Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
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Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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How are we to decide what is true? Let's turn to philosophy for a reasonable answer. The mathematician-philosopher Bertrand Russell approached a similar problem in his monograph The Problems of Philosophy (Russell B, 1912). He addressed the following question: How do we know that anything is \"real\"? Is the only reality subjective and simply in our minds, as Bishop Berkley challenged, or can we mostly believe the objective reality? His pragmatic answer: All possibilities may be true, but when the preponderance of evidence indicates that objective reality and knowledge are the most probable case, go with it. If the preponderance of all evidence about the clinical description of fibromyalgia and it's pathogenic mechanisms and treatment strategies indicate a highly probable interrelated hypothesis, go with it. The direction of the literature on the whole trumps the less likely tangents. 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\r\n\tConvincingly, the modern globalization has inculcated to access every accessory of life which has accelerated the not only the businesses, but it has also augmented the competition among economies. Through adopting of excessive industrialization, the world has disturbed the natural ecology of the world which has raised the concern about the environment. The modern world has taken a severe stance to mitigate the environmental problem, which has suggested to adopt corporate environmental responsibility measures. In this regards, emerging economies have also compelled their organizations to adopt risk management measures emphatically.
\r\n
\r\n\tSignificantly, firms adopt risk management strategies which not only sustain the performance but also augment the firms’ reputation. However, it is significant to analyze the role of corporate governance which can accelerate the risk management measures and also orientate its whole upper echelon team towards organizational environmental measures so that firms’ reputation and growth may be sustained in future. This book will try to identify strategic challenges for risk management assessment and practices, understand the potential factors that affect business growth and discover new opportunities for enterprises.
\r\n
\r\n\tDrawing on these preliminary thoughts, we seek theoretical and empirical chapters which may address but need not be limited to the following issues: \r\n\t• Role of technological innovation and corporate risk management \r\n\t• Challenges for corporate governance while launching corporate environmental management among emerging economies \r\n\t• Demonstrating the relationship between environmental risk management and sustainable management \r\n\t• Contemplating strategic corporate environmental responsibility under the influence of cultural barriers \r\n\t• Risk management in different countries – the international management dimension \r\n\t• Global Standardization vs local adaptation of corporate environmental risk management in multinational corporations. \r\n\t• Is there a transnational approach to environmental risk management? \r\n\t• Approaches towards Risk management strategies in the short-term and long-term.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-906-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-905-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-907-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b65afaff43ec930bc6ee52c4aa1f78f",bookSignature:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz and Prof. Larisa Ivascu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10226.jpg",keywords:"Global Risk Management, Risk Assessment, Climate Risk, Environmental Management, International Business, Business Sustainability, Corporate Governance, Financial Market, Financial Risks, Sustainable Economic Environment, Business Valuation, Organizational Behavior",numberOfDownloads:59,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz focuses on corporate social responsibility, human resource management, strategic management, and business management. He is a member of the British Academy of Management (UK), Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), American Economic Association (USA), and an Ambassador of the International MBA program of Chongqing University, PR China, for Pakistan.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu's area of research includes sustainability, management, and strategic management. She has published over 190 papers in international journals. She is vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management, Timisoara, and a member of the World Economics Association (WEA), International Economics Development and Research Center (IEDRC), Engineering, and Management Research Center (CCIM).",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"260655",title:"Dr.",name:"Muddassar",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muddassar-sarfraz",fullName:"Muddassar Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260655/images/system/260655.jpeg",biography:"Dr Muddassar Sarfraz is working at the Binjiang College, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China. He has obtained his PhD in Management Sciences and Engineering from the Business School of Hohai University. He holds an International Master of Business Administration (IMBA) from Chongqing University (China) and Master of Business Administration (HR) from The University of Lahore. He has published tens of papers in foreign authoritative journals and academic conferences both at home and abroad.\nHe is the Book Editor of Sustainable Management Practices, Analyzing the Relationship between Corporate Governance, CSR, Sustainability, and Cogitating the Interconnection between Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability. He is the Associate and Guest Editor of Frontiers in Psychology, International Journal of Humanities and Social Development Research and the Journal of Science and Innovative Technologies. He is an Editorial Board Member of the International Journal of Human Resource as well as a member of the British Academy of Management (UK), Chinese Economists Society (USA), World Economic Association (UK), American Economic Association (USA), and an Ambassador of the International MBA program of Chongqing University, PR China, for Pakistan. \nHis research focuses on corporate social responsibility, human resource management, strategic management, and business management.",institutionString:"Binjiang College, Nanjing University of Information Science &Technology, Wuxi, Jiangsu",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"288698",title:"Prof.",name:"Larisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ivascu",slug:"larisa-ivascu",fullName:"Larisa Ivascu",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRfMOQA0/Profile_Picture_1594716735521",biography:"Dr Larisa IVAȘCU is currently an associate professor at the Politehnica University of Timisoara. 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She is vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management, Timisoara, and a member of World Economics Association (WEA), International Economics Development and Research Center (IEDRC), Engineering and Management Research Center (CCIM), and Member of Academic Management Society of Romania (SAMRO, http://samro.ro/).",institutionString:"Politehnica University of Timisoara",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:[{id:"74554",title:"Fuzzy Approach Model to Portfolio Risk Response Strategies",slug:"fuzzy-approach-model-to-portfolio-risk-response-strategies",totalDownloads:59,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
Nitrification is a two step process namely ammoniacal oxidation and nitrite oxidation. Oxidation of ammonium to nitrite is carried out by autotrophic bacterium mainly Nitrosomonas (e.g. N. europaea, N.oligocarbogenes) and Nitrosospira while conversion of nitrite to nitrate is performed by Nitrobacter (e.g. N. agilis, N. winogradski) and Nitrospira. However, ammoniacal oxidation is considered as the limiting or critical process in nitrification since the ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) has very low growth rate (Metcalf and Eddy 1991).
Various approaches, both culture dependent and independent have been applied to analyze and compare the microbial structure of biomass. However, culture dependent methods are biased by the selection of species which obviously do not represent the real dominant structure (Wagner et al 1995; Lipponen et al 2002). Recently, the development of culture independent molecular techniques, like fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) improved the analysis of environmental samples.
Whole cell fluorescene in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique that uses fluorescently labelled phylogenetic oligonucleotide probes to detect specific whole cells/organisms in biological samples. It can be a valuable tool for the study of microbial dynamics in natural environments (Li et al 1999; Liu et al 2002, Eschenhagen et al 2003). These probes could be designed using the wealth of 16S and 23S rDNA sequence data available to target species, genera subdivisions or divisions in-situ and could be labelled with fluorescent groups, radioactive groups or antigens for immunological detection (Amann 1995).
A combination of the FISH approach with the application of scanning confocal laser microscopy (SCLM) allows non-destructive studies of the three dimensional arrangements of bacterial population identified and out-of-focus fluorescence (Wagner et al 1995).
Biological Aerated Filters (BAFs) also have a long history of successfully removing nitrogen in wastewater treatment plants (Chen et al 2000; Quyang et al 2000; Chui et al 2001). Biofilm in the reactors bears great potential for simultaneous and efficient removal of nitrogen (Fdz-Polanco et al 2000). Therefore, an assessment of nitrogen removal efficiency has been made to detect any deterioration to the performance. A possible adverse effect of reduced mass of biofilm in the partial-bed reactor was foreseen for the reason that the slow-growing nitrifiers will be more easily washed out at lower mean solids retention times (SRT) (Gieseke et al 2002). The denitrification process may also be disrupted because the biofilm provides potential anaerobic conditions in which denitrification flourishes.
Fdz-Polanco et al (2000) pointed out the importance of understanding the spatial distribution of the microbial population, and its activity, for the optimisation of nitrogen removal performance in reactors treating wastewater. The performance of the full and partial-bed reactors for nitrogen removal has been examined (Fatihah 2004). It was verified that the full- and partial-bed reactors have the capacity to remove 79.3 ±7.7 % and 79.4 ±3.6 % nitrogen at carbon organic loadings of 5.71 ±0.16 kg COD/m3.d, corresponding to nitrogen loadings of 0.24 ± 0.02 kg N/m3.d. At this condition, the organic carbon removal efficiency was 5.34 kg COD/m3.d for the full-bed and 5.22 kg COD/m3.d for the partial-bed. The successful removal of nitrogen indicates the existence of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) in both reactors.
From the perspective of engineering design, it is important to be able to predict the functional groups of bacteria that are most favoured by various applied reactor conditions. In this respect, knowledge of their activities is more important than that of the detailed microbial population (Beer and Muyzer 1995). The nitrogen removal process in such systems is typically initiated by chemoliautotrophic ammonia-oxidizing bacteria converting ammonia to nitrite and traces of oxidized nitrogen gases. Subsequently nitrite-oxidizing bacteria catalyse the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate, and the process is then completed by denitrification (Metcalf and Eddy 1991). Clearly the oxidation processes of nitrification are an essential prerequisite for the whole removal process. In addition, retaining a large amount of nitrifying bacteria within the reactor can be difficult to achieve, due to their relatively low rates of respiration, and their subsequent sensitivity to DO and temperature, thereby making nitrification the rate-determining microbial system in the entire nitrogen removal process (Tsuneda et al 2003).
