Microwave heating of some oxides and sulfide compounds
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8350",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Fiber Optic Sensing - Principle, Measurement and Applications",title:"Fiber Optic Sensing",subtitle:"Principle, Measurement and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The chapters in this edited volume are by scholars/experts working in academia in Taiwan, Egypt, Israel, Germany and Japan. The contents are intended to provide a common forum for researchers, scientists and engineers throughout the world to exchange ideas and gain knowledge in the areas of fiber sensing technologies. The scope of the book includes the following chapters: 1. Introductory Chapter: An Overview of the Methodologies and Applications of Fiber Optic Sensing; 2. Theoretic Study of Cascaded Fiber Bragg Grating; 3. Femtosecond Transient Bragg Gratings; 4. Vital Sign Measurement Using FBG Sensor for New Wearable Sensor; 5. The State-of-the-Art of Brillouin Distributed Fiber Sensing. After a rigorous review process, the editors selected five submitted manuscripts (Chapters 2 to 5) for inclusion here. Three of these focus on the subject of point-to-point sensing using FBGs, and the final concerns distributed fiber sensing based on Brillouin scattering effect.",isbn:"978-1-83962-181-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-625-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-182-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78479",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"fiber-optic-sensing-principle-measurement-and-applications",numberOfPages:98,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d35774b28952d3c4c4643b58dec25549",bookSignature:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",publishedDate:"September 11th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8350.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5170,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:50,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 5th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"206109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shien-Kuei",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"shien-kuei-liaw",fullName:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206109/images/system/206109.png",biography:"Shien-Kuei (Peter) Liaw received double PhD degrees from National Chiao-Tung University in photonics engineering and from National Taiwan University in mechanical engineering, respectively. Prof. Liaw joined the National Taiwan University of Science and Technology (NTUST) in 2000. He has ever been Director of the Optoelectronics Research Center and the Technology Transfer Center, NTUST. He was an academic visitor at Bellcore (US), University of Oxford (UK) and University of Cambridge (UK) during 1996, 2011 and 2018, respectively. Prof. Liaw owns seven U.S. patents, authored and coauthored for more than 270 journal articles and international conference presentations. He serves as an Associate Editor for Fiber and Integrated Optics. Currently, he is a Distinguished Professor of NTUST, President of the Optical Society (OSA) Taiwan Section and Secretary-General of the Taiwan Photonic Society.",institutionString:"National Taiwan University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"National Taiwan University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1225",title:"Optical Physics",slug:"optics-and-lasers-optical-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"67250",title:"Introductory Chapter: An Overview the Methodologies and Applications of Fiber Optic Sensing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86525",slug:"introductory-chapter-an-overview-the-methodologies-and-applications-of-fiber-optic-sensing",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Shien-Kuei Liaw",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67250",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67250",authors:[{id:"206109",title:"Dr.",name:"Shien-Kuei",surname:"Liaw",slug:"shien-kuei-liaw",fullName:"Shien-Kuei Liaw"}],corrections:null},{id:"66136",title:"Theoretic Study of Cascaded Fiber Bragg Grating",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83020",slug:"theoretic-study-of-cascaded-fiber-bragg-grating",totalDownloads:832,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to simulate and analyze the spectral characteristics of the fiber Bragg grating (FBG) to obtain narrow bandwidth and minimization side lobes in reflectivity. Fiber Bragg grating has made a big revolution in telecommunication systems. The existence of fiber Bragg grating is needed when an optical fiber amplifier and filter are used. They can be used as band reject filter or band pass filter for optical devices. The model equations of the cascaded uniform fiber Bragg grating and different cascaded apodization functions such as, Hamming apodized fiber Bragg grating, Barthan apodized fiber Bragg grating, Nuttall apodized fiber Bragg grating, Sinc apodized fiber Bragg grating and Proposed apodized fiber Bragg grating are numerically handled and processed via specially cast software to achieve maximum reflectivity, narrow bandwidth without side lobes.",signatures:"Mofreh Toba and Fathy Mohamed Mustafa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66136",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66136",authors:[{id:"272007",title:"Dr.",name:"Fathy Mohamed",surname:"Mustafa",slug:"fathy-mohamed-mustafa",fullName:"Fathy Mohamed Mustafa"},{id:"272008",title:"MSc.",name:"Moferh",surname:"Toba",slug:"moferh-toba",fullName:"Moferh Toba"}],corrections:null},{id:"65606",title:"Femtosecond Transient Bragg Gratings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84448",slug:"femtosecond-transient-bragg-gratings",totalDownloads:899,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) have found numerous applications in fiber lasers, sensors, telecommunication, and many other fields. Traditionally, they are fabricated using UV laser sources and a phase mask or other interferometric techniques. In the past two decades, FBGs have been fabricated with femtosecond lasers in either the point-by-point method or by using a phase mask, in a similar configuration as with UV laser sources. In the following, we briefly review the advantages of femtosecond fabrication of fiber Bragg gratings. We then focus on transient FBGs; these are FBGs that exist for a short duration only, for the purpose of all-optical, in-fiber switching and modulation and the possible mechanism to implement them with a high-power femtosecond laser. The theory behind transient grating switching is outlined, and we discuss related experimental results achieved by our group on both permanent grating inscription and the generation of transient (dynamic) fiber Braggs gratings.",signatures:"Avishay Shamir, Aviran Halstuch and Amiel A. Ishaaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65606",authors:[{id:"274459",title:"Dr.",name:"Avishay",surname:"Shamir",slug:"avishay-shamir",fullName:"Avishay Shamir"},{id:"286728",title:"Prof.",name:"Amiel",surname:"Ishaaya",slug:"amiel-ishaaya",fullName:"Amiel Ishaaya"},{id:"286730",title:"Mr.",name:"Aviran",surname:"Halstuch",slug:"aviran-halstuch",fullName:"Aviran Halstuch"}],corrections:null},{id:"65519",title:"Vital Sign Measurement Using FBG Sensor for New Wearable Sensor Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84186",slug:"vital-sign-measurement-using-fbg-sensor-for-new-wearable-sensor-development",totalDownloads:1185,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, we measured the vital signs of a living body using an FBG sensor by installing it at a pulsation point such as the radial artery. We developed a biological model to demonstrate the capability of an FBG sensor. The FBG sensor signal was found to correspond to the changes in diameter of the artery caused by the pressure of the blood flow. Vital signs such as pulse rate, respiratory rate, stress load, and blood pressure were calculated from the FBG sensor signal. While pulse rate and respiration rate were calculated by peak detection of FBG sensor signal. Blood pressure was calculated from the waveform shape of one beat of the FBG sensor signal by PLS regression analysis. All vital signs were calculated with high accuracy. The study helps establish that these vital signs can be calculated continuously and simultaneously. Considering that an FBG sensor can detect a strain with high sensitivity using a small optical fiber, it is expected to be adopted widely as a novel wearable vital sign sensor.",signatures:"Shouhei Koyama and Hiroaki Ishizawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65519",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65519",authors:[{id:"105254",title:"Dr.",name:"Shouhei",surname:"Koyama",slug:"shouhei-koyama",fullName:"Shouhei Koyama"},{id:"275679",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Ishizawa",slug:"hiroaki-ishizawa",fullName:"Hiroaki Ishizawa"}],corrections:null},{id:"65854",title:"The State-of-the-Art of Brillouin Distributed Fiber Sensing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84684",slug:"the-state-of-the-art-of-brillouin-distributed-fiber-sensing",totalDownloads:1423,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The distributed Brillouin sensing technique has been developed rapidly since its first demonstration three decades ago. Numerous investigations on the performance enhancement of Brillouin sensors in respect to spatial resolution, sensing range, and measurement time have paved the way to its industrial and commercial applications. This chapter provides an overview of different Brillouin sensing techniques and mainly focuses on the most widely used one, the Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA). The history and the development of Brillouin sensing regarding the performance enhancement in various methods and their records will be reviewed, commented, and compared with each other. 