].
During 2003–2008, the Japanese mycologists carried out a series of studies on bambusicolous fungi in Japan and introduced around 25 new taxa based on the morphological characters [15, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. In 2007, authors analyzed molecular diversity of bamboo-associated fungi from Japan, based on 257 endophytes strains, isolated from bamboo tissues; however, most isolates were not identified to species level [43]. Until 2009, the significant phylogenetic analysis was first used to classify the new taxa by [44].
Currently, during 2011–2017, approximate 145 new species and new records belonging to 65 genera, 37 families have so far been described or reported by mycologists [16, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52] based on taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses. In the short period of 6 years, six new families
The morphological characters are important in fungal identifications. Most fungi produce their fruiting bodies on hyphae with two phases of reproductions (sexual and asexual reproduction). Thus, when an ascomycetous fungus bears its fruiting body by sexual reproduction, it usually produces an ascoma (Figure 3), and on the other hand, it produces either a conidioma or hyphomycetous fruiting structures. The major morphological characters of sexual morph are the type of ascomata, hamathecium, asci, and ascospores, and those of asexual morph are conidiomata, conidiophores, and conidiogenous cells [63, 64].
Line drawing of a fruiting body (ascoma) of sexual morph of ascomycete.
The ascomata of bambusicolous fungi have various types, no matter what shapes or colors. They can form on bamboo leaves, culms, or even sheathes (Figure 4), with the positions being immersed, erumpent, or superficial (Figure 5). Some ascomata are stromatic, with unilocule to multilocules. Ascomata produce asci and ascospores within, when mature. An ostiole, where ascospores release, is commonly present at the top of an ascoma. Peridium is the wall of an ascoma and usually is composed of several layers of angular cells. The hamathecium is the sterile tissue, formed by hyaline filaments which are called paraphyses.
Ascomata on different bamboo substrates. (a), (b) on bamboo leaves. (c) on bamboo sheath.(d) on bamboo culm.
Various types of ascomata on bamboo. a–g, l: superficial ascomata; h–j: erupted ascomata; k: immersed ascomata; a–c, e, h: perithecia; d: stromata; f, g: flatten ascostromata; i: multiloculate stroma; j: conical stromatic ascomata; k: stromata; l:
The morphology of asci is particularly of two major types, unitunicate and bitunicate (Figure 6). Asci are produced within the ascomata and act as platforms from which the spores are launched. However, some asci release the ascospores passively by dissolving the ascal wall at maturity, rather than active spore-shooting mechanism. Asci usually bear eight ascospores, though sometimes with four or six, and occasionally producing multiple numbers of ascospores.
Asci types. a, b, c, h: bitunicate asci (note in b, jack-in-a-box spore release mechanism). d, e: unitunicate asci; f: unitunicate ascus with a special elastic ring at the tip; g: unitunicate asci with a flat apex; h: bitunicate ascus with a long narrow basal portion; i: fissitunicate asci.
The ascospores of bambusicolous fungi exhibit a variety of shapes (Figure 7). The common shapes are ellipsoidal, fusiform, filiform, and so on. The color of ascospores can be hyaline, pale brown, brown to dark brown. The ascospores usually are single-celled or have one to two septa and sometimes multiseptate, like muriform spores. Their surfaces are smooth, striate to verrucose, or covered by a sheath.
Ascospores types. a, e: ascospores surrounded by a sheath; b: striate ascospore; c, k: verrucose ascospores;d: dark brown, 6-septate ascospore; f, i, j: fusiform ascospores; g: muriform ascospore; h: smooth-walled ascospore; l, m: filiform ascospores.
The asexual morph of ascomycetous bambusicolous fungi is coelomycetous or hyphomyceteous [45, 46, 47, 48], as in the asexual morph of
The ascomycetes on bamboo are very diverse, together with their asexual morphs. In [30], the author recorded 460 species belonging to 218 genera in 43 families from all over the world. A reference [3] reported 630 species distributed in 121 families and 436 genera within ascomycota. According to our investigation on the basis of the current references, 800 ascomycetous species (Figure 8) belonging to 465 genera within 128 families were documented.