Since the number and the physiological activity of the ammonia oxidizers are generally the rate-limiting parameters, the rapid and reliable identification of this autotrophy is an important task. The aerobic ammonia oxidizers belong to a very restricted group of autotrophs with Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira being the best-known oxidizers (Sliekers et al 2002), dominated by β-Proteobacteria (Wagner et al 1995; Eschenhagen et al 2003). Rowan et al (2003) found that detection of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria using PCR amplified 16S rRNA gene in a laboratory-scale BAF reflects the dominant AOB within a full-scale plant.
If the partial-bed reactor exhibited comparable nitrogen removal performance, intriguing questions would arise: would the slow-growing nitrifying bacteria’s preference for attachment on biofilm thereby enhancing sludge retention time (SRT), be challenged by bacterial growth in suspension: or would there be other factors related to reactor configuration that satisfied the need for nitrifying bacteria to grow in the partial-bed reactor.
Since, for any high rate system, the AOBs need to reside within the biofilm that has a longer SRT than the suspended growth, it is interesting to locate the microorganisms along the height of both the full- and partial-bed reactors. The detailed aspects to be evaluated in this part include:
to detect and enumerate the presence of AOBs in the biofilm and suspended growth biomass using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique in combination with confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)
to correlate changes in the proportion of AOBs to all bacteria along the reactor heights in relation to the reactor configuration
to associate factors that contribute to the changes in the AOB proportion
2. Experimental system
Two identical reactors were built; each reactor was 14 cm in diameter and 100 cm in height, providing an empty bed volume of 15 l. A small amount of freeboard or headspace (2.8 litres) was provided at the top of the reactor. The reactors were constructed from PVC, a non-transparent material that prevents the growth of phototrophic organisms. The columns were built with considerations for process air and influent supplies, backwashing air and water requirement and sampling outlets.
The control reactor was filled with 10.9 l cascade rings (Glitsch UK) whilst the second reactor was only partially packed with 5.5 l cascade rings. The media were stationary and held in place by a rigid polypropylene mesh with 15 mm diameter holes placed at the top and bottom of the packing. Three ports were placed along the height of the reactors for sample collection.
A synthetic waste prepared in the laboratory was used to provide a consistent organic substrate for all loadings. The basic make-up of the influent organic strength material used in the study was whey powder, glucose and meat extract (Lab Lemco powder) which contributed approximately 38%, 33% and 29% of the total soluble COD content of the substrate respectively. In order to guarantee that organic carbon was the limiting nutrient, a COD:N: P ratio of 25:5:1 was adopted. Nitrogen component of the feed came from whey powder (24.7%), meat extract (63.7%), and ammonium-dihydrogenphosphate (11.6%). 1 l of the prepared mixture produces a concentrated feed around 40000 mg/l COD.
2.1. Suspended biomass and biofilm sampling
The collection of samples for this study was carried out at the end of the steady-state condition of 0.24 ± 0.02 kg N/m3.d nitrogen loadings. Samples of the biofilm and suspended growth biomass were taken at different depths of the reactors. The in-situ characterization followed a top-bottom approach. Fig. 1 illustrates the exact locations where the samples of suspended biomass and biofilm were obtained from the reactors.
Samples of suspended biomass were taken from port 1, port 2 and port 3 respectively. At each port, about 50 ml of reactor aliquot was wasted before sample collection to ensure that any debris or anaerobic bacteria residing in the pipeline was discarded. A 10 mL volume of aliquot was taken and immediately fixed with 1:1 absolute ethanol. Samples were then stored at -20o C.
For sampling the biofilm, the liquid was first drained from port 1 in order to allow access into the upper bed layer. Tongs were used carefully to remove the media from the upper layer. A random piece of media from the specified level was chosen. The biofilm was gently scraped off the plastic material using a sterile surgical knife before washing the media with 10 ml phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution. This procedure was repeated four times until all the biofilm attached to the media was completely removed. To homogenize the biofilm, the sample was sonicated for 2 minutes using an ultrasonic homogenizer (Bandelin Electronics D-1000, Germany). 10 ml of the aliquot was put in a universal bottle and fixed with 1:1 absolute ethanol before storing at -20o C. The sampling of biofilm at the second location was subsequently continued by draining the liquid from port 2. The same procedures were repeated until the media at the bottom were sampled. To detect the AOB in the samples, the FISH technique (Coskunur 2000) was applied in order to produce the fluorescent sites in the cells, and these were detected through the use of confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM).
Figure 1.
Sampling locations for biofilm and suspended growth biomass along the reactor’s height
2.2. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) technique (coskunur 2000)
This method was applied to determine the presence of ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and to quantify them in the reactors. The steps involved fixation of the samples, permeabilization and hybridisation with probes, and finally detection with confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM).
2.2.1. Paraformaldehyde Fixation and Permeabilization
Generally, the samples used for this technique have undergone short term fixation where absolute ethanol was added in a volume ratio of 1 sample: 1 ethanol in sterile universal bottles and stored at -20o C.
A 1 ml volume of the stored sample was transferred to a 1.5 ml eppendorf tube and centrifuged at 13000 x g for 3 minutes. The supernatant was removed and the sample was washed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) by adding 1 ml of the solution, mixing using vortex and centrifuging at 13000 x g for 3 minutes before removing the supernatant again. The resulting pellet was resuspended in 0.25 ml PBS and 0.75 ml PFA fixative and vortexed. A 4 % paraformaldehyde fixative solution was prepared fresh for every time of use, the procedure of which tabulated in Appendix 4.1. The suspension was incubated for at least 3 hours, or overnight, at 4oC.
After fixation, the cells were washed by centrifuging at 13000 x g for 3 minutes, removing the supernatant, adding 1 ml PBS and mixing. The samples were centrifuged again at 13000 x g for 3 minutes. The supernatant was removed and the sample was kept with PBS and absolute ethanol at 1:1 (v/v) and mixed. It was then stored at -20oC.
2.2.2. Hybridization
A volume of 250 μl of fixed sample was centrifuged at 13000 x g for 3 minutes and the supernatant was removed. The sample was washed once by adding 1 ml PBS and centrifuged again. The sample was then divided into four tubes: a negative control containing no probe to observe autofluorescence, a negative control to observe non-specific binding events, a positive control where a universal eubacterial probe was added (Bact 338) and a sample to be hybridised by a specific AOB detection probe. The samples were serially dehydrated in successively increasing concentrations of molecular grade ethanol (60%, 80%, 100% v/v). After adding 1 ml of the ethanol solution, the sample was vortexed and left for 3 minutes. The sample was then centrifuged at 13000 x g for 3 minutes and the supernatant was removed.
The following step is to hybridize the samples. Hybridisation buffer (HB) was prepared according to Amann et al (1990). HB was added so that the final volume including the probe will be 40 μl. Thus, for the negative control for autofluorescence, 40 μl HB is added. For a hybridisation containing only one probe (2ul), 38ul HB is added. For a hybridisation containing two probes ( 2+2 μl) 36 μl HB is added. The samples were prehybridized for 15 minutes at the hybridisation temperature. After prehybridisation, 2 μl of probe (50 ng/μl) was added to the samples that were then incubated at the optimal hybridisation temperature for the given probe (Table 1) for at least 4 hours (or overnight).
Following hybridisation, the samples were centrifuged at 13000 x g for 3 minutes and the supernatant was removed. A volume of 0.5 ml of wash buffer was added and the sample was mixed using a pipette before being incubated for 15 minutes at the same temperature as the hybridisation step. The washing step was again repeated.
Table 1.
Features and conditions of probes during hybridisation
The samples were centrifuged again at 13000 x g for 3 minutes, the supernatant was removed and 1 ml of MilliQ water was added. Finally, the samples were centrifuged, the supernatant removed and the samples resuspended in 100 ul MilliQ water.
A 10 ul aliquot of the sample was added to a gelatine-coated slide with Teflon-coated wells of a known diameter (Appendix 4.1) and allowed to dry in a hybridization oven at 30oC. The sample spot on the slide was mounted in a small drop of the antifadent-Citifluor (AFI, Canterbury, UK). A cover glass was sealed carefully on the top of the slide by applying clear nail varnish to the edges to prevent movement during microscopy. The slide was then stored at -20oC in the dark and was prepared for viewing.
2.2.3. Scanning on a confocal laser microscope
The distribution of hybridized cells was subsequently visualised by means of a Leica TCS SP2 UV confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) equipped with Leica DMRXA microscope. Images were captured and processed using LCS V2.5.1040-1 software. For observation x 60 Na 1.32 lenses were applied.