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Biodiesel has been recognised as a sustainable means of reducing reliance on fossil fuels and a solution to address the rising problem of global climate change policy. The monoalkyl esters of vegetable oils or animal fats are referred to as biodiesel. In comparison to petroleum-based diesel, biodiesel would provide benefits of non-toxicity, biodegradability, better air quality after combustion owing to reduced harmful emissions, energy security, and safety to handle, store, and transport, among others. The goal of this book is to explore the science in this field and educate the reader on a wide range of technologies for converting third and fourth-generation feedstocks to sustainable advanced biodiesels. The key sections address the overview of biodiesel production, technologies, innovative technologies for the latest generation of biodiesels, and socioeconomic and life cycle analysis of advanced biodiesel. In recent years, the advanced biorefinery idea has received a lot of interest as a model of decentralised production of advanced biodiesels, especially in rural regions. Such decentralised, small-to-medium scale biorefineries seem to have the most promise for expanding biodiesel production and hastening rural economic revival. Acquiring fresh scientific information and quickly integrating new knowledge and experience into plans and activities are critical in the renewable energy sector's dynamics. It is vital to equip experts, policymakers, and the general public with relevant and timely information so that they may make educated choices.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-138-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-137-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-139-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"bb86ab5c5ca0dab95f01941eb350f920",bookSignature:"Dr. IMR Fattah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12050.jpg",keywords:"Biodiesel Production Technologies, Advanced Biodiesel Feedstocks, Enzymatic Catalytic Transesterification, Transesterification Using Co-solvents, Innovative Catalysts, Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials, Production of Glycerol-Free Biodiesels, Socioeconomic Perspective, Environmental Perspective, Policy Perspective, Advanced Biodiesel Driven Biorefinery, Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 3rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"9 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An emerging researcher in bioenergy, 'Top 2% of Scientists in the World' in 2020 and 2021 by Elsevier BV and Stanford University, editorial board member in four prestigious journals, and author of over 80 articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"463663",title:"Dr.",name:"IMR",middleName:null,surname:"Fattah",slug:"imr-fattah",fullName:"IMR Fattah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/463663/images/system/463663.jpg",biography:"Dr IMR Fattah is a Research Fellow in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT at the University of Technology Sydney, where he is researching the effective use of waste for sustainable energy applications. His research interests stem from the PhD in the combustion of renewable fuels he completed at the University of New South Wales in 2019, where he focused on the reduction of emissions (particularly PM/soot) from diesel combustion. Dr IMR Fattah was named one of the Top 2% of Scientists in the World in 2021 by Elsevier BV and Stanford University. He was also featured as one of the 'Research Rising Stars' (Top 40 researchers who are less than 10 years into their careers) for his outstanding achievements in a September 2019 Special Report by 'The Australian'. He is actively engaged in the field by publishing over 80 articles and gaining over 5900 citations of his works. He is serving as an 'Associate Editor' at 'Frontiers in Energy Research' and as an editorial board member at ''Energies (MDPI)', ''Highlights of Sustainability (Highlights of Science)’ and ‘Advances in Environmental and Engineering Research (LIDSEN Publishing)’. 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The first century BC Greek historian, Diodorus Siculus, recorded in his Bibliotheca Historica the ancient practice of fire setting, verifying his work with that of another Greek historian, Agatharcides, who had visited the gold mines in Egypt around the second century BC (Meyer, 19971).
Oldfather, 19672, provides a translation of Diodorus’s account of the practice: “The gold bearing earth which is hardest they first burn with a hot fire, and when they have crumbled it...they continue the working of it by hand; and the soft rock which can yield to moderate effort is crushed with a sledge”.
The practice of fire setting basically consisted of constructing a large fire against the rock face to be mined. As the rock heated unevenly, it would fracture internally, severely weakening the rock. After the fires died down the rock face would be doused with water, though whether this rapid quenching was employed to further weaken the rock or to allow the miners to immediately continue working the rock face is not known (The Tech, 1886)3.
Using this process, it was possible to weaken the rock face to the depth of approximately a foot at a time, after which the soft ore was mined and when the harder rock face was again encountered, fire setting was again employed (Cowen, 1999)4.
Archeological evidence supports the notion that the practice of fire-setting was a worldwide phenomenon and may indeed be much older than those activities reported in the records of Diodorus Siculus, with ancient mining sites discovered at Rudna Glava in the Balkans suggesting the use of fire setting around 4500 to 4000 BC, at Ai Bunar in southern Bulgaria also dated at several thousand years BC and from which it is estimated that between 20 000 and 30 000 tonnes of ore were mined while employing the method when required (Cowen, 1999), at the ancient mining sites around Isle Royale in the Lake Superior region in North America to mine copper and up until just a few centuries ago in Japan for creating long tunnels (The Tech, 1886)3.
In fact, it remained a vital part of the mining industry until the first use of gunpowder for blasting in 1613 (The Tech, 1886)3, after which the use of thermal treatment declined in favor of the quicker processes of drilling and blasting.
It is reported in a review paper by Fitzgibbon and Veasey, 19905, that work on the use of thermal treatment to aid in rock breakage during comminution processes began again early in the 20th century, with practical studies on Cornish tin ores (Yates, 1919) 6and quartzites (Holman, 1927)7. Fitzgibbon and Veasey, 1990, report that this early work showed that the thermal pretreatment of ores before comminution resulted not only in a reduction in the strength of the ores studied, but also in fewer fines being produced. Work by Myer, 19258, and Holman, 1927, also studied the dependence of the susceptibility of ores to heat treatment on particle size and concluded that the effectiveness of the treatment decreased with particle size (Fitzgibbon and Veasey, 1990).
In the second half of 20 century, many researchers studied on the economical aspect of conventional heat treatment. As early as 1962, it was known that the effect of thermal treatment on ore strength varies with ore mineralogy, and that fluorites and barites, in particular, are susceptible to this effect, but studies showed that the process of thermal treatment was uneconomical when compared to the use of conventional grinding alone (Prasher, 1987)9, due to the enormous energy requirements associated with heating the bulk ore to the required temperatures, where Wills et al., 198710, report that other workers have calculated that the cost of heat treatment and subsequent grinding could be as high as 6 times that of conventional grinding alone (Scheding et al., 1981)11.
Some researchers studied on the effect of water quenching after heat treatment to reduce the economic costs of heat treatment process.
Kanellopoulos and Ball, 197512, studied the effect of heat treatment on crushing and grinding of quartzite samples. Their investigations showed that heat treatment above 400°C improves the comminution of the ore, but that the best results are obtained after heating the quartzite to temperatures above the α-β phase transition temperature of quartz (i.e. 573°C), at which a sudden volumetric expansion (i.e. a volume increase of 0.86%) of quartz crystals occurs. Comparative testing of material which was slow cooled from 680°C to ambient, and material which was shock cooled through water quenching, showed no difference in the product size distribution of the material after milling. Comparisons of results obtained from the same heat treatments after comminution by slow crushing, however, indicate that quenching the ore results in a change in the product particle size distribution, with significantly less material passing at larger sizes with the difference in passing size decreasing with particle size, thus resulting in a finer product without a significant increase in the production of very fine material. This was the first indication that the manner of the post-processing of the material may be as important as the thermal treatment itself.
Pocock et al., 199813, investigated the use of various quenching solutions to ascertain whether any improvement could be seen from using acid, alkali or salt solutions instead of water. It was found that all of these showed improvements in grinding energy reduction over the use of water, and of these, it was found that the use of acid or alkali solutions provided the best results. At the same time, it was seen from UFLC tests that as comminution of the treated particles continued (i.e. as the particles become smaller), the observed effects of the thermal pretreatment are reduced. What this indicates is that as the easily exploited newly formed fractures are used up, the strength of the ore begins to once again approach that of the untreated ore.
Wills et al., 198710, investigated the thermally assisted liberation of cassiterite in an ore mined at South Crofty. Previous work on this ore (Sherring, 1981)14 had shown a 55% reduction in grinding resistance when the ore was heated to 650°C and then rapidly cooled, however, this was greatly offset by the energy required to heat the material. It was suggested by Manser, 198315, that an increase in tin recovery of 1% would offset this cost in the case of the South Crofty ore, due to the value of the recovered minerals. Employing similar conditions in their work, and heat treated polished sections of the ore which could be photographed before and after the treatment to look for any induced fractures which might indicate that this increase in liberation may be possible. Their results showed that while some intergranular fracturing was observed as a result of their heat treatment, in most of the cases extensive transgranular fracturing occurred, and later separation tests showed no enhanced liberation or recovery of this material with heat treatment.
Conventional heat treatment of minerals is a process with high-energy consumption and it is not economical. Hence, researchers, searched for processes that are more effective.