Numbers of ascomycetous, coelomycetous, and hyphomyceteous species on bamboo.
Families of
Ascomycete families with more than 10 recorded species on bamboo until 2017.
Ascomycete families with more than five genera recorded on bamboo until 2017.
The genus
Ascomycetous genera with more than 10 recorded species on bamboo until 2017.
Figure 12 showcases a picture of higher diversity of ascomycetes on the substrate genus
Bamboo genera with more than 10 recorded ascomycetous species until 2017.
It is reported that most fungi grow on bamboo culms (514 fungal species) and leaves and only few recorded species from shoots, roots, or inflorescences [3]. An update of bamboo tissue types with their fungal species number is shown in Figure 13 and according to which 665 fungal species have been collected from bamboo culms and 216 species were recorded from leaves, followed by sheaths (19 species) and branches (14 species). It is unknown whether fungi are tissue specific or are simply recurrent on certain bamboo tissues [3]. Most bamboo pathogens affect leaves, although a large number of ascomycetes (e.g.,
Bamboo ascomycetes: distribution by tissue types until 2017.
Phylogenetic analysis has been widely used to study the evolution and relationships among fungal individuals or groups. It is the modern method to clarify fungal species or fungal higher level placements (viz. genus, family, order, etc.). Initially, the studies of bamboo ascomycetes were carried out only based on the morphologic examinations. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Japanese mycologists made the first contributed acknowledge on bamboo ascomycetes identifications and introduced a new fungal family to accommodate five new genera founded on bamboo [52]. To evaluate the validity of fungal taxa and clarify their phylogenetic relationships, the combined sequences of data with multi-genes (LSU (large subunit rDNA), SSU (small subunit rDNA), TEF (translation elongation factor 1-α gene region), and beta-tubulin) were firstly used to make the phylogenetic trees for bamboo-associated ascomycetes in [16]. Following, more new species, genera, and several new families were established by Thai and Chinese researchers based on morphology-phylogeny and the linking of sexual-asexual morphs [45, 55]. In their studies, ITS (internal transcribed spacers) and beta-tubulin genes were usually used to indentify fungal species like species in
Currently, 1300 fungi have been recorded on bamboo substrates. These are including 150 basidiomycetes [3], 800 ascomycetous species, 240 hyphomycetous taxa, and 110 coelomycetous taxa. It provides large opportunities on the utilization of fungi on bamboo. For example, species in
Bamboo plays an important role in the forest ecosystem and is treated as an economic plant for human. Studying the bamboo fungi can provide the chances for controlling bamboo pathogens and promoting bamboo cultivation. Based on our study, more than 1300 bamboo ascomycetes have so far been described or recorded; however, most of them do not have detailed morphology or sequence data. Even some important ascomycetous species still need re-studying. The morphologic characters of bamboo ascomycetes are various in their ascomata, asci, and ascospores (Figures 5–7). They occur on different genera of bamboo host; however, most of the hosts have not been identified to species level. Bamboo ascomycetes are diverse in their taxonomic placements, with more than 120 families and 400 genera distributed according to the references. Phylogenic analyses of bamboo ascomycetes need more study and should focus on protein genes. It is recommended that more fresh specimens need to be collected in the future, and the existing species should be epitypified or designated as reference specimens. Efforts are required in naming the taxa to avoid confusion, such as
This work was supported by the Key Laboratory of Yunnan Province Universities of the Diversity and Ecological Adaptive Evolution for Animals and Plants on Yun-Gui Plateau, the Scientific Research Foundation of Yunnan Provincial Department of Education (2017ZZX186), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. NSFC 31760013, NSFC 31260087, NSFC 31460179, and NSFC 31460561). The authors would like to thank the Yunnan Province Universities of the Science and Technology Innovation Team for the exploitation and utilization of endophytes for finance support.