The CLSM was run in the following mode: single channel for Fluorescene and double channel for Carbocyanine-5. Fluorescene was detected using excitation at 488 nm and a long pass emission filter in the range of 500-530 nm. Cy5 was detected using excitation at 633 nm and a long pass emission filter of 650-680 nm. The artificial colours green and red were assigned to the monochrome images acquired in the fluorescene and Cy5 channels respectively. The LCS software actively mixed colours so that a cell emitting red and green (the AOB) would appear yellow. For each sample, only 5 fields of view were randomly recorded in view of the time and budget available for the process.
2.2.4. Enumeration technique
An Excel spreadsheet constructed by Coskunur (2000) was used to carry out the calculation based on Equation 1 below:
K=(Nx2xA1)(A2x0.01x10xODF)E1
where
K = average number of microcolonies in one ml of sample
A1 = area of sample spot (the area can be calculated from the diameter of the sample spot, [π(D/2)2])
A2 = area of one field view
N = average number of ammonia oxidizer microcolonies/field of view
V = volume of sample applied
Vo = original volume of sample
ODF = other dilution factors not considered above may be required (e.g. volume of sample spun down). Where no ODF, default value = 1
The spreadsheet was designed for the quantification of AOB population in wastewater treatment plants following FISH and quantification typically using CLSM produced images. It requires that the user inputs data concerning the number of AOB microcolonies, the shortest and longest diameter of the microcolonies, area measurements of the fields of view and sample spots and dilution factors used in FISH. The spreadsheet returns the average number of microcolonies and geometric mean diameter. This data sheet can also be used to calculate the concentration of AOB in mg/l, the % AOB in terms of total bacterial population (measured by volatile suspended solids, VSS), following an empirically determined conversion factor, in terms of total cell numbers.
3. Comparison of AOB Cells in the biofilm and suspended growth samples
3.1. Cluster size
The relative frequencies of AOB cluster diameters for all the samples investigated are presented in Fig. 2.
Figure 2.
Size distribution of cell clusters in the full- and partial-bed reactors
The results show that the majority of the clusters had diameters of 5 μm with the largest being 10 μm. These findings are quite consistent with the results obtained by Kloep et al (2000). Using probe Nsm 156, the majority of the hybridized clusters was found to be smaller than 10 µm and only a few were larger than 15 µm. Wagner et al (1995) also detected clusters hybridized with probe Neu 23 having diameters between 3 μm and 20 μm from samples of municipal sewage treatment plants. Nitrifier agglomerates are therefore small, for example well below those particle sizes (>100 μm) effectively removed by conventional primary sedimentation (Kiely 1998). Their retention in the system must therefore be mainly due to interactions with the biofilm attached to the media elements in the bed.
By visual observation, yellow clusters emerge on all biofilm samples as shown on Plates 1- 4. The AOB appear yellow due to double bindings of the fluorescene-labelled probe EUB 338 (emitted as green) and Cy5-labelled probe Nso 1225 (emitted as red). The formation of cluster growths is a feature of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, in particular Nitrosomonas sp (Wagner et al 1995; Mobarry et al 1996). The clusters were spherical to oval shaped and appeared over diameters ranging from approximately 2.5 to 12.5 μm.
Plate 1.
CLSM image of a biofilm sample from the top of the full-bed reactor
Plate 2.
CLSM image of a biofilm sample from the middle of the full-bed reactor
Plate 3.
CLSM image of a biofilm from the top of the partial-bed reactor
Plate 4.
CLSM image of a biofilm from the middle of the partial-bed reactor
Plates 5 - 7 of suspended growth samples from the full-bed reactor show fewer AOB clusters than Plates 1 - 4. Layers of filamentous bacteria can be seen dominating, especially the suspended biomass samples from the top and middle parts of the reactors.
For the CLSM images of the suspended growth biomass samples from the partial-bed reactor, intense diffuse, green coloured fluorescence was often observed. This could have been due to debris, inorganic particles or the bacterial cells. A large number of coccoid structures was detected using the EUB 338 probe. They usually occurred in characteristic clumps and appeared ring shaped. MacDonald and Brozel (2000) observed the same phenomena in their study of bacterial biofilms in a simulated recirculating cooling-water reactor and suggested that this could result from dense chromosomal material at the cell center, leading to a concentration of ribosomes at the periphery of the cells.
Plate 5.
CLSM image of suspended growth biomass from the top of the full-bed reactor
Plate 6.
CLSM image of suspended growth biomass from the middle of the full-bed reactor
Plate 7.
CLSM image of suspended growth biomass from the bottom of the full-bed reactor
3.2. Enumeration of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria
The number of AOB cells per ml of biomass was calculated from the counts based on cluster diameters using an Excel spreadsheet developed by Coskunur (2000). The numbers of AOB cells obtained are given in Table 2 below:
Full-bed
Partial-bed
Biofilm
Suspended growth
Biofilm
Suspended growth
Top
1.720 x 105
2.149 x 104
5.589 x105
1.075 x 104
Middle
2.204 x 105
1.344 x 104
2.929 x105
ND
Bottom
6.451 x 104
1.345 x 104
8.075 x 103
Table 2.
Number of AOB cells per ml of biomass in the biofilm and suspended growth samples
The higher number of AOB cells present in the biofilm samples than in the suspended growth samples could be due to the fact that AOB are slow-growing bacteria that need long mean solids’ retention times to become established. Nitrifying bacteria, when compared with the heterotrophic organisms, are very much slower growing. Watson et al (1989) observed that the doubling times of these bacteria range from 8 hours to several days and that they have a tendency to attach to surfaces and to grow in cell aggregates referred to as zoogloeae or cysts (Lipponen et al 2002). In order to maintain an effective population of nitrifying bacteria within a biological reactor, a long retention time is required (Barber and Stuckey 2000). This is in accordance with the results obtained by Hidaka et al (2003), who discovered that in a biofiltration process for the advanced treatment of sewage, attached biomass contributed to most nitrification activity. Gerceker (2002) reported the loss of nitrification between SRTs of 0.9 and 2.4 days in a closely controlled jet-looped membrane bioreactor. Noguiera et al (2002) found that competition in biofilm results in a stratified biofilm structure, the fast-growing heterotrophic bacteria being drawn to the outer layers where both substrate concentration and detachment rate are high, whilst the slow-growing nitrifying bacteria stay deeper inside the biofilm. The heterotrophic layer has a positive effect on the nitrifiers by protecting them from detachment as long as the bulk oxygen concentration is high enough to preclude its depletion in the biofilm.
It is a fact that biofilm is significant in controlling long SRTs in a system. The full-bed reactor, which has a higher mass of biofilm than the partial-bed, as a result of the greater volume and surface area of the fully packed reactor, has SRTs of 21.2, 27.5 and 11.1 days at the three backwashing rates used in the study. The partial-bed reactor, on the other hand, had much shorter SRTs of 3.3, 3.9 and 2.7 days. Meanwhile, the biofilm in the partial-bed reactor was kept thin and stable, and therefore was not easily washed out during the backwash operation. Therefore, the retention time of biofilm in the partial-bed reactor is actually longer than the overall SRT of the system. Chuang et al (1997) pointed out that satisfactory nitrogen removal is achieved at SRT > 10 days.
The suspended growth biomass in the reactors, and especially that of the partial-bed reactor, was always subject to being washed out by the backwashing operation and lost in the effluent.
3.3. Significance of AOB Cells in the biofilm and suspended growth cultures
Tests carried out to compare the significance of AOB cells in both types of cultures were based on nonparametric methods of one-way ANOVA. Table 3 lists the results obtained.
Full-bed
Partial-bed
Biofilm
Suspended growth
Biofilm
Suspended growth
Mean
1.523 x 105 ± 7.979 x 104
1.613 x 104± 4.645 x 103
4.259 x 105± 1.881 x 105
6.275 x 103± 5.596 x 103
Pooled s.d.
5.651 x 104
1.0867 x 105
p-value
0.042
0.024
Table 3.
Results of variance analysis of AOB cells (no. AOB cells/ml sample) in the biofilm and suspended growth samples
Table 3 indicates that in both reactors there is a significant difference in the number of AOB cells in the biofilm and suspended growth samples. At 95% confidence levels, the p-value for the full-bed reactor is 0.042 whilst that of the partial-bed reactor is 0.024. Since the p-values obtained are smaller than 0.05, this means that in both reactors, specific cell concentrations of AOB were found to be significantly higher in the biofilm samples as compared to the suspended growth samples.
It was found that the AOB cells are more numerous in the biofilm samples than in the suspended growth samples of both the full- (p=0.042) and the partial-bed (p=0.024) reactors. It is therefore interesting to compare the significance of the overall AOB cells in the full- and partial-bed configurations, knowing that the mass of biofilm is lower in the partial-bed reactor due to the reduced media volume compared to the full-bed reactor.
Table 3 also indicates that there is no significant difference between the concentrations of AOB cells in the biofilm samples of the full- and partial-bed reactors (p=0.099), and also in the suspended growth samples (p=0.079). To put the overall abundance of AOB cells in the full and partial-bed reactors side-by-side, the AOB cells in the biofilm and suspended growth samples for each reactor were combined, giving total concentrations of AOB cells for that particular configuration. The p-value of specific AOB concentrations comparing the full- and partial-bed configuration is p=0.427. The value indicates an almost comparable AOB relative abundance in both the full- and partial-bed reactors. Higher mean AOB cells of the biofilm in the partial-bed reactor equate with the higher mean value of suspended growth samples in the full-bed reactor, resulting in almost equivalent mean AOB cells in both reactors.