It is reported in a review paper by Xia and Pickles, 199716, that the earliest work on the microwaving of minerals began with a study of the high temperature processing of certain oxides and sulfides using a resonant cavity operating at 2.45 GHz and variable power up to 1.6 kW (Ford and Pei, 1967)17. Table 1 shows the results. The results of this early work were qualitative in nature, concluding that, in general, dark coloured compounds heated rapidly (reaching temperatures of up to 1000°C), while lighter coloured compounds heated slower but were capable of being heated to higher temperatures.
Compound | Heating time (min) | Max. Temp. ( |
Al2O3 | 24 | 1900 |
C | 0.2 | 1000 |
CaO | 40 | 200 |
Co2O3 | 3 | 900 |
CuO | 4 | 800 |
CuS | 5 | 600 |
Fe2O3 | 6 | 1000 |
Fe3O4 | 0.5 | 500 |
FeS | 6 | 800 |
MgO | 40 | 1300 |
MoO3 | 0.46 | 750 |
MoS2 | 0.1 | 900 |
Ni2O3 | 3 | 1300 |
PbO | 13 | 900 |
UO2 | 0.1 | 1100 |
Microwave heating of some oxides and sulfide compounds
Further, Wong (1975) 18and Tinga (198819, 198920) reported the microwave heating behavior of several metal oxides. These results were compared with published data; and classified based on heating rate into hyperactive, active, difficult-to-heat and inactive. Table 2 represents the compilation results. They demonstrated that microwave energy could be effective in the heating of minerals and inorganic compounds.
Material classification | Heating rate reported (℃/min) | Max. Temp. ( | |
Hyperactive Materials | UO2 | 200 | 1100 |
MoS2 | 150 | 900 | |
C(charcoal) | 100 | 1000 | |
Fe3O4 | 500-1000 | ||
FeS2 | 500 | ||
CuCl | 20 | 450 | |
Active | Ni2O3 | 1300 | |
CoO3 | 900 | ||
CuO | 800 | ||
Fe2O3 | 1000 | ||
FeS | 800 | ||
CuS | 600 | ||
Difficult to Heat | Al2O3 | 1900 | |
PbO | 900 | ||
MgO | 1300 | ||
ZnO | 1100 | ||
MoO3 | 750 | ||
Inactive | CaO | 200 | |
CaCO3 | 130 | ||
SiO2 | 70 |
Classification of some reagent grade materials based on microwave heating rate
Perhaps the most important of the early work was that of Chen et al., 1984,21 who investigated the reaction of 40 minerals to microwave exposure in a waveguide applicator, which allowed the mineral samples to be inserted in an area of known high electric field strength. Though by this time, it was already known that microwaves would heat some minerals selectively; this work further showed that microwave heating is dependent on the composition of the mineral, and thus elemental substitutions would affect the behavior of a mineral in an electric field. An example of this was noted with sphalerite, where high iron sphalerite would eventually heat quite well after a period of slow heating at low temperatures, but that low iron sphalerite did not heat readily. From the large number of minerals tested, it was noted that most silicates, carbonates and sulfates, and some oxides and sulfides are transparent to microwave energy, while most sulfides, arsenides, sulfosalts and sulfarsenides, and some oxides, heat well when subjected to microwave irradiation.
More recently, the US Bureau of Mines reported test results of microwave heating a number of minerals and reagent grade inorganic compounds with 2450 MHz (McGill and Walkiewicz, 198722, Walkiewicz et al., 198823). The test results revealed that the highest temperatures were obtained with carbon and most of the metals oxides: NiO, MnO2, Fe3 O4, Co2O3, CuO and WO3. Most metal sulphides heated well but without any consistent pattern. Metal powder and some heavy metal halides also heated well; gangue minerals such as quartz, calcite and feldspar did not heat. This study also revealed that rapid heating of ore minerals in a microwave transparent matrix generated thermal stress of sufficient magnitude to create micro-cracks along mineral boundaries. This kind of micro-cracking has the potential to improve grinding efficiency as well as leaching efficiency.
Chunpeng et al. (1990)24 conducted microwave heating tests on several oxide, sulfide and carbonate minerals. All tests were conducted on a 50.0 g powder (-200 mesh.) sample per batch with an input microwave power of 500 W of 2450 MHz frequency and constant exposure time (4 min). Test results are shown in Table 3. These results indicate that the majority of oxide and sulphide minerals heated well.
Minerals | Chemical composition | Temperature ( |
Jamesoite | Pb2Sb2S5ZnS | "/>850 |
Titanomagnetite | "/>1000 | |
Galena | PbS | "/>650 |
Chalcopyrite | CuFeS2 | "/>400 |
Pentlantite | (FeNi)(1-x)S8 | "/>440 |
Nickel pyrrhotite | (FeNi)(1-x)S | "/>800 |
Cu–Co sulphide Concentrate | "/>800 | |
Sphalerite | ZnS | "/>160 |
Molybdenite | MoS2 | "/>510 |
Stibnite | Sb2S3 | Room temp |
Pyrrhotite | Fe(1-x)S | "/>380 |
Bornite | Cu3FeS4 | "/>700 |
Hematite | Fe2O3 | "/>980 |
Magnetite | Fe3O4 | "/>700 |
Limonite | "/>130 | |
Cassiterite | SnO2 | "/>900 |
Cobalt hydrate | CoO. | "/>800 |
Lead molybdenate | PbMoO4 | "/>150 |
Iron titanite | FeTiO3 | "/>1030 |
Rutile | TiO2 | Room temp |
Lead carbonate | PbCO3 | "/>180 |
Zinespar | ZnCO3 | "/>48 |
Siderite | FeCO3 | "/>160 |
Serpentine | Mg(Si4O10 )(OH)3 | "/>200 |
Melaconite | Cu2Al3(H(2-x)Si2O3)(OH)4 | "/>150 |
Antimony oxide | Sb2O3 | "/>150 |
Effect of microwave heating on the temperature of various minerals (500 W, 2450 MHz, 4min radiation)
Interaction of microwave with minerals is poorly understood. Thus, a fundamental understanding of how microwave energy interacts with minerals is the key to unlocking the technology for use in mineral processing industries. To shed more light on the subject of the interaction of microwave with minerals, Barani et al., 2012,25 studied the effect of sample factors, such as volume, surface area, size and shape, aspect ratio on the magnitude and uniformity of power absorption by iron ore and water samples and compared obtained data. The results showed that for water heating, with increasing in sample volume from 200 to 1000 cm3 the microwave energy absorbed by water was increased from 71.27 to 100%, also with increasing in sample surface area from 50.24 to 78.50 cm2 the microwave, energy absorbed by water was increased from 76.36 to 89.09%. With increasing iron ore sample volume without increasing in surface area, the microwave absorption was constant whereas with increasing in sample surface area from 50.24 to 126.6 cm2, the microwave energy absorbed by iron ore was increased from 36.6 to 61.82%. The maximum temperature for iron ore material was occurred at 5.7 cm distance from the center whereas the maximum temperature for water sample was occurred at 5cm distance from the center.
Walkiewicz et al. (198823, 199126) demonstrated that the rapid heating of ore containing microwave energy absorbing minerals in a non-absorbing gangue matrix generated thermal stress. This thermal stress caused micro fracturing along the mineral grain boundaries; as a result, such an ore sample becomes more amendable to grinding. According to these authors, the grinding operation (comminution) consumes 50%–70% of energy used in mineral processing operations. Again, the energy efficiency of a conventional grinding operation is approximately 1%. They demonstrated that microwave preheating of an iron ore improved grinding efficiency by 9.9% to 23.9%. However, this improvement was not enough to compensate for the energy consumption of the microwave preheating.
Walkiewicz et al., 1993,27 investigating the effect of power level on Bond work index, found that the larger temperature gradients associated with the more rapid development of heat within the particle grains because of higher microwave powers, led to a larger decrease in ore strength than for exposure to lower microwave powers.