Misuse and abuse of antimicrobials are key contributors to the introduction of selective pressures in our natural environments, resulting in the rapid increase of antimicrobial resistant microbial strains. Random antimicrobial use has impelled microorganisms to adapt and survive by acquiring antimicrobial resistance genes that lead to antimicrobial resistant strains [1]. Antimicrobials are drugs or medicines, including antibacterials, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics, used to prevent and treat infections in humans, plants and animals [2]. Antimicrobial resistance occurs when a microbial strain is no longer susceptible to antimicrobials that would normally inhibit their growth and allows them to withstand the drugs [3]. Chromosomal or plasmid DNA encoding antimicrobial resistance is implicated in the rapid spread of multiple resistance through horizontal gene transfer [4], as shown in Figure 1.
Mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria. Acquired antimicrobial resistance genes can pass between related and unrelated species by transformation, transduction and conjugation.
Mobile genetic elements including plasmids and transposons are instrumental in horizontal gene transfer [5]. Chromosomal resistance is caused by mutations in the developing spontaneous bacterial chromosome [6] while extra chromosomal resistance depends on the extra chromosomal genetic material that can be transferred in ways such as plasmids, transposons and integro [7]. Different types of resistance occur including natural resistance, acquired resistance, cross resistance and multi drug resistance [8, 9].
The major problem with antimicrobial resistance is the selection and stabilization of mechanisms directed by foreign genes taken up by susceptible and resistant strains [2]. Microorganisms can evade the effects of the antimicrobial agents throughdecreased influx (limiting uptake of a drug), alterationof drug target site, drug inactivation using enzymes and active drug efflux (efflux pump) [10, 11] as detailed in Figure 2.
Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance.
As a result of antimicrobial resistance, antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines have become ineffective and infections are becoming increasingly difficult or impossible to treat increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death. Alternative strategies are being employed in order to combat antimicrobial resistance. Such strategies include the use of probiotics.
Probiotics are live microorganisms, which when administered in correct proportions confer a health benefit on a host [12]. These microbes are a combination of bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa [13], and the commonly used probiotics are Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium [14]. Beneficial probiotics are found in several locations on the body such as the gut, mouth, urinary tract, skin, lungs [8, 15]. Probiotic microorganisms can be isolated from plants, food products, environment, human and animal sources. Probiotics can be administered as supplements in a variety of forms, including in foods, drinks, capsules or pills, powders and liquids [16].
Microorganisms must possess a number of characteristics in order to be classified as probiotics, that is the microbes should be easily isolated from humans, have the ability to live in the gut after consumption, have a proven benefit and must be safe to consume [17, 18]. Some of the characteristics are shown in Figure 3.
Characteristics of probiotics.
Probiotics exert their biological effect using different mechanisms of action as shown in Figure 4, these include; inhibition of the growth of pathogenic bacteria (competitive exclusion), reduction of bacterial and/or toxin translocation, modulation of the intestinal immune system, production of specific substance such as bacteriocins, modifications of the structure and function of intestinal epithelium, competitive adhesion to epithelial receptors, vitamin absorption and provision of other nutrients [19, 20].
Mechanisms of action of probiotics.
Probiotics have a number of health benefits, including lowering the risk of some infectious diseases and reducing the need for antimicrobials to treat secondary infections. For example, the use of probiotics with antimicrobials reduces the incidence, duration and severity of antimicrobial-associated diarrhea, thereby reducing the evolution of resistance [21, 22, 23] and unlike antimicrobials which kill untargeted microbials, probiotics help to keep the gut microbiota in check. Some of the health benefits are shown in Table 1 below.
Probiotic health effects | |
---|---|
Metabolic effects | Microbiota & Immunomodulation effects |
|
|
Probiotics beneficial health effects.
Probiotics aren’t perfect, there are many safety challenges associated with the use of probiotics such as ability to acquire antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes [24], chances of microbial translocation from gut to the blood stream [25], high risk of allergic reactions [26] and that biological effects of probiotics are strain specific, therefore proper strain identification is required [27] for a specific condition. As a result, ghost probiotics have become the preferred alternative to probiotics in order to solve the majority of these safety issues [14].