Lazarova et al (1994) made a point that the balance between biofilm losses and growth processes on the outside of the media was dominated by shear forces, exerted by the liquid as it flowed past the media surfaces in the reactor. In a study to evaluate the essential role of hydrodynamic shear force in the formation of biofilm, Liu and Tay (2002) pointed out that biofilm density quasi-linearly increases with the increase of shear stress. Chang et al (1991) discovered that the medium concentration and the turbulence indicated by Reynolds numbers, significantly affected biofilm density and thickness of a fluidized bed biofilm reactor. In this type of reactor, increasing medium concentration can be associated with increasing attrition due to particle-to-particle contacts and increasing turbulence correlates flow fluctuations that could create forces normal to the biofilm, i.e. the shear stress. Table 4 illustrates the results obtained in their study.
Glass beads concentrations (g/l)
Reynolds number
Shear stress (dyne/cm2)
Biofilm density (mg VS/cm3)
Biofilm thickness (μm)
664.0
0.55
8.30
56.0
10.6
457.0
0.61
6.77
18.5
32.0
463.0
0.61
6.82
21.0
31.3
684.4
0.55
8.42
41.50
8.8
604.1
0.56
7.90
30.5
15.4
609.4
0.56
7.90
28.5
15.3
502.9
0.79
8.26
52.0
11.0
542.0
0.78
8.58
62.0
7.1
269.7
1.16
7.44
14.5
21.4
258.6
1.17
7.31
14.0
23.2
265.2
1.16
7.38
9.9
22.1
Table 4.
Measured and calculated values for experimental runs with the fluidised bed biofilm reactor (Chang et al 1991)
In this study, since the medium is fixed, there is no attrition effect. Therefore turbulence effect could be the major factor that increases the detachment pressures, and caused the biofilm to become denser and thinner.
3.4. Relative concentration of AOB at different filter heights of the full- and partial-bed reactors
Fig. 3 illustrates the percentage values of AOB concentrations with respect to VSS concentrations in biofilm samples from the full-bed reactor.
Figure 3.
Percentage values of AOB in the biofilm samples of the full-bed reactor
The highest percentage of AOB was found in a sample from the middle of the full-bed reactor (0.0829%), followed by the top part (0.0295%), whilst very little was found in the bottom part (0.0216%). A low percentage of AOB was obtained at the bottom despite the fact that the substrate and oxygen sources were supplied from here. This anomaly could best be explained by the fact that competition between heterotrophic and nitrifying bacteria for substrates (oxygen and ammonia) and space in the biofilms resulted in the fast-growing heterotrophic bacteria dominating the bottom part of the reactor. Plate 8 of biofilm sample from the bottom of the full-bed reactor show that AOB clusters are not dense as in Plates 1- 2 of the top and the middle positions.
Plate 8.
CSLM image of a biofilm sample from the bottom of the full-bed reactor
The trend of AOB growth in the biofilm samples of the full-bed reactor was followed through for the partial-bed reactor (Fig. 4):
Figure 4.
Percentage values of AOB in the biofilm samples of the partial-bed reactor
The same argument of competition for substrates and space between heterotrophic bacteria and nitrifiers explained the lower percentage of AOB obtained in the middle (0.1019%) compared to the top part of the partial-bed reactor (0.2151%).
To validate the hypothesis made on AOB distribution in both the full and partial-bed reactors, a previous work by Wijeyekoon et al (2000) was used to investigate the effect of organic loading rates on nitrification activity. Table 5 summarizes the reactor conditions of their study.
Biofilters
A
B
C
Diameter (cm)
5
5
5
Height (cm)
50
50
50
Influent flow (l/h)
1.6
0.8
0.4
Influent conc. (mg/l TOC)
5
5
5
Influent nitrogen (mg/l NH4+-N)
5
5
5
OLR (kg COD/m3.d)
0.19
0.098
0.097
Table 5.
Unit dimensions and operating conditions of downflow biological filters (Wijeyekoon et al 2000)
The three reactors, packed with the same weights of anthracite, were equipped with sampling ports at depths of 6 cm (port 1), 18.5 cm (port 2) and 37.5 cm (port 3) from the top end of the filters. The specific rate of NH4+-N oxidation in the reactors was determined by the biomass extracted from those ports. It was discovered that the highest rates in filter A and B were obtained at the effluent ends of the reactors, but in filter C, the rates were comparably high from all ports. Also, among the three reactors, filter C produced the highest rates, with an average of 48.1 and 56.4 g N/(mg protein.hr) for ports 1 and 2 respectively. The conclusion derived from the study is that at high organic carbon loadings nitrifiers are non-uniformly distributed along the length of a filter, with excessive growth of heterotrophs near the feed end and nitrifiers at the effluent end under the influence of comparatively higher organic loading. Meanwhile, at low organic loadings, the heterotrophs and autotrophs can coexist. Filter C had the lowest organic carbon loading and consequently had the lowest biomass density. Therefore, the nitrifiers in filter C may have experienced less competitive pressure from the faster-growing heterotrophic organisms for oxygen and space. The displacement of the nitrifying population by the heterotrophs is caused by the varying ratio of carbon and nitrogen entering the reactor.
The carbon loading used in this part of study, 5.71 ±0.16 kg COD/m3.d, was much higher than the loadings used by Wijeyekoon (Table 9.4), and therefore nitrifiers were not only displaced further away from the feed source, but also buried deeper into the biofilm (Ohashi et al 1995). Fdz-Polanco et al (2000) also observed that as the amount of organic carbon entering the filter increases, the nitrification activity is displaced to the upper part of the filter in an upflow process. Quyang et al (2000) also argued that the differences in biological activity at different filter heights were due to their varying loadings.
Rowan et al (personal communication) also investigated the percent value of AOB in a full-scale BAF plant treating municipal wastewater and obtained a value of 0.65%. This value is almost three times higher than the highest percentage obtained in this study (0.2151% from Figure 9.4). The difference in values could be attributed to a number of factors including carbon loading, nitrogen loading, pH, DO, media type and size, direction of flow, backwashing regime and thus mean SRT and biofilm attachment characteristics.
4. Conclusion
The extent of comparable nitrogen removal in the two reactor configurations needs further microbiological evidence, specifically that of the existence of AOB. The formation of a dense biofilm as a result of higher turbulence would account for the higher number of AOB cells enumerated in the biofilm samples from the partial-bed reactor (4.259 x 105 ±1.881 x 105 no of AOB cells/ml sample) as compared to those from the full-bed reactor (1.523 x 105 ±7.979 x 104 no of AOB cells/ml sample). Although biomass was washed out in the treated effluent and during backwash operation, the SRT at the high organic loading of 5.71±0.16 kg COD/m3.d was still maintained at 4.2 days for the partial-bed reactor and 7.6 days for the full-bed reactor. These SRTs were still longer than the limit noted by Sastry et al (1999), who claimed that a mean cell residence time > 3 days is desirable for nitrifiers to reach a stable population for effective nitrification, and Gerçeker (2002) who recorded a loss of nitrification below 2.5-2.7 days at an OLR of 5 kg COD/m3.d and a temperature of 25oC.
Acknowledgments
This chapter of the book could not have been written without the help of my PhD supervisor Prof Tom Donnelly who not only served as my supervisor but also encouraged and challenged me throughout my academic program. He and the other faculty members, Dr. Davenport and Dr Joana of University of Newcastle upon Tyne guided me through the process, never accepting less than my best efforts. I thank them all. And last but not least the Government of Malaysia for the sponsorship of my study.