Tavares and King, March 1996,28 investigating samples of specific iron, taconite and titanium ores in a multimode cavity using a low power input of between 0 and 1.2 kW, compared the strengths of untreated ore with that of ores treated both conventionally and with microwaves. It was observed that in all cases the thermal treatments affected the ore favourably in terms of both reductions in fracture energy and increased damage, however, there was very little difference between the results for the conventional and microwave treatments, with the exception of a greater reduction in fracture energy of the iron ore and greater damage to the titanium ore from microwave treatment. From examinations of the single particle breakage functions, it was further seen that the thermal pretreatments resulted in a shift in the top of the breakage function to smaller sizes without an increase in the production of very fine material, and also that the microwave treated ores tended to produce a greater shift in the top of the breakage function than conventionally treated ores. It was concluded that this change in fragmentation pattern, together with observations from image analysis of a 50% increase in grain boundary fracture in the microwaved iron ore, might result in improved liberation. Later tests by the same authors (Tavares and King, August 1996)29 on a copper ore showed no difference between the fracture energies of microwave pretreated and untreated material, though it was noted that there was a slight indication of grain boundary fracture around the sulfide grains. It is not stated what kind of microwave treatment was used, however, and thus these results are not comparable to those of other workers.
Work on the grind ability of coal by Marland et al., 200030, indicated that reductions in work index of up to 50% occur after microwave pretreatment. The greatest strength reductions were obtained from lower ranked coals, and it was suggested that this was most likely due to the higher inherent moisture content of such coals, with gaseous evolutions of water and volatile matter the main causes of damage to the coal particles. It was also found that microwave radiation affected the calorific value to the same extent as would be expected from conventional drying procedure, and it was concluded that the application of microwave treatment did not alter the fuel potential of coal.
Kingman et al., 200031, encompassing tests on several commercially exploited ores to investigate the influence of ore mineralogy on microwave assisted grinding showed that the most responsive ores were those with a consistent mineralogy, containing good absorbers in a transparent gangue, while those with small lossy particles that are finely disseminated in discrete elements were shown to have the worst response in terms of reduction in required grinding energy. One extremely important result from this paper was the suggestion that purpose built microwave cavities may be important in making the treatment of ores more economically viable.
Wang and Forssberg, 2000,32 performed tests on three ores (i.e. limestone, dolomite and quartz) to investigate their microwave heating behavior and subsequent grindability during dry ball milling, after pretreatment. Each ore was crushed and sized into three fractions for testing, these being -9.75+5.75 mm, -4.7+1.6 mm and -1.6 mm. It was noted that the particle size of the material undergoing thermal pretreatment had a significant effect on the heating behavior and subsequent grindability of two of the ores, with tests on the quartz and limestone material showing that the microwave pretreatment was only effective for the -9.5+4.75 mm material, which then subsequently showed improved grindability. Below 4.75 mm, little or no effect was seen, and it was suggested that this was due to conductive heat transfer which plays a more important role in heat loss from smaller particles. It was also found that increasing the exposure time led to a further increase in the grindability of these two ores. Dolomite showed little reaction to microwave pretreatment during subsequent dry milling experiments. Tests were also performed to determine the degree of liberation of sulfide minerals in a low grade copper ore (0.22-0.4% Cu) from Aitik after crushing. SEM photomicrographs showed that thermal stress cracks occurred readily along the sulfide-gangue mineral grain boundaries, and image analysis software showed a substantial increase in the liberation of sulfide minerals in the ore matrix with microwave pretreatment prior to crushing.
Vorster et al, 200133, performed several tests on a massive copper ore and a massive copper-zinc ore, both from Neves Corvo in southern Portugal, using a 2.6 kW multimode cavity operating at 2.45 GHz. Quenching after 90 seconds of microwave exposure led to a 70% reduction in the work index of the massive copper ore. The effect of quenching was also illustrated with tests on the massive copper-zinc ore, where after 90 seconds of microwave exposure with no quenching, a reduction of 50% in the strength of the ore was obtained, while the addition of quenching directly after microwave treatment led to a further 15% reduction in work index. Copper flotation trials showed that no benefit in terms of improved copper recovery was seen after microwave treatment, and it was concluded that the improved liberation after microwave treatment which was noted from SEM analysis, was most likely offset by some surface oxidation of the recoverable sulfide minerals.
Kingman et al., 200434, investigated the treatment of a copper carbonatite ore from a mine in South Africa using a single mode, high power applicator (i.e. a variable power input of up to 15 kW). Their results showed that a sort of threshold value existed for the power input into the system, which once passed, caused serious damage to the particle in a very short treatment time (< 0.5 seconds). The importance of this discovery is best seen when the values are turned into values of power densities within the valuable minerals, in which case these values are no longer specific to a certain microwave system, allowing the design of any system with the goal of obtaining these power densities. It was shown that reductions of up to 30% in grinding energy could be achieved with microwave energy inputs of less than 1 kWh/t. QEMSCAN analysis of the product of drop weight tests also showed a decrease in the amount of locked and middling copper sulfides in the +500 μm size classes.
Amankwah et al., 200535, performed tests on samples of a gold ore containing quartz, silicates and iron oxides with a head grade of 6.4 g/t of gold, using 2 kW of power in a multimode cavity. It was seen that the microwave treatment resulted in a maximum reduction of 31.2% in crushing strength and a reduction of 18.5% in work index. SEM analysis clearly showed that microwave induced fractures were occurring in the ore, and an improvement of 12% in gold recovery from gravity separation tests showed that this resulted in the liberation of the gold at coarser particles sizes during comminution.
Scott et al., 2007, studied the effects of microwave treatment on the liberation spectrum of a rod-milled South African carbonatite ore.The treated ore was processed for 0.5 s at 10.5 kW in a single mode microwave cavity in batches of 1 kg. The treated and untreated ore were subsequently grinded to 80%–800 μm. The microwave treated ore showed a significant increase in the amount of liberated copper minerals in the relatively coarse particle size range (106 to 300 μm). Similar significant shifts in the liberation spectra were noted for all the minerals in the ore. It is inferred that microwave treatment induces changes in the fracture pattern, favoring liberation of microwave susceptible minerals at larger particle sizes.
Koleini et al., 200836, investigated the effect of microwave radiation on the comminution of an iron ore. Iron ore material was preheated for different time at 1000W in a multi-mode microwave oven. Comparative bond rod mill work index was used to determine the effect of this process on the grinding energy required for size reduction of the material in a laboratory rod mill. It is shown after 1, 3 and 5 minute radiation respectively, the amount of 12, 34 and 46% reduction in work index was achieved. Microwave exposure followed by water quenching is shown after 1, 3 and 5 minutes radiation respectively, the amount of 19, 38 and 50% reduction in work index was achieved.
Barani et al., 201037, studied the influence of microwave pre-treatment on iron ore breakage. Drop weight tests were used to quantify the change in strength in terms of reduction in required comminution energy. The drop weight test parameters of untreated iron ore was compared to microwave-treated iron ore under the same experimental conditions and it was found that microwave-treated materials is softer than untreated in terms of the impact breakage parameter values and the abrasion breakage parameter values. After microwave treatment, about 100% increases in abrasion breakage parameter was achieved while maximum increasing in impact breakage parameter was 36%. It seems that microwave treatment is more effective for abrasion breakage mechanism; because abrasion is, a surface phenomenon and microwave treatment is more effective at surface heating
Koleini et al, 201238, studied the effect of microwave treatment on the grinding kinetics of an iron, using mono-sized materials of −2.360+2.0 mm, −1.400+1.180 mm, −1.0+0.850 mm and −0.355+0.300 mm. Microwave-treated samples were treated in a multimode microwave oven with 1100 W input power. The grinding tests were conducted using a laboratory ball mill under identical conditions to allow a comparative analysis of the results. The specific rates of breakage (Si) and cumulative breakage distribution function (Bi,j) values, as grinding breakage parameters, were determined for those size fractions of untreated and microwave-treated feeds. It was determined that breakage of iron ore followed a first-order behavior for fine feed sizes and deviated from first order for coarse feed size. The specific rate of breakage parameters of untreated iron ore was compared with microwave-treated iron ore under the same experimental conditions and it was found that microwave-treated materials break faster than untreated in terms of the Si and A values. Breakage parameters showed that treated materials produce more coarse material than untreated material in terms of the γ value of Bi,j.
Walkiewicz et al., 198823, showed that thermal stress fracturing along grain boundaries was induced in some samples after microwave heating, and suggested that this could significantly influence not only the grindability of microwave treated ores, but mineral liberation as well.