Health benefits observed for physiologically active probiotics are not associated with their viability only [28]. Probiotic products containing dead cells can produce effective biological responses. This proves that probiotics merely have an expiry date and can be used beyond that. This phenomenon is known as the probiotic paradox, that is, both live and dead cells produce the same biological response [29]. Ghost probiotics (inactivated probiotics, non-viable probiotics, paraprobiotics) are inactive microbial cells or cell fractions that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the consumer, [14, 30, 31]. They consist of molecules present on the cell surfaces such as peptidoglycan, teichoic acid, cell wall polysaccharides and cell surface-associated proteins [32]. These trigger the human immune system, stimulating a positive immune response and anti-inflammatory effects in animals and humans [33].
The methods used in producing ghost probiotics are similar to the techniques used for bacterial inactivation such as thermal processing, irradiation, UV rays, high pressure and ultrasound [14, 34] as shown in Table 2 below. Thermal treatment is the most common technique for the production of ghost probiotics in laboratories [14]. The cell membranes are damaged, leading to leakage of nutrients and ions, ribosome aggregation and DNA breakage. Ohmic heating has been proposed for ghost probiotics production. It involves an electric current passing through the sample, leading to fast and uniform heating [35]. Therefore, bacterial inactivation can be caused by thermal and non-thermal damage (electroporation). Inactivation methods have an impact on the beneficial effects. This means that ghost probiotics obtained with different technologies could exhibit different functional features [36].
Methods of cell inactivation | Activities that lead to cell inactivation |
---|---|
Thermal/ heat treatment |
|
High pressure treatment |
|
Ultra Violet (UV) Irradiation |
|
Ionizing radiations |
|
High intensity ultrasound |
|
Methods used in the production of ghost probiotics.
They are quite safe, they are well-tolerated and associated with reduced risk for adverse effects in vulnerable individuals [37]. They have no risk for transferring antibiotic-resistant genes to pathogenic or commensal bacteria [38]. Their effectivity is independent of the cell viability, which ensures longer stability and improved shelf-life [39]. They present an easy industrial large-scale production [36]. They provide a wide range of health-promoting effects, some of which can be reinforced in comparison with the effect of intact viable microbial cells [40]. Another very interesting feature of ghost probiotics, is that, due to their nature, it appears feasible that they could be used with concurrent administration with antibiotic and antifungal agents.
Ghost probiotics are categorized into peptidoglycan, teichoic acid, cell wall polysaccharides, cell surface-associated proteins and proteinaceous filaments. These are the ones that mediate beneficial effects to the host [41]. Some bacterial cell walls such as
Teichoic acids (TAs) are the second main constituent of the cell wall of the microbes. They possess immunomodulatory characteristics and exert anti-inflammatory effects on the intestinal epithelial cells of humans [43]. Cell-wall polysaccharides are common in Gram-positive bacteria surfaces for example exopolysaccharides (EPS). These have the ability to facilitate the interaction of the bacteria with pathogens, have immunoregulatory effects and act as a protective layer [43]. Cell surface proteins are one of the most important components of the outermost cell envelope structure. S-layer proteins, pili proteins, moonlight proteins are part of the surface proteins. These play a role in the host biological processes [44].
To counteract the phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance, there is a need to reduce the frequency in which they are administered. Ghost probiotics are used as a possible solution in fighting against antimicrobial resistance [45]. Due to the risks and concerns of administering probiotics to livestock, scientists are now opting to use ghost probiotics.