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Suspended biomass and biofilm sampling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) technique (coskunur 2000)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Paraformaldehyde Fixation and Permeabilization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. Hybridization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3. Scanning on a confocal laser microscope",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4. Enumeration technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Comparison of AOB Cells in the biofilm and suspended growth samples",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. Cluster size ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. Enumeration of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3. Significance of AOB Cells in the biofilm and suspended growth cultures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4. Relative concentration of AOB at different filter heights of the full- and partial-bed reactors ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. 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Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
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Ecuador",slug:"second-generation-ethanol-from-residual-biomass-research-and-perspectives-in-ecuador",signatures:"Enrique Javier Carvajal Barriga, Cristina Guamán-Burneo, Patricia Portero Barahona, Edgar Salas, Carolina Tufiño, Bernardo Bastidas",authors:[{id:"54367",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique Javier",middleName:"Javier",surname:"Carvajal Barriga",fullName:"Enrique Javier Carvajal Barriga",slug:"enrique-javier-carvajal-barriga"},{id:"62664",title:"MSc.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Portero Barahona",fullName:"Patricia Portero Barahona",slug:"patricia-portero-barahona"},{id:"145937",title:"BSc.",name:"Carolina",middleName:null,surname:"Tufiño",fullName:"Carolina Tufiño",slug:"carolina-tufino"},{id:"145940",title:"BSc.",name:"Edgar",middleName:null,surname:"Salas",fullName:"Edgar Salas",slug:"edgar-salas"},{id:"159326",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Maria Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Guamán Burneo",fullName:"Maria Cristina Guamán Burneo",slug:"maria-cristina-guaman-burneo"}]},{id:"44394",title:"Catalytic Decomposition of Biomass Tars at Low-Temperature",slug:"catalytic-decomposition-of-biomass-tars-at-low-temperature",signatures:"Le Duc Dung, Kayoko Morishita and Takayuki Takarada",authors:[{id:"144429",title:"PhD.",name:"Duc Dung",middleName:null,surname:"Le",fullName:"Duc Dung Le",slug:"duc-dung-le"}]},{id:"44378",title:"Characteristics of Animal Slurry as a Key Biomass for Biogas Production in Denmark",slug:"characteristics-of-animal-slurry-as-a-key-biomass-for-biogas-production-in-denmark",signatures:"Jin M. Triolo, Alastair J. Ward, Lene Pedersen and Sven G. Sommer",authors:[{id:"142709",title:"Dr",name:"Jin Mi",middleName:null,surname:"Triolo",fullName:"Jin Mi Triolo",slug:"jin-mi-triolo"}]},{id:"44391",title:"A Real Story of Bioethanol from Biomass: Malaysia Perspective",slug:"a-real-story-of-bioethanol-from-biomass-malaysia-perspective",signatures:"K.L. Chin and P.S. H’ng",authors:[{id:"142596",title:"Dr.",name:"Paik San",middleName:null,surname:"Hng",fullName:"Paik San Hng",slug:"paik-san-hng"},{id:"152105",title:"MSc.",name:"Kit Ling",middleName:null,surname:"Chin",fullName:"Kit Ling Chin",slug:"kit-ling-chin"}]},{id:"44376",title:"Lignocelluloses Feedstock Biorefinery as Petrorefinery Substitutes",slug:"lignocelluloses-feedstock-biorefinery-as-petrorefinery-substitutes",signatures:"Hongbin Cheng and Lei Wang",authors:[{id:"142501",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Hongbin Cheng",slug:"hongbin-cheng"},{id:"142930",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lei Wang",slug:"lei-wang"}]},{id:"44370",title:"Biomass Extraction Methods",slug:"biomass-extraction-methods",signatures:"Adina-Elena Segneanu, Florentina Cziple, Paulina Vlazan, Paula Sfirloaga, Ioan Grozescu and Vasile Daniel Gherman",authors:[{id:"25269",title:"Dr.",name:"Adina-Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Segneanu",fullName:"Adina-Elena Segneanu",slug:"adina-elena-segneanu"},{id:"156334",title:"Prof.",name:"Ioan",middleName:null,surname:"Grozescu",fullName:"Ioan Grozescu",slug:"ioan-grozescu"},{id:"156363",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",middleName:null,surname:"Sfirloaga",fullName:"Paula Sfirloaga",slug:"paula-sfirloaga"},{id:"157775",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulina",middleName:null,surname:"Vlazan",fullName:"Paulina Vlazan",slug:"paulina-vlazan"},{id:"167926",title:"Dr.",name:"Florentina",middleName:null,surname:"Cziple",fullName:"Florentina Cziple",slug:"florentina-cziple"}]},{id:"44373",title:"High-Efficiency Separation of Bio-Oil",slug:"high-efficiency-separation-of-bio-oil",signatures:"Shurong Wang",authors:[{id:"149395",title:"Prof.",name:"Shurong",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Shurong Wang",slug:"shurong-wang"}]},{id:"44374",title:"Short-Rotation Coppice of Willows for the Production of Biomass in Eastern Canada",slug:"short-rotation-coppice-of-willows-for-the-production-of-biomass-in-eastern-canada",signatures:"Werther Guidi, Frédéric E. Pitre and Michel Labrecque",authors:[{id:"145441",title:"Prof.",name:"Michel",middleName:null,surname:"Labrecque",fullName:"Michel Labrecque",slug:"michel-labrecque"},{id:"145803",title:"Dr.",name:"Frédéric",middleName:null,surname:"Pitre",fullName:"Frédéric Pitre",slug:"frederic-pitre"},{id:"145804",title:"Dr.",name:"Werther",middleName:null,surname:"Guidi",fullName:"Werther Guidi",slug:"werther-guidi"}]},{id:"44384",title:"Microbial Biomass in Batch and Continuous System",slug:"microbial-biomass-in-batch-and-continuous-system",signatures:"Onofre Monge Amaya, María Teresa Certucha Barragán and Francisco Javier Almendariz Tapia",authors:[{id:"140970",title:"Dr.",name:"Onofre",middleName:null,surname:"Monge-Amaya",fullName:"Onofre Monge-Amaya",slug:"onofre-monge-amaya"},{id:"145424",title:"Dr.",name:"María Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Certucha Barragán",fullName:"María Teresa Certucha Barragán",slug:"maria-teresa-certucha-barragan"},{id:"145431",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Almendariz-Tapia",fullName:"Francisco Javier Almendariz-Tapia",slug:"francisco-javier-almendariz-tapia"}]},{id:"44392",title:"Development of Sustainable Willow Short Rotation Forestry in Northern Europe",slug:"development-of-sustainable-willow-short-rotation-forestry-in-northern-europe",signatures:"Theo Verwijst, Anneli Lundkvist,\nStina Edelfeldt and Johannes Albertsson",authors:[{id:"88567",title:"Dr.",name:"Anneli",middleName:null,surname:"Lundkvist",fullName:"Anneli Lundkvist",slug:"anneli-lundkvist"},{id:"88581",title:"Prof.",name:"Theo",middleName:null,surname:"Verwijst",fullName:"Theo Verwijst",slug:"theo-verwijst"},{id:"156181",title:"MSc.",name:"Stina",middleName:null,surname:"Edelfeldt",fullName:"Stina Edelfeldt",slug:"stina-edelfeldt"},{id:"156182",title:"MSc.",name:"Johannes",middleName:null,surname:"Albertsson",fullName:"Johannes Albertsson",slug:"johannes-albertsson"}]},{id:"44382",title:"Artemia, a New Source of Animal Protein Ingredient in Poultry Nutrition",slug:"artemia-a-new-source-of-animal-protein-ingredient-in-poultry-nutrition",signatures:"A. Zarei",authors:[{id:"144529",title:"PhD.",name:"Abolfazl",middleName:null,surname:"Zarei",fullName:"Abolfazl Zarei",slug:"abolfazl-zarei"}]},{id:"44381",title:"Biomass from the Sea",slug:"biomass-from-the-sea",signatures:"Ernesto A. Chávez and Alejandra Chávez-Hidalgo",authors:[{id:"140897",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto A.",middleName:"Aarón",surname:"Chávez",fullName:"Ernesto A. Chávez",slug:"ernesto-a.-chavez"}]},{id:"44385",title:"Characeae Biomass: Is the Subject Exhausted?",slug:"characeae-biomass-is-the-subject-exhausted-",signatures:"Carlos E. de M. Bicudo and Norma C. Bueno",authors:[{id:"143462",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Bicudo",fullName:"Bicudo",slug:"bicudo"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68639",title:"Social Media and Young People’s Mental Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88569",slug:"social-media-and-young-people-s-mental-health",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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In England Anne Longfield, England’s Children’s Commissioner, has written to the biggest social media companies, urging them to commit to tackling issues of disturbing content. Her letter follows the suicide of 14-year-old Molly Russell, who tragically killed herself after viewing distressing self-harm images on Instagram. The letter urges social media companies to back the introduction of a statutory duty of care where they would have to prioritise the safety and wellbeing of children using their platforms. Ms. Longfield’s letter ends with the following message to the digital industry:
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\nWith great power comes great responsibility and it is your responsibility to support measures that give children the information and tools they need growing up in this digital world—or to admit that you cannot control what anyone sees on your platforms.\n
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According to literature use of the internet has risen rapidly in the last decade [1]. The way in which young people interact has changed significantly over the last decade. Social media enables them to develop online connections with people within their immediate friendship group but also to form connects with people who are more geographically dispersed. As a result of the digital revolution in recent years, young people are now able to communicate with others more efficiently and gain access to knowledge and advice more rapidly. For those living in rural communities, social media can facilitate social communications which otherwise would not be possible.
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My own discussions with young people in schools indicates that social media is an extremely important part of their daily lives. It brings many benefits but is also exposes them to risks. Young people are often very aware of these risks and understand how to keep themselves safe. However, sadly this does not prevent all of them from harm, as is evident through recent cases of teenage suicides as a result of social media, which have been highlighted in the media in the United Kingdom (UK) and more widely.
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This chapter highlights some of the detrimental and positive effects of social media use on children and young people’s mental health. The implications for schools, parents, social media and advertising companies and the government are addressed. This chapter highlights that schools cannot solve all of the problems and that other stakeholders also have a responsibility to keep young people safe when they are online.
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2. How do young people use social media?