Work by Tinga, 198819, in the field of microwave sintering suggested that preferential heating of grain boundaries occurs. This should be the case for any high loss dielectric grain of reasonable diameter embedded in a relatively low loss host material. Effects such as conduction losses and the rate of heating do play a role, however, and care should be taken before assuming this is true for any particular situation. Tinga, 198819, also stated that the single most important factor when considering microwave heating was the design of the applicator, where choosing the wrong applicator for a task will mostly likely result in very few of the expected benefits of microwave processing being seen, and therefore very little improvement in results from the treatment versus those of conventional practices.
Salsman et al., 199639, used a finite element numerical model of a single pyrite particle in a calcite matrix to further investigated the phenomenon of thermally assisted liberation using microwave energy. Using power densities, which are likely to be possible within the pyrite grains, it was seen that large tensile stresses, exceeding the tensile strengths of most common rock material, were generated along the pyrite-calcite interface. It was discovered that a decrease in either particle size or in the grain size of the microwave susceptible mineral inclusions, led to a decrease in the intergranular stresses developed within the particles. The influence of power density on the absorption of microwave energy by minerals was also investigated, and it was found that by using short concentrated microwave pulses to increase the power density within the material, substantially higher stresses could be generated within the particles at the same power inputs.
Whittles et al., 200340, investigated the effect of power density on the microwave treatment of ores, using finite difference techniques to model microwave heating, thermal conduction, thermal expansion, thermally induced fracturing and strain softening of a particle containing dispersion of 2 mm square pyrite grains in a 15 mm by 30 mm calcite host matrix. Simulations were also performed to determine any change in the uniaxial compressive strength of the particle after microwave heating. It was shown that power density is an important factor in microwave treatment of ores, with the application of high power densities resulting in much greater damage to the particle. It was concluded that utilizing high power densities for shorter times could also drastically reduce the microwave treatment energy required to below 1 kWh/t.
Jones et al., 200541, also investigated the effect of microwave treatment through numerical simulations of a system of microwave absorbing pyrite grains in a microwave transparent calcite host. An important result of this work was the verification and explanation of the observations of Wills et al., 198710, who determined that regularly shaped mineral inclusions with smooth boundaries were much more likely to result in thermally induced intergranular fracture than irregular grains which tend to be damaged by transgranular fracturing as a direct result of thermal treatment. It was determined that for spherical absorbing grains the occurrence of transgranular fracture is highly unlikely as the symmetry of the grain ensures that the compressive stresses generated inside the microwave absorber are equal in all directions, thus reducing the likelihood of shear stresses developing within the grain. As grain shape deviates from spherical, the likelihood of transgranular fracture rises. It was also seen that as the grain size of the microwave absorber decreased, conduction losses resulted in lower temperatures being reached within the absorbing grain at the end of the same exposure time. This resulted in lower stresses being generated around the absorbing grain, with less damage to the host particle as a result.
Florek et al., 199642, carried out a study of the effect of microwave treatment on the magnetization of iron ore minerals. It was concluded that the surface characteristics and magnetization of iron ore minerals alter after microwave radiation.
The effect of microwave radiation upon the mineralogy and magnetic processing of amassive Norwegian ilmenite ore was per- formed by Kingman et al. 199943. It has been shown that short periods of exposure can cause fracture at grain boundaries, which leads to the formation of inter-granular fractures. This fracture coupled with an increase in remnant magnetization of the ilmenite mineral has been demonstrated to give rise to an increase in both concentrate grade and valuable mineral recovery. However, the study has also indicated that process efficiency can be effected with over exposure to microwave radiation.
Kingman and Rowson, 200044, showed that a number of minerals, e.g. chalcopyrite, hematite and wolframite, not only heat readily during exposure to microwaves, but also exhibit a considerable increase in the magnetic susceptibility after being exposed to 650W microwave radiation.
Cui et al., 200245, carried out an investigation to study the changes in magnetic properties after roasting to the different types of minerals contained in the oil sands tailings. It was observed that the magnetic susceptibility of ilmenite increased after either oxidation or reduction roasting. For hematite, reduction roasting increased its magnetic susceptibility and oxidation roasting did not seem to have any effect.
Sahyoun et al., 200346, investigated the influence of conventional heat treatment and microwave radiation on chalcopyrite. There was a significant increase in the proportion of material recovered to magnetic fraction and magnetic susceptibility with conventional heating time. XRD analysis detected phase changes in conventional heat-treated chalcopyrite, which increases the magnetic susceptibility of the ore and enables its effective magnetic separation, which is impossible to achieve in its original state. With microwave treatment, the magnetic susceptibility increases and the proportion of material recovered to the magnetic fraction on the induced rolls is also increased. However, XRD analysis failed to detect any phase changes. A possible explanation for this observed behavior can be drawn that the more magnetic component has been formed by microwave treatment is below the threshold of detection of the XRD analyzer.
Uslu et al., 200347, investigated the effect of microwave heating on magnetic processing of pyrite. The microwave treated pyrite samples of −0.420mm fraction were subjected to magnetic separation at magnetic field intensities of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5T. It was found that pyrite was converted to such ferromagnetic minerals as pyrothite and γ-hematite, and magnetic separation recovery was improved after microwave treatment.
Znamenackova and Lovas., 200548, showed that after 10 min pre- treatment of weakly paramagnetic ore in a microwave oven with maximum power of 900 W, essential change in the magnetic properties of the ore samples occurred and after 15 min, a rapid increase of magnetic susceptibility value was observed, showing the intensive decomposition of siderite. Finally, after 40 min of heating, a microwave sintering of powder grains in the form of agglomerates with molten mass was observed.
Waters et al., 200749, investigated the effect of microwave radiation on the magnetic properties of pyrite. After treatment with a conventional multimodal reactor (2.45GHz and 1900W) for 120 s, the recovery of pyrite in the magnetic fraction after separation increased from 8% (wet) and 25% (dry) to greater than 80% for both process streams. The improvement in the magnetization of the sample has also been noted, determined using a vibrating sam- ple magnetometer (VSM). After exposure to microwave radiation, the magnetization of the mineral sample was increased.
Barani et al., 201150, investigated the effect of microwave radiation on the magnetic properties of an iron ore. Four Iron ore samples were used in this research. Three samples were treated for 30, 60 and 120 S respectively, in a multi-mode microwave oven with a frequency of 2.45GHz and a maximum power of 1100 W. The magnetizations of non-treated and microwave-treated samples were determined using a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). With increasing in radiation time to 60 S, the total magnetism saturation and remnant magnetization of the samples were increased. The results show that with further increasing in microwave radiation time up to 120 S, localized sample melting was occurred and the total magnetism saturation and remnant magnetization were decreased. The results showed that the sample composes ferromagnetic and paramagnetic fractions. With increasing in microwave radiation time the magnetic susceptibility of the paramagnetic fraction was decreased from 0.0111 to zero whereas the magnetic susceptibility of the ferromagnetic fraction initially was increased from 0.0687 to 0.3879 then decreased to 0.1894 (at 120 S radiation time). It was confirmed that microwave radiation has a significant effect upon magnetic properties of iron ore. However, there is a limited condition, excessive radiation has a negative effect and reduces the magnetic susceptibility of iron ore.
Gold is considered to be refractory when it cannot be easily recovered by alkaline cyanide leaching. The vast majority of refractory gold occurs in sulphidic minerals such as pyrite (FeS2), arsenopyrite (FeAsS) and pyrrhotite (FeS). Generally, refractory gold concentrate or ore is pretreated by roasting, O2-pressure leaching or bacterial leaching, to render it amenable to gold recovery by alkaline cyanide leaching (Haque, 1987a, b)51,52. Because microwaves in general heat sulphidic minerals easily, it should be possible to pretreat sulphidic refractory gold concentrate by microwave energy. (Haque 1987a, b)51,\n\t\t\t\t\t52 conducted laboratory-scale microwave pretreatment tests in air on a typical arsenopyritic refractory gold concentrate. More than 80% of As and S were volatilized as As2O3 and SO2, whereas iron was oxidized into hematite (Fe2O3) at 550
To avoid the formation of As2O3 and SO2 this author conducted microwave calcination tests on the concentrate in a nitrogen atmosphere in a sealed silica tube. The major products were FeS, arsenious sulphide (As2S3) and sulphur (S). In addition, this author conducted microwave heating tests on a mixture of this concentrate and (NaOH), No SO2 and As2O3 evolved during microwave heating of this mixture; instead water soluble products such as; Na3AsO4, Na2SO4, FeSO4 were formed. The microwaved solids were leached with water at 75
Al-Harahsheh et al., 200554, have investigated the leaching kinetics of chalcopyrite under the influence of microwave treatment. Comparison of the amount of copper recovered from chalcopyrite under conventional and microwave heat treatment show marginal, but consistent, improvements in copper recovery when using microwave treatment as opposed to conventional treatment. It was suggested that the increase in copper recovery with microwave leaching was due to localized higher temperatures around the outer shell of the leaching solution as a result of the high dielectric loss factor (and thus low penetration depth) of the solution, and also selective heating of the outer skin of the chalcopyrite particles due to the high conductivity of this material.