Cows tend to suffer from inflammation of the udder (mastitis). The main pathogens that stimulate the infection are
Increased animal production keeps animals crowded, facilitating the transmission of various diseases. The use of ghost probiotics on farms can naturally bring about a balance of gut microbes, reduce the growth of pathogens and reduce the use of antibiotics for disease prevention [49]. Thus, reducing the occurrence of resistance effects among pathogenic bacteria as the major spread of antimicrobial resistance is through food chains [50]. In a study carried out using
A variety of ghost probiotics from the
There is an innate immune response of macrophages to non-viable
The capability of ghost probiotics to safeguard the host’s health against serious infections induced by pathogens is fulfilled through various mechanisms such as inhibition of pathogenic adhesion, invasion, biofilm formation, and improvement of immune responses in thegut environment. Additionally, some ghost probiotics derived from
To address the safety concerns surrounding probiotics, the attention has switched to the use of non-viable microbial cells, commonly known as ghost probiotics. Ghost probiotic and probiotic cells exhibit similar immunological responses by means of using the same or different mechanisms of action [14, 31, 32]. This has been demonstrated by an experiment done on the human epithelial colorectal adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cell line, both viable and UV-inactivated
Furthermore, various inactivation methods for making ghost probiotics, such as high-pressure treatment and high-intensity ultrasound, have been reported to cause membrane rupture and cell lysis, respectively [14, 63]. Inactivation of microbial cells by cell lysis can produce additional beneficial effects, the contact between the released molecule and the host cells is improved [36, 40], increasing chances of MAMP-PRR interactions which are important for eliciting immunological responses, making ghost probiotics attractive than probiotics.
Misuse of antimicrobials in agriculture and medicine has resulted in development of antimicrobial-resistant microbes in animals. And also, interaction of microbes in gut might result in acquisition of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in strains that previously lacked these through horizontal gene transfer. Alarmingly, antibiotic-resistant
Industrial processing and storage of probiotic products present viability and stability challenges, probiotic cultures should remain viable and sufficient numbers must reach the target site after thermal processing, storage, and gastrointestinal transit. To avoid these technological challenges, ghost probiotics are used. The dead inactivated cells, ghost probiotics do not require refrigeration to maintain the cultures in a stable and viable state. This reduces the cost of storing and transporting ghost probiotics, allowing them to be used by the poor in impoverished locations such as rural areas where refrigeration machines and facilities are lacking. [14], making them a cheaper and accessible option than probiotics.
Remarkably, ghost probiotics can remain stable in extreme environmental conditions, like water activity (Aw), temperature and pH which are considered stressful to probiotics and they have a longer shelf life. In addition, they can be supplemented into foods, other than dairy products like fruit juices and other cereal products [14], thus provide beneficial effects to lactose intolerant individuals. The heat-inactivated
Ghost probiotics, being dead and inactive cells, are unable to create metabolites such as bacteriocins, lactic acid, vitamins, and enzymes that are essential for probiotic health effects [14]. Additionally, the chemical mechanism of action of ghost probiotics is unknown; nevertheless, cell wall polysaccharides, peptidoglycans, surface proteins, and teichoic acids are known to activate immunological responses. Unlike postbiotic components which exist in purified form, ghost probiotics mechanism of action is unclear and is difficult to point out which molecule does what due to complex bacterial architecture [36]. Some methods of microbial inactivation such as thermal treatment affect the physiological activity of the resulting dead cells and the stability of their beneficial effects during shelf life, resulting in altered and non-identical biological responses [14, 36]. For instance, heat treatment at 121°C for 15 minutes of multispecies of lactic acid bacteriaie.,
Their side effects have not been fully understood. Studies have been done on how the microbiome of the gut reconstituted itself after antimicrobial treatment with and without ghost probiotic administration [68]. This means the impact ghost probiotics can have in the medical industry is questionable. There is an issue of, what is being studied is not exactly what would be administered to people [69]. For instance, when research is being carried out it involves a specific organism defined by genus, species and strain (these are pure and carefully dosed). But when buying off the shelf mixed with other products such as food products, people become skeptical about what they are getting dosage wise [70].
Research being carried out is claimed to be of low quality, small in size and often funded by companies with significant conflicts of interest [71].
The inactivation method of ghost probiotics functions can interrupt the bacterial cells and allow for an interface between intracellular bioactive compounds and the host cells on the administration of ghost probiotics. Delivery and formulation of ghost probiotics has been limited in the clinical field [31].