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Research suggests that social media use is far more prevalent among young people than older generations [1]. Young people aged 16–24 are the most active social media users with 91% using the internet for social media [1]. Young people use social media for a variety of purposes, including for entertainment, to share information and network with others and to gain support and health information [1].
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3. Social media and its links to mental health
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Evidence suggests that social media use can result in young people developing conditions including anxiety, stress and depression [1]. There are various reasons for this, and this section will explore the contributing factors. Research has found that four of the five most used social media platforms make young people’s feelings of anxiety worse [1]. Research suggests that young people who use social media heavily, i.e., those who spend more than 2 hours per day on social networking sites are more likely to report poor mental health, including psychological distress [2].
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Cyber-bullying is a significant problem which affects young people. Evidence suggests that seven in 10 young people experience cyberbullying [1]. Cyberbullying exists in a variety of forms. It can include the posting of hurtful comments online, threats and intimidation towards others in the online space and posting photographs or videos that are intended to cause distress. This is not an exhaustive list. Cyberbullying is fundamentally different to bullying which takes place in person. The victim of the bullying may find it difficult to escape from because it exists within the victim’s personal and private spaces such as their homes and bedrooms. Additionally, the number of people witnessing the bullying can be extremely large because of the potential of social media for online posts to be shared across hundreds, thousands and millions of people. For the victim this can be significantly humiliating and result in a loss of confidence and self-worth. Humiliating messages, photographs and videos can be stored permanently online, resulting in the victim repeatedly experiencing the bullying every time they go online. Victims of cyberbullying can experience depression, anxiety, loss of sleep, self-harm and feelings of loneliness [3].
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Social media has also been associated with body image concerns. Research indicates that when young girls and women in their teens and early twenties view Facebook for only a short period of time, body image concerns are higher compared to non-users [4]. Young people view images of “ideal” bodies and start to make comparisons with their own bodies. This can result in low body-esteem, particularly if young people feel that their own bodies do not compare favourably to the “perfect” bodies they see online. Young people are heavily influenced by celebrities and may desire to look like them. If they feel that this is unattainable it can result in depression, body-surveillance and low body-confidence. Young people can then start to develop conditions such as eating disorders. The issue of body image is not just a female issue. Young males are also vulnerable and influenced by the muscular, well-toned bodies that they see online. We now live in an age when males are taking increasing interest in their appearance and viewing images of muscular, toned bodies can result in them putting their bodies through extensive fitness regimes and males are also vulnerable to developing eating disorders.
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The opportunity for people to use digital editing software to edit their appearance on photographs can also result in young people developing a false sense of beauty. It is worrying that there is a rise in the number of young people seeking to obtain cosmetic surgery [1] and the popularity of “selfies” in recent years has resulted in an increase in images which portray beauty and perfection. These images can have a negative impact on body-esteem and body-confidence.
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Research demonstrates that increased social media use has a significant association with poor sleep quality in young people [5]. It seems that young people enjoy being constantly connected to the online world. They develop a “Fear of Missing Out” (FoMO) which is associated with lower mood and lower life satisfaction [6]. This can result in young people constantly checking their devices for messages, even during the night, resulting in broken sleep. Sleep is particularly important during adolescence and broken sleep can result in exhaustion and lack of opportunity for the brain to become refreshed. Lack of sleep quality can have a range of detrimental effects, but it can also impact on school performance and their behaviour. My own conversations with school leaders suggest that many adolescents demonstrate signs of tiredness during the school day. This can result in disengagement in lessons, thus having a detrimental effect on academic attainment.
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The link between social media use, self-harm and even suicide is particularly worrying [1]. The fact that young people can access distressing content online that promotes self-harm and suicide is a significant cause for concern. This content attempts to “normalise” self-harm and suicide and can result in young people replicating the actions that they are exposed to.
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4. The benefits of social media
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Research suggests that young people are increasingly using social media to gain emotional support to prevent and address mental health issues [7]. This is particularly pertinent for young people who represent minority groups, including those who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT), those with disabilities and those representing black and minority ethnic groups. The use of social media to form online digital communities with others who share similar characteristics can be extremely powerful. Young people from minority groups are able to become “global citizens,” thus reducing isolation. Participating in online networks presents them with an opportunity to meet with others who share their identities, to gain mutual support and advice and to gain solidarity. These networks can reduce feelings of loneliness and support the development of a positive, personal identity. They can also support young people to become more resilient to adverse situations which can help them to stay mentally healthy.
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While online communities can be beneficial, they also bring associated risks. For example, members of the LGBT networks can become easy targets for abuse, discrimination, harassment and prejudice. It is therefore critical that young people understand how to keep themselves safe online and develop appropriate digital resilience to enable them to address these challenges.
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Social media use can allow young people to express themselves positively, letting young people put forward a positive image of themselves [8]. The problem with this is that people tend to use social media to present the best version of themselves and of their lives. This can result in others making unhealthy comparisons between their own lives and the idealised lives that are depicted on the internet, resulting in low self-esteem.
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Social media platforms enable young people to share creative content and express their interests and passions with others [1]. This can help to strengthen the development of a positive identity among young people and provide them with numerous opportunities to experiment with a range of interests. This is particularly important for young people who live in rural communities who may find it more challenging to develop social connections in the offline world.
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Students living in boarding schools benefit from using social media platforms because it enables them to maintain contact with family members and friends at home. This is particularly important because students living away from home may experience isolation and homesickness and social media platforms facilitate these connections.
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Social media platforms offer young people a useful tool to make, maintain or build social connections with others [1]. Additionally, research suggests that strong adolescent friendships can be enhanced by social media interactions [9]. Thus, young people can use social media to cement the friendships that they have formed in the offline world and to develop new friendships that would not have been possible in the offline word due to geographical restrictions.
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5. The role of schools
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Schools play a critical role in keeping children safe online. A well-planned digital curriculum should cover themes such as digital resilience and digital citizenship so that young people know how to respond to distressing content and how to behave responsibly online. The curriculum should also provide digital literacy skills so that children and young people have the skills to keep their own accounts safe through privacy settings, blocking perpetrators of abuse, reporting abuse and setting passwords. Schools should also support children and young people to critically engage with content they see online. They should be taught to question and interrogate content for accuracy, exploitation, abuse and discrimination.
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Schools also play a critical role in developing young people’s mental health literacy. This should cover common mental health conditions, including stress, anxiety, depression, self-harm and cyberbullying. Educating young people about mental health is essential and reduces the stigma that has traditionally been associated with mental health conditions. Young people also need to have strategies for managing their own mental health. If their mental health is adversely affected by their experiences online, they need to be taught strategies to self-regulate their emotions and strategies to aid digital resilience. Some young people who have negative experiences online respond by closing down their social media accounts. This situates the control with the perpetrators of abuse and removes control from the victim because they are disadvantaged. Developing practical approaches to aid digital resilience in the face of adversity must be a key component of the digital curriculum that schools provide. Young people need to know how to respond to abuse, who to report it to and how to block the accounts of perpetrators. In addition, they need to be taught about the importance of maintaining secure social media accounts and how to keep themselves safe by not sharing personal information.
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Schools need to provide a social need to provide a social media curriculum which is progressive and age appropriate. Given the prevalence of fake content online and content which has been digitally edited, young people need to be taught to critically evaluate content that appears online so that they understand the harmful effects of some content. Themes including exploitation, body-esteem and gender stereotyping can be addressed through critically evaluating online content.
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Children and young people often have a good understanding of the issues associated with social media because they are the users of it. Therefore, they experience the issues, sometimes frequently. Working in partnership with young people through empowering them to lead on aspects of social media education is a powerful way of developing student partnership and empowers them to be leaders. Often, young people understand the online applications better than teachers and they are acutely aware of the issues that occur online. Student-led events such as student-led workshops and conferences, which highlight the issues that relate to social media and mental health, are powerful ways of providing ownership to students. Developing digital ambassadors who act as peer mentors to younger students is also a powerful strategy for developing students’ confidence and leadership skills. Young people who need someone to talk to about the issues that they are experiencing online can be paired with a digital ambassador who can provide them with confidential advice. Processes for recruiting digital ambassadors would need to be carefully considered by schools and the scheme would need to be properly led and managed by a member of staff to monitor its effectiveness. Student-led peer mentoring schemes are valuable because some students prefer to talk to peers about the issues that they are experiencing rather than teachers or parents.
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Schools also play a critical role in educating parents about the relationship between social media and mental health. It is important that parents understand the online applications that their children are using, and schools can play a critical role in developing their understanding. Schools can also provide guidance to parents on the signs and symptoms of mental ill health so that they are better able to identify mental health problems in their child. Schools can provide guidance to parents on how to support their child’s mental health at home and guidelines about responsible use of social media in the home. It is critical that parents understand the association between poor sleep quality, mental health and academic attainment and schools can play an important role in this. Schools also play a crucial role in developing parents’ knowledge about how to be a good social media role model for their child.
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6. The role of other stakeholders
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Schools cannot solve the problems associated with social media in isolation. This section outlines the responsibilities of parents, social media companies and advertising companies. The responsibilities of the government are also outlined.