Amankwah et al., 200555, performed tests on samples of a gold ore containing quartz, silicates and iron oxides with a head grade of 6.4 g/t of gold, using 2 kW of power in a multimode cavity. It was seen that the microwave treatment resulted in a maximum reduction of 31.2% in crushing strength and a reduction of 18.5% in work index. SEM analysis clearly showed that microwave induced fractures were occurring in the ore, and an improvement of 12% in gold recovery from gravity separation tests showed that this resulted in the liberation of the gold at coarser particles sizes during comminution.
Nanthakumar et al., 200756, investigated microwave roasting of a double refractory gold ore as an alternative method and the results were compared to those obtained by conventional roasting. The compositional changes of the ore during roasting were determined by thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA). In addition, both the real and the imaginary permittivities, which determine the amount of energy absorbed by the ore and the heating rate of the ore respectively, were evaluated. In addition, the microwave heating behavior was studied. Conventional and both direct and indirect microwave roasting tests were performed and in all the cases, the pyrite was readily converted into hematite. Direct microwave roasting could not remove the organic carbon. Indirect microwave roasting was conducted using magnetite as a susceptor and preg-robbing was eliminated when about 94% of the organic carbon was removed. For both conventional and indirect microwave roasting, gold recoveries of over about 98% were achieved after cyanide leaching. For microwave roasting, both the total carbon removal rates and the heating rates were higher and the specific energy consumptions were lower than the corresponding values for conventional roasting.
Amankwah et al., 200857, studied microwave roasting of a double refractory flotation concentrate to oxidize both the sulfides and the carbonaceous matter. The concentrate was characterized by thermo gravimetric and infrared analysis and the microwave absorption characteristics were quantified by determining the permittivities. The microwave heating behavior studies showed that the sample temperature increased with increasing incident microwave power, processing time and sample mass. Due to the hyperactive response of the concentrate to the microwaves, a low incident power of 600 W was found to be suitable for roasting, as higher powers resulted in sintering and melting of the concentrate. The gold extraction values after cyanidation were over 96% and these were similar to those obtained by conventional roasting. The main advantages of microwave roasting were that both the total carbon removal rates and the heating rates were higher and the specific energy consumptions were lower.
Ma et al., 200858, investigated removal of sulfur and arsenic from refractory flotation gold concentrates, bearing with 14.95% of As and 27.85% of S, by microwave roasting. Cooling patterns of the roasted products obviously affected the removal effects under oxygen-free roasting atmosphere. The highest removal occurred by crucible-uncapped cooling pattern, followed by the so-called half-open cooling pattern, and the crucible-capped cooling pattern attained the lowest removal. The mid pattern would be preferred because it could avoid spontaneous ignition compared to the crucible-uncapped cooling one. Roasting temperature showed obvious effect only above 450°C, increasing with the roasting temperature. However, desulfur was much more difficult than de-arsenic. Under oxygen-free roasting atmosphere, 95% of arsenic was removed when roasted for 40 minutes at 550°C, while the desulfur rate was only about 40%. Comparatively, the removal of sulfur dramatically reached above 90% in oxidizing atmosphere. Additionally the roasted products were analyzed by XRD.
The nickeliferous laterite ores, in which the nickel occurs in oxide form, represent a significant potential resource of metallic nickel. However, in comparison to the nickel-containing sulfide ores, the extraction costs are relatively high and thus it will be necessary to develop new processing techniques, which are both technically and economically viable. Pickles et al., 200459, investigated the potential application of microwaves for the heating of a nickeliferous limonitic laterite ore ((Fe,Ni)O(OH).nH2O) was investigated. Firstly, since the nickeliferous limonitic laterite ore contains considerable moisture, both free and combined, then thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was performed in order to characterize the changes, which result from the dehydration processes. Derivative thermogravimetric analysis (DTGA) curves were calculated from the TGA data. Secondly, the real (
Cumbane et al., 200860, has been used a measurement system, comprising a circular cylindrical TM0n0 cavity and based on a perturbation technique, for the determination of dielectric properties of five powdered sulphide minerals, which were measured at frequencies of 615MHz, 1410 MHz and 2210 MHz. The complex permittivity was measured from ambient temperature to 650 °C. The dielectric properties of galena and sphalerite exhibit little variation with temperature up to 500 °C. The dielectric properties of pyrite, chalcocite and chalcopyrite, show significant variation with temperature. These are related to composition and phase transformations during heating and were demonstrated by thermo-gravimetric analysis.
The vast majority of heavy metals oxides and carbon, as charcoal or coke, respond to microwave heating. Therefore, the microwave assisted carbothermic reduction of metal-oxides is possible. If the metal oxide is low lousy (i.e., poor receptor to microwave energy) then added carbon plays the role of microwave heating accelerator. Various researchers have demonstrated that iron oxides (hematite Fe2 O3, magnetite Fe3 O4) mixed with carbon (charcoal or coke) could be reduced to metallic iron (Standish and Worner, 199161, Gomez and Aguilar, 199562).
To compare conventional and microwave reduction, Standish et al. (1990, 1991)63,\n\t\t\t\t\t61 conducted reduction tests on identical sample mixtures of hematite ore fines, coke and lime powder. A sample of each mixture was heated in an electrically heated muffle furnace at 1000
Materials and products such as agricultural, chemical and food product, textile, paper, lumber and many more (Cook, 198665, Schiffmann, 198766, Doelling et al., 199267).Generally, drying refers to the removal of physically adsorbed solvent such as water, acid or high vapour pressure organic substance (e.g., alcohol, acetone, ether, halogenated hydrocarbons, aromatics, etc.). Anhydration refers to the removal of water chemically bound to a substance present intermolecularly as well as to the intramolecular elimination of water from hydroxy or carboxylic compounds. It was observed that the dielectric loss factor of a material to be dried often decreases with the loss of solvent (Schiffmann, 198768). Unpublished results indicate that microwave heating can remove water from hydrated magnesium chloride (MgCl2.7H2O) and convert goethite (O=Fe–OH) into hematite (Fe2O3), (Haque, 199868).
If both the solvent and the substance to be dried are transparent to microwaves (i.e., no heating by microwave energy), then a suitable microwave heat accelerator, such as carbon, magnetite or silicon carbide must be added to the system to heat the added material to volatilize the solvent. This heating concept may be applied in the removal of volatile contaminants from soil, or even ore material (George et al., 199469).
Analytical chemists have used microwave heating devices routinely for the dissolution of metals, minerals and various chemical products in chemical analysis (Matthes et al., 198370, Kingston and Jassie, 198571). As mentioned earlier, microwave heating is material specific, offers a faster heating rate and consequently a faster dissolution rate than conventional heating. In fact, the principle of the dissolution of analytical samples has been applied to the leaching of various minerals contained in an ore or concentrate sample. Kruesi and Frahm, 198272 and Kruesi,198673 conducted microwave assisted leaching of lateritic ores containing oxides of nickel, cobalt, and iron. The metals of these mineral components were converted into their chlorides by microwave heating (1200 W, 2450 MHz, N2 atmosphere) a mixture of the ore and ammonium chloride between 177
Peng and Liu, 1992a74, 1992b75, applied microwave energy in the leaching of sphalerite with acidic ferric chloride (FeCl3 –HCl). Various leach parameters; such as 3 temperature, particle size and ferric chloride concentration were studied. Test results demonstrated that the leaching rate of zinc increased with temperature in both microwave and conventional heating systems. They reported 90% zinc extraction when the leach conditions were at 0.1 M HCl, 1.0 M FeCl3, 60 min microwave heating at 95
In the recovery of copper from a chalcopyritic concentrate (30.1–30.3% copper) Antonucci and Correa,199575, conducted a sulfation reaction by microwave heating (2450 MHz for laboratory tests and 915 MHz for semi pilot scale tests) a paste-like mixture of the concentrate and sulphuric acid followed by water leaching at 60
Currently, more and more gold ore processing industries are using activated carbon in CIP (carbon in pulp) or CIL (carbon in leach) operation. The carbon is regenerated after each cycle of adsorption and desorption of gold cyanocomplex. Usually, this spent carbon is regenerated by washing with a mineral acid followed by heating at high temperature (600
Haque et al., (199177, 199378), conducted laboratory scale carbon regeneration tests by microwave (2450 MHz) heating and confirmed the feasibility of spent carbon regeneration by microwave heating. Subsequent pilot scale carbon regeneration tests data (915 MHz) demonstrated that microwave regenerated carbon performed well or better than conventionally regenerated carbon (Bradshaw et al., 199777). Currently, Ontario Hydro, Toronto, Ontario, Canada is marketing this technology.