In light of the safety and technological challenges associated with probiotics [14, 40], use of ghost probiotics will expand in near future. Therefore, there is an urgent need to clarify several points to support regulatory authoritiesin defining the requirements for the registration and approval of functional foods containing ghost probiotics and those that have health claims to protect consumers. There is currently an overlap of terminology in defining the biotics terms, ghost probiotics and post biotics which makes communication difficult among researchers, manufacturers, and customers [14]. Therefore, there is a need for internationally recognized clear-cut definitions to avoid confusion that currently exists in biotics, especially for probiotics, postbiotics and ghost probiotics [14]. As result of this mayhem, the ghost probiotics are currently marketed as probiotics [72]. Chiefly, ghost probiotics production, detection, and quantification methods need to be look into closely [14] and standardized [14], before regulations and/or requirements are laid out and implemented. The FDA should then layout the ghost probiotics specific requirements and specifications to iron out the mix-up.
Global commercialization of ghost probiotics is also one of the issues recognized from a regulatory view point because of the geographical differences, for example some traditional probiotics are classified differently across countries like Generally Regarded As Safe for USA and QPS for Europe and additionally some probiotics do not follow the same regulation globally. The regulatory process followed so as to launch a non-traditional probiotic is as complicated as one required for drugs [73].
The current regulations on probiotics are inadequate to protect the consumers and the prescribing doctors, there is abuse of the word probiotics and no specifics of microorganism are indicated in products [74]. Obviously, just like probiotics, ghost probiotics cannot be approved as drugs, even though they are sometimes used for the prevention, management or treatment of disease [75]. In the United States, and many regions of the world, probiotic products are marketed as dietary supplements (not drugs) and are therefore subject to different manufacturing and quality control standards than approved drugs are [75, 76], the same should apply to ghost probiotics. Exemption should be given to ghost probiotics with health claims, these should be treated aspharmaceutical products and regulated as such [75]. To assure safety to end-users, pharmacists should be aware of product quality when recommending these dietary supplements to risk populations like immunocompromised individuals [75] and infants and manufacturing quality control standards should be steeper especial for this vulnerable group [40].
Additionally, manufacturers should be in a position to provide evidence of quality criteriawhen required to and they should guide pharmacists on the safe use of specific products [75]. Manufacturers should have quality management systems in place, and third-party and/or regulatory organizations should verify compliance. Accordingly, the regulatory aspects that need to be considered for ghost probiotics are efficacy, safety, andquality control of manufacturing.
There is a need for large randomized placebo-controlled single strain trials with standard dosing, formulation and duration of treatment in various diseases to get consistent results. At this moment it is difficult to recommend any particular ghost probiotic for a particular disease as the preparation and dosing may not be available commercially. The interaction of the gut microbiota with its host and mutual regulation has become one of the important topics of biomedical research. Their relevance in human diseases require much more research. The popularity of ghost probiotics is fast increasing shortly they will be used in food, medicine, and agriculture. Additionally, the diet microbiota host interface can give rise to newer therapeutic approaches based on selective alteration of microbial metabolite production to support human health and prevent diseases. The metabolic profiling approach, suggests how mining the microbiota may lead to personalized treatment.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. An Author, one must:
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He is simultaneously working as a Researcher with Department of Agrochemistry, Soil Science, Microbiology and Plant Nutrition (FA), Mendel University Brno and Institute of Environmental Studies, Charles University Prague, Czechia. \nHis research is focused on soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation mechanisms, plant-microbe interactions, biochar production, and utilization for agricultural crop production and environmental remediation. He is actively involved in bioremediation of contaminated soils using organic and inorganic amendments in addition to exploiting plant-microbe interactions. He has published over 50 refereed journal articles, many of which sought to explore the effectiveness of innovative soil amendments and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for improving crop performance and soil resilience under various abiotic stresses. He has been working for several renowned academic societies and enjoys early career in research.",institutionString:"Brno University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Brno University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/99958",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"99958"},fullPath:"/profiles/99958",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()