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Parents are in a unique position to influence their child’s social media use. They should establish clear expectations about the amount of time their child spends online. However, imposing rules on children can lead to conflict and the breakdown of relationships between parents and children. It is far more effective for parents and children to negotiate the rules jointly so that young people have ownership of determining the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. If rules are imposed rather than negotiated it is likely that young people will find ways to break the rules and therefore adopting a top-down approach may not be the most effective way of encouraging young people to develop healthy social media use.
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Some parents may try to restrict their child’s use of social media by installing filters or by disconnecting the internet supply at specific times of the day or week. However, young people will find ways to subvert this and policing their use of the internet in this way is unlikely to foster digital responsibility. It might be more effective for parents to talk to their child about what it means to be a digitally responsible citizen and to explain why it is important to restrict screen time, particularly during the night. Families might want to consider allocating specific time each day or week when no-one accesses technology.
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In addition, parents also need to be role models. They cannot expect their child to demonstrate the skills of digital citizenship and digital responsibility if they are not prepared to demonstrate these skills. It is therefore important for parents to model healthy online behaviours so that their children can then replicate these. It is also important for parents to develop their own digital literacy, so they are aware of the platforms and software that their child is interacting with. Parents also need to develop knowledge of the risks that their children are exposed to, given that these are constantly changing. If parents do not keep abreast of developments, they will not be able to support their child effectively.
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Parents should negotiate rules with their children about what constitutes appropriate use of the internet. Imposing rules on children is unlikely to be effective because young people will find ways to resist or subvert these. It is also important that parents provide their children with a degree of autonomy about their internet use. It is unlikely to be helpful if parents continually monitor what their children are doing online. However, it is reasonable for parents to set some rules for appropriate use to protect their child from harm. Examples include:
not using technology during the night;
restricting technology use during mealtimes or other social occasions;
limiting the amount of screen time which children are exposed to.
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It will be more effective if young people are involved in discussions with their parents about what might constitute appropriate use of the internet.
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Social media companies have a responsibility to protect young people from harm. They can do this in a variety of ways by:
establishing strict and robust policies on the age at which users can access platforms;
blocking accounts of perpetrators of abuse;
reporting abuse to the police;
removing inappropriate content immediately;
filtering specific content before it goes live;
producing information to service users about responsible and safe use of social media;
generating warning messages when users have exceeded reasonable levels of screen time;
responding rapidly to reports of abuse.
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This is not an exhaustive list. However, it illustrates the sorts of actions that can be adopted by social media companies to protect children and young people from harm. Companies have not responded quickly enough to reports of abuse or inappropriate content as cases of suicide in the UK suggest that social media companies have failed to protect young people from harm. The government also has a clear responsibility to hold companies to account which fail to protect children and young people from harm. Simply fining companies is not enough and will not necessarily address the problem. The government needs to take firmer action against social media companies which breach their safeguarding responsibilities.
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In addition, advertising companies have a responsibility to ensure that young people do not develop low body confidence. They can achieve this in a variety of ways. These include:
providing warning messages that images may have been digitally edited;
ensuring that images of bodies on products represent a range of body types, including a range of body sizes, disabled bodies and people of colour;
avoiding gender-stereotypes when advertising products;
producing warning messages about the dangers associated with product-use so that young people are aware of the risks;
portraying natural bodies without make-up on some products.
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7. Young people’s perspectives
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Our own research in Cambridge [10] with students in secondary schools demonstrates that they had a good understanding of the benefits and risks associated with social media. Focus groups demonstrated that the students had developed an excellent understanding of the benefits of social media and the relationship between social media use and mental ill health, including sleep deprivation, cyberbullying and low body-esteem. They had also developed a better understanding of how to keep themselves safe online. The quotes and Figure 1 below are taken from our research report [10].
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Figure 1.
Students’ perspectives on social media.
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\nSocial media helps you to communicate with your friends if they are far away. It makes you feel good when you get a like on your posts. (Student Y8)
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\nYou can talk to your friends and family on social media. The disadvantages are that you can get stalked. People can create fake accounts. You can get cyber-bullied. People can hack into other people’s accounts and you might not know who is communicating with you. People can become jealous of other people’s lives and this can make you sad and depressed. (Student Y9)
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\nSome of the pictures can be fake so people can make out that they are leading an exciting life but really, they are not, and this can make others feel worthless. (Student Y8)
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\nSocial media results in an expectation to show the good part of your life. It can impact on others because they think you are having a good time and they might not be having such a good time. (Student Y9)
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\nPeople make mean comments and it makes you feel bad. The bullying can be anonymous, and it reaches a larger audience. You can ignore the insults and carry on with your life. You can report the person or block them. (Student Y9)
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\nMen are expected to be muscular. You get upset because you think “why don’t I look like that?” (Student Y8)
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\nI realize that social media has an impact on my sleep. I find it addictive and I am always checking what friends are doing through social media and texting. (Student Y9)
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\nI think online bullying is different to bullying in school. It is easier to say horrible things to someone through social media because you are not saying it to their face. (Student Y8)
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\nWe can become stressed through social media because celebrities show images of being slim. This mainly affects women but now men are becoming bothered about how they look. This is stress that becomes a mental health problem. (Student Y9)
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\nYou feel you must look as good as celebrity people because people feel you need to be as good looking otherwise you don’t get a good reputation. (Student Y8)
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\nCyber bullying is when you post hateful messages online to directly hurt a person. (Student Y8)
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\nSeeing slim models online (body image) can make your self-esteem feel low. (Student Y8).
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The students summarised the advantages and disadvantages of social media below:
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8. Cyberbullying
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Cyberbullying is bullying which takes place in the online world, including bullying which takes place on social media. It takes multiple forms. These include:
posting hurtful comments;
posting videos which are targeted directly at a person to cause distress;
posting photographs which are designed to cause distress;
inciting others to make hurtful comments aimed at a person;
sending hurtful text messages using a mobile phone;
sending hurtful private messages to a person [11].
\nCyberbullying is fundamentally different to face-to-face bullying in several ways. Firstly, victims cannot escape from it when they are at home because it takes place on mobile phones, tablets and computers. Secondly the abuse is witnessed by a larger audience; messages are in the public domain and can be repeatedly forwarded. This can result in victims experiencing the abuse on multiple occasions, which results in further psychological distress. Thirdly, the evidence of the abuse is usually permanently stored online which means that the abuse is not erased. These messages serve as a permanent reminder of the abuse and this can result in abuse being continually experienced by the victim.
\n\n
Forms of cyberbullying are outlined below and taken from Glazzard and Mitchell [11]:
\n
Harassment: Harassment is the act of sending offensive, rude, and insulting messages and being abusive. It includes nasty or degrading comments on posts, photos and in chat rooms and making offensive comments on gaming sites. Posting false and malicious things about people on the internet can be classed as harassment [11].
\n
Denigration: This is when someone may send information about another person that is fake, damaging and untrue. It includes sharing photographs of someone for the purpose to ridicule and spreading fake rumours and gossip. This can be on any site online or on apps. It includes purposely altering photographs of others to ridicule and cause distress [11].
\n
Flaming: Flaming is when someone purposely uses extreme and offensive language and deliberately gets into online arguments and fights. They do this to deliberately cause distress in others [11].
\n
Impersonation: Impersonation is when someone hacks into someone’s email or social networking account and uses the person’s online identity to send or post vicious or embarrassing material to or about others. It also includes making up fake profiles of others [11].
\n
Outing and trickery: This is when someone shares personal information about someone else or tricks someone into revealing secrets and subsequently forwards it to others. They may also do this with private images and videos too [11].
\n
Cyberstalking: Cyberstalking is the act of repeatedly sending messages that include threats of harm, harassment, intimidating messages, or engaging in other online activities that make a person afraid for their safety. The actions may be illegal depending on what they are doing. Cyberstalking can take place on the internet or via mobile ‘phones. Examples include:
Exclusion: This is when others intentionally leave someone out of a group such as group messages, online apps, gaming sites and other online engagement. This is also a form of social bullying and is very common [11].
\n
Bullying by spreading rumours and gossip: Online abuse, rumours and gossip can go viral very quickly and be shared by many people within several minutes. It is not uncommon for former close friends or partners to share personal secrets about victims [11].
\n
Threatening behaviour: Threatening behaviour which is directed at a victim to cause alarm and distress is a criminal offence. Taking screenshots of the evidence and reporting it is one way of challenging this [11].
\n
Happy slapping: This is an incident where a person is assaulted while other people take photographs or videos on their mobile phones. The pictures or videos are then circulated by mobile phone or uploaded on the internet [11].
\n
Grooming: Grooming is when someone builds an emotional connection with a child to gain their trust for the purposes of abuse and exploitation. It is conducted by strangers (or new “friends”) and may include:
pressurising someone to do something they do not wish to do;
making someone take their clothes off;
pressurising someone to engage in sexual conversations;
pressurising someone to take naked photographs of themselves;
making someone engage in sexual activity via the internet [11].