Processing industries invariably generate waste material; mine-milling industries are no exception. To mitigate the danger presented by the constituents of the waste technologies are being investigated to minimize the waste generated and to provide safe handling, transportation, storage, destruction, removal or disposal of the hazardous waste. Currently, microwave energy is showing considerable potential in the management of a vast array of gaseous, liquid and solid wastes (Wicks et al., 199578). Mine milling operations generate large volumes of solid waste with acid generation potential, liquid waste containing acid, toxic heavy metals and non-metals, cyanide, ammonia, organics etc., and gaseous wastes such as, sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
Cha (1993) demonstrated in laboratory scale tests that SO2 and NOx in industrial off-gas can be decomposed into elemental nitrogen and sulphur, and a mixture of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. The first step of the process involves passing the off-gas stream containing SO2 and/or NOx through a column packed with activated carbon to adsorb the toxic gases. The loaded carbon column is then heated by microwaves and the resulting CO, CO2 and N2 are released into atmosphere. Sulphur is cooled in a spray chamber and collected for sale.
H2S is a very toxic gas produced during refining crude petroleum. Generally, hydrogen sulphide waste gas streams are treated by the Claus process, which is based on partial oxidation of hydrogen sulphide into sulphur and water. The Claus oxidation process requires a suitable oxidant mixture. The Kurchatov Institute in Moscow, Russia, developed a process for the decomposition of hydrogen sulphide into hydrogen and sulphur by applying a microwave plasma (plasmatron). The Argon National Laboratory (ANL) of the USA developed a ‘plasma-chemical waste treatment process’ in which a hydrogen sulphide waste stream is passed through a microwave-generated plasma reactor where it decomposes into hydrogen and sulphur. ANL test results indicated that this decomposition ranged from 65% to 80% per single pass. Preliminary energy and economic analysis data suggest that the plasma-chemical waste treatment process has the potential for annual energy savings of 40 to 70 trillion Btu or $500 to $1000 million for the refining industries. Further details of the process are available from ANL (Harkness, 199479).
Steel making furnaces generate metallic dust (Electric arc furnaces,EAF), which use galvanized scrap metals, generate dust which often contains water leachable lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr) and zinc (Zn). This kind of dust is classified hazardous and needs to be treated prior to disposal. Currently, combined EAF dust production in Canada and the USA is 677,000 tons per year (Ionescu et al., 199780). A current dust treatment process becomes economical if the treatment scale is 40,000 tons/year or above (Xia and Pickles, 199616).
A large number of EAF mills are mini-mill type operations which need a treatment process that is a small scale, on-site and economic. Ghoreshy and Pickles, 199481, Chose microwave energy (900 W, 2450 MHz) for the heating a typical EAF dust mixed with powdered carbon for various length of time. Over 90% zinc was volatilized as ZnO (zinc oxide), which was condensed and collected on an alumina plate placed on top of the reaction crucible. The laboratory scale test results demonstrated that zinc removal was rapid and selective. The iron rich residue can be recycled in an iron or steel making furnace. Steel making slag usually contains 20 wt. % iron. To modify the physical characteristics of and to recover iron from the slag. Hatton and Pickles, 199482, Conducted laboratory scale microwave heating tests (1000 W, 2450 MHz). The heating behavior of the steel making slag was investigated with and without the addition of carbon or magnetite. Test results demonstrated that both carbon and magnetite addition increased the heating rate of the slag; 1000
The mechanical size reduction of solids is an energy intensive and highly inefficient process. Therefore, there is great incentive to improve the efficiency of size reduction and mineral separation processes. Over several decades, this has promoted significant amounts of research, unfortunately, this has only led to small, incremental improvements in efficiency. One area, which has shown significant promise for improving the efficiency of mineral comminution and separation processes, is microwave assisted grinding.
Until recently, the majority of test work carried out concerning microwave treatment of minerals utilized standard multi-mode cavities, similar to that found in a conventional kitchen microwave oven. The multimode cavity whilst mechanically simple suffers from poor efficiencies and low electric field strengths, vital to high power adsorption. Whilst the influence of microwave energy from this type of cavity has been shown to have a significant influence on ores and minerals, the inefficiencies of the application method have led to conclusions that at present, microwave treatment of minerals (despite the numerous process benefits) is not viable.
More recent studies have presented studies describing the influence of high electric field strength microwave energy on minerals and ores. It is well known that microwave power density in a material (or volumetric power absorption) is directly proportional to the square of the electric field strength within the material. Therefore, it was shown that if local electric field strength can be magnified energy adsorption or heating rate can be amplified many times without the use of further energy. In turn, this lead to reduced cavity residence times and reductions in the required microwave energy input per ton. Detailed tests at the University of Nottingham have shown that in cavities with high electric field strengths the microwave energy consumption to achieve a desired reduction in strength can be as little as 2% of that required in previous work.
Investigations have been carried out on several economically important ores utilizing a high electric field strength cavity for microwave treatment. A systematic approach was used in order to establish the influence of applied power level and exposure duration on each ore sample. Assessment was made of the influence of particle size on heating rate (this will have an effect on the delivery and presentation methods). During sample treatment, assessment was made of electrical energy consumption, the efficiencies of the system being calculated by standard methods. To support the test programme, results of numerical finite difference simulations are presented which illustrate the importance of microwave and ore variables on post treatment ore properties. The results of the simulations showed that if the microwave energy can be supplied to the sample very rapidly (in order of microseconds) then thermal conduction from the heated phase into the bulk ore can be minimised and thermally induced stress is maximised.
In order to validate the simulation predictions a series of experiments are reported which utilise a pulsed microwave energy delivery system on several ore types. Samples were exposed in a multimode cavity connected to a high voltage solid state modulator and pulse generator. The experimental set up was able to deliver pulses at applied power levels of 1-5MW and pulse durations of 1-4μs at frequency of 2.8GHz.
Scanning electron microscopy and image analysis were used to map the pattern of induced fracture across the pulsed treated samples. It was shown that peak power level was the major influence on the degree of fracture with the highest powers giving greater effects. It was also shown that the fracture induced was predominately grain boundary related and the fractures did not seem to run into each other causing weakening of the bulk ore structure as found in samples treated in continuous wave microwave systems. Treated and untreated samples were then processed by appropriate separation techniques to determine if more valuable mineral could be recovered as a result of treatment. It is shown that pulsed treatment positively influences the recovery of valuable minerals from the different ore types investigated.
The information compiled in this chapter demonstrates that microwave energy has the potential for application in mineral treatment and metal recovery processes such as heating, drying, grinding, leaching, roasting, smelting, carbothermic reduction of oxide minerals, pretreatment of refractory gold concentrate or ore, spent carbon regeneration and waste management. Usually, microwave energy is more expensive than electrical energy, mainly due to the low conversion efficiency from electrical energy (50% for 2450 MHz and 85% for 915 MHz). However, the efficiency of microwave heating is often much higher than conventional heating and overcomes the cost of the energy. Generally, mineral processing industries treat a large tonnage of ore or concentrate per day (several thousand to over 30,000 tonnes). Currently, the highest microwave power generator available is 75 kW at 915 MHz. To treat such a large tonnage of ore or concentrate a number of generators would have to be operated in parallel, which may not offer a cost advantage over the conventional process. However, for high value product recovery or low tonnage material treatment microwave energy can offer a cost advantage over the conventional process, for example, pretreatment of refractory gold concentrate, regeneration of CIP spent carbon, roasting or smelting of ore or concentrate for smaller operations. Furthermore, it is possible to apply microwave energy to the leaching of ore or concentrate in slurry or semi-solid mixture (paste) at ambient pressure to yield a metal extraction comparable with pressure leaching. Today’s processing industries, including mineral processing, are facing increasing global competition, more stringent environmental regulations, higher overhead costs and shrinking profit margins. The processing industries are addressing these problems in various ways, and their processes are approaching peak product yield as well as performance and productivity efficiency. In the foreseeable future processing industries will be looking for high performance conventional as well as nonconventional processing technology. This is the point at which processes based on microwave energy will get favorable consideration. The continued development of high power microwave generator and precision temperature measuring devices for high temperature operation should have positive impact in the acceptance of microwave assisted mineral treatment process. The current R&D status indicates that microwave energy has the potential to play an important and possibly crucial role in future mineral treatment processes. However, challenges remain to be overcome through a fundamental understanding of microwave interaction with minerals, innovation, R&D investigations and advanced engineering, especially in designing efficient applicators, processes and process control devices.
Serotonin syndrome is a drug-induced condition caused by medications that increase intrasynaptic serotonin levels. It is characterized by a triad of symptoms that includes neuromuscular hyperactivity, altered mental status and autonomic dysfunction.
The syndrome was first described in 1960 as “Indolamine syndrome” in patients on therapy with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) who develop symptoms of serotonin syndrome after taking tryptophan – a serotonin precursor [1]. Since then, the number of reported cases of serotonin syndrome has increased significantly. The medical community’s attention to serotonin syndrome was drawn in 1984 by the unusual death of 18-year-old Libby Zion in a New York City hospital, which may have been linked to the development of serotonin syndrome after concomitant use of an MAOI and opioid analgesic. The opioid analgesic pethidine was administered to the girl suffering from depression and taking the antidepressant phenelzine, which led to the development of a fatal serotonin syndrome [2, 3].
Of all serotonergic drugs, antidepressants are the most common cause of serotonin syndrome, and recent data suggest that the most common drug combination associated with serotonin syndrome is that between selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and opioids [2]. As a relatively rare adverse drug reaction, the incidence of serotonin syndrome is difficult to be calculated during randomized controlled trials [4]. Moreover, it is estimated that over 85% of physicians are unaware of the condition [5]. The non-specific manifestation of the syndrome leads to its difficult recognition and underreporting, which further complicates the determination of its incidence. It is considered that serotonin syndrome occurs in 15% of patients who overdose on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The actual incidence of serotonin syndrome is thought to be significantly higher than reported [6, 7, 8].
Serotonin syndrome results from an increase in intrasynaptic serotonin levels caused by overstimulation of both central and peripheral serotonin receptors [9, 10]. Theoretically, serotonin syndrome can occur as a result of stimulation of any receptor of all seven serotonin receptor families [11]. However, the role of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A is most often mentioned [6, 7, 11, 12]. Moreover, the 5-HT2A receptor is thought to mediate the most serious consequences of the serotonin syndrome (Table 1).
Receptor | Function related to serotonin toxicity | |
---|---|---|
Type | Subtype | |
5-HT1 | 5-HT1A | neuronal inhibition, thermoregulation, hyperactivity associated with anxiety, hypoactivity associated with depression |
5-HT1D | locomotion, muscle tone | |
5-HT2 | 5-HT2A | neuronal excitation, vasoconstriction, platelet aggregation |
5-HT2B | smooth muscle contraction | |
5-HT3 | — | nausea and vomiting |
5-HT4 | — | increased GIT motility |
Some authors suggest that the development of serotonin syndrome requires the accumulation of a critical amount of serotonin. However, studies show that this level of serotonin is probably different for each patient. Experimental studies in animal models of serotonin syndrome have shown that other neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline (NA), N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and dopamine may also play a role in the development of serotonin syndrome but their role is not fully understood [6, 13].
It is shown that in serotonin syndrome CNS serotonin levels increase between 40 and 140 times. At the same time, dopamine levels are increased 10 to 44 times [14, 15]. Other studies indicate overactivation of the noradrenergic system with a rise in NA levels up to 15.9 times in serotonin syndrome, but the cause remains unknown. Some authors explain this increase in NA levels with activation of 5-HT2A receptors. This is supported by the fact that no significant increase in NA was observed with prior administration of ritanserin and pipamperone which act as antagonists of these receptors. On the other hand, there is evidence of the involvement of 5-HT1A receptors, although the administration of 5-HT1A antagonists does not prevent the increase in NA levels [14, 15]. The degree of NA increase may be related to the prognosis of serotonin syndrome, although it is not fully understood. At the same time, some of the observed symptoms of autonomic instability may be due to an overactivated noradrenergic system [14].
Drugs and substances that increase serotonin levels are known as serotonergic, and a mechanism by which they do that are as follows:
Increased serotonin synthesis
Increased serotonin release
Activation of serotonergic receptors
Serotonin reuptake inhibition
Inhibition of serotonin metabolism
The full list of all serotonergic substances is long, but antidepressants and, in recent years, some opioids take the central place. It is important to note that substances with serotonergic activity include not only antidepressants and opioids but also a number of other drugs used in everyday medical practice – some antibiotics, antiemetics, anxiolytics, antipsychotics, as well as over-the-counter drugs (OTC), dietary supplements, some illicit drugs and more [5, 6, 7, 16, 17, 18, 19].
Some of the antidepressants, opioids, and other drugs reported in the literature causing serotonin syndrome, as well as the mechanisms by which they increase serotonin levels are listed in Table 2.
Mechanism | Implicated drugs |
---|---|
Increased serotonin synthesis | |
Increased serotonin release | |
Activation of serotonergic receptors | |
Serotonin reuptake inhibition | |
Inhibition of serotonin metabolism |
The term “serotonin syndrome” in animals was first used in 1979 by Hwang and Van Woert [20, 21]. Manifestation of serotonin toxicity has been described in various animal species, however, most literature data, respectively most studies, are available on the development of serotonin syndrome in mice and rats [20].
In contrast to humans, in whom the symptoms of serotonin syndrome are well defined, the literature describes a wide variety of manifestations and different combinations of responses characterizing the development of serotonin syndrome in rodents.
There is considerable heterogeneity in the animal models reported in the literature. The use of different assessment methods, different response sets and different scales in assessing the effects of increased serotonergic tone limits quantitative comparisons of laboratory results. In this regard, Haberzettl et al. [20] conducted a systematic literature review of the described models of serotonin syndrome in rats and mice and evaluated the observed behavioral and autonomic manifestations. Based on the frequency of behavioral manifestations, the team divides them into traditional and additional, distinguishing those that reliably characterize the development of serotonin syndrome in rodents. The described behavioral and autonomic symptoms of serotonin syndrome in rats are presented in Table 3.
Behavioral manifestations | Autonomic manifestations | |
---|---|---|
Traditional | Additional | |
forepaw treading head weaving hind limb abduction low body posture Straub phenomenon tremor backward walking | body twitches chewing head shakes head twitches hyperactivity hyperreactivity locomotor activity (increased or decreased) myoclonus rearing wet dog shake | body temperature (increased or decreased) lower lip retraction penile erection pyloric erection salivation |
Serotonin syndrome manifestation in rats.
It is widely believed that 5-HT1A receptors mediate most behavioral manifestations of serotonin syndrome in rats [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. In support of this are studies demonstrating the induction of serotonin syndrome behaviors by the administration of 5-HT1A agonists [26, 32, 33] and the induction of a narrower spectrum of manifestations such as hind limb abduction, a Straub phenomenon and low body posture, from the partial 5-HT1A-agonist buspirone [31].
Other behavioral responses such as head weaving and wet dog shake, are mediated by 5-HT2A receptors [22, 34, 35, 36, 37]. For example, head weaving in rats induced by the administration of the non-selective MAO inhibitor phenelzine and the SSRI paroxetine was dose-dependently antagonized by 5-HT2 antagonists [35, 37]. In addition, head weaving caused by the administration of a 5-HT2A/2C agonist has been antagonized by the administration of a 5-HT2A antagonist, but not by a 5-HT2C/2B antagonist [38].
The analysis of Haberzettl et al. showed that the most common autonomic dysregulation manifestation observed in rats with serotonin syndrome is the change in the body temperature