\n\n
Groomers may spend a long time establishing a “relationship” with the victim by using the following strategies:
pretending to be someone they are not, for example, saying they are the same age online;
Inappropriate images: It is very easy to save any pictures of anyone on any site and upload them to the internet. Uploading pictures of someone to cause distress is a form of cyberbullying. This also includes digitally altering pictures to embarrass someone [11].
\n
Bystander effect: Witnessing cyberbullying and doing nothing about it is not acceptable. Some people are worried about getting involved but victims of bullying need brave witnesses to make a stand. Perpetrators of bullying thrive when they have an audience. Making a stand against what they are doing is an important way to reduce their power. Most sites now operate a reporting facility so that online abuse can be reported and addressed. Bystanders are not innocent. They have a responsibility to report abuse that they witness [11].
\nResearch from Queensland University of Technology has identified that half of young people aged 18–24 are less productive and more tired because of their mobile phones. Scientists have adopted the term “technoference” to describe the way that mobile phones intrude on and interrupt everyday conversations and the way they interrupt other aspects of people’s daily lives.
\n\n\n
\nIt is worrying that family life is being interrupted by technology. While technology has significant benefits, continual use of technology can impact detrimentally on the quality of people’s interactions and conversations. We live in a society where people are constantly attached to their technology. People interact with technology on public transport, in meetings and during leisure time rather than engaging in productive, meaningful conversations. It seems that people would rather interact with a phone rather than having a conversation and while this is not necessarily a problem in some contexts, it can have a negative impact in other contexts. For example, young children require social interaction with adults. This allows them to develop secure attachments with significant others, it enables them to learn about the world and through conversation children are exposed to language. Exposure to language underpins reading and writing development. Children who have rich exposure to language become better readers, better writers and understand far better what they are reading. Lack of exposure to language can impact detrimentally on the structure of the brain. This can create reading difficulties and even lead to difficulties which are consistent with dyslexia, even though the difficulties may not have a genetic origin. The brain is malleable. It is responsive to environmental influences and lack of exposure to language can impact on phonological and phonemic awareness. Both of these skills play a critical role in reading development. Interacting with technology can restrict opportunities for communication between babies, children and their parents and can interrupt the flow of normal conversation.\n
\n\n\n
\nIt would appear that adolescents seem to be attached to their phones during the night. They are desperate to network and keep up-to-date with their online peers. This results in broken sleep and tiredness during the school day. Adolescents need approximately 8–10 hours sleep but our research demonstrates that some get as little as 2 hours sleep. These students attend school in a state of exhaustion. They are too tired to concentrate and it affects their learning and their behaviour. Disengagement in lessons results in them falling behind in their schoolwork and they then develop other problems such as low confidence and low self-worth.
\n\n\n
\nReal-time social connections are vital for positive wellbeing. Schools play a key role in teaching young people about how to stay healthy and in particular, the need for sleep. However, parents also play a critical role in supporting young people to develop positive habits through setting boundaries. Examples of boundaries might include restricting access to technology in bedrooms and at mealtimes. Also, parents need to be good role models by ensuring that they do not allow technology to interrupt conversations and other daily experiences.\n
\n\n
\n
\n
10. Statistics
\n
Statistics demonstrate the risks of internet use on young people’s lives. Key statistics are summarised below [13]:
year on year increases in the numbers and rates of police-recorded online child sexual offences in England and Wales and Northern Ireland
increases in police-recorded offences of obscene publications or indecent photos in all four UK nations over the last 5 years
increases in the number of URLs confirmed by the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) as containing child sexual abuse imagery since 2015
less than half of children aged 12–15 say they know how to change their settings to control who can view their social media
the majority of parents, carers and members of the public agree that social networks should have a legal responsibility to keep children safe on their platforms.
\n\n
Additionally:
a total of 5161 crimes of sexual communication with a child have been recorded in 18 months [14];
in 2019 there has been almost a 50% increase in offence in offences recorded in latest 6 months compared to same period in previous year [14];
in 2010 there has been a 200% rise in recorded instances in the use of Instagram to target and abuse children over the same time period [14];
there have been over 5000 online grooming offences recorded in 18 months [14].
\n\n
\n
\n
11. Conclusions
\n
Social media use can have a detrimental impact on children and young people’s mental health. It can result in anxiety, depression, body image concerns, self-harm, substance abuse and even death. However, for young people social media is a tool for networking, keeping in touch with friends, exchanging information, a source of support and advice and a rich source of knowledge. Preventing children and young people from using social media is not an appropriate solution, given all the benefits that come with it. Schools, parents and the digital industry need to do all they can to keep children safe from harm through adopting a proactive approach rather than a reactive approach when crises occur.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
We wish to thank Leeds Beckett University and the Carnegie Centre of Excellence for Mental Health in Schools for facilitating this research.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"social media, mental health, technology, children, young people",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68639.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68639.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68639",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68639",totalDownloads:867,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 4th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 23rd 2019",datePublished:"June 24th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Evidence suggests that social media can impact detrimentally on children and young people’s mental health. At the same time, social media use can be beneficial and have positive effects. This chapter outlines the detrimental and positive effects of social media use for young people. Schools play a critical role in educating young people about how to use social media safely and responsibly. However, schools cannot address all the issues and parents, social media and advertising companies also have a responsibility to protect children and young people from harm. This chapter outlines some of the potential solutions to the issues that are identified.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68639",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68639",signatures:"Jonathan Glazzard and Samuel Stones",book:{id:"7927",title:"Selected Topics in Child and Adolescent Mental Health",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Child and Adolescent Mental Health",slug:"selected-topics-in-child-and-adolescent-mental-health",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",bookSignature:"Samuel Stones, Jonathan Glazzard and Maria Rosaria Muzio",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7927.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"309587",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:"Oliver James",surname:"Stones",slug:"samuel-stones",fullName:"Samuel Stones"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:null,surname:"Glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",email:"j.glazzard@leedsbeckett.ac.uk",position:null,institution:{name:"Leeds Beckett University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"309587",title:"Mr.",name:"Samuel",middleName:"Oliver James",surname:"Stones",fullName:"Samuel Stones",slug:"samuel-stones",email:"sst@nortoncollege.net",position:null,institution:{name:"Leeds Beckett University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. How do young people use social media?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Social media and its links to mental health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. The benefits of social media",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The role of schools",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. The role of other stakeholders",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Young people’s perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Cyberbullying",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Technoference",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Statistics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"11. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nRoyal Society for Public Health (RSPH). #Status of Mind Social media and young people’s mental health and wellbeing. RSPH; 2017\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSampasa-Kanyinga H, Lewis RF. Frequent use of social networking sites is associated with poor psychological functioning among children and adolescents. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking. 2015;18(7):380-385. DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2015.0055\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nStop Bullying.gov. Effects of Bullying. 2017. Available from: https://www.stopbullying.gov/at-risk/effects/ [Accessed: 17 April]\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nTiggeman M, Slater A. The internet and body image concerns in preteenage girls. The Journal of Early Adolescents. 2013;34(5):606-620. DOI: 10.1177/0272431613501083\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nScott H, Gardani M, Biello S, Woods H. Social Media Use, Fear of Missing Out and Sleep Outcomes in Adolescents. 2016. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308903222_Social_media_use_fear_of_missing_out_and_sleep_outcomes_in_adolescence [Accessed: 17 April]\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nPryzbylski A, Murayama K, DeHaan C, Gladwell V. Motivational, emotional and behavioural correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behaviour. 2013;29(4):1841-1848. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nFarnan JM, Snyder SL, Worster BK, et al. Online medical professionalism: Patient and public relationships: Policy statement from the American College of Physicians and the Federation of State Medical Boards. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2013;158(8):620-662\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nUniversity of Minnesota-Introduction to Psychology. 6.3 Adolescents: Developing Independence and Identity. Available from: http://open.lib.umn.edu/intropsyc/chapter/6-3-adolescence-developing-independence-and-identity/ [Accessed: 17 April]\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nLenhart A. Chapter 4: Social Media and Friendships. 2015. Available from: http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/08/06/chapter-4-social-media-and-friendships/ [Accessed: 17 April]\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nCambridge United Community Trust/Leeds Beckett University. Mind Your Head-Programme Evaluation. Available from: https://leedsbeckett.ac.uk/-/media/files/School-of-Education/mind_your_head_evaluation_report.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nGlazzard J, Mitchell C. Social Media and Mental Health in Schools. St Albans: Critical Publishing; 2018\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nGlazzard J, Stones S. Technoference. Leeds Beckett University; 2019. Available from: https://www.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/blogs/carnegie-education/2019/04/technoference/\n\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nNational Society for the Protection of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). Available from: https://learning.nspcc.org.uk/research-resources/how-safe-are-our-children/\n\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nNational Society for the Protection of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). Available from: https://www.nspcc.org.uk/what-we-do/news-opinion/over-5000-grooming-offences-recorded-18-months/\n\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Jonathan Glazzard",address:"j.glazzard@leedsbeckett.ac.uk",affiliation:'
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+4,800 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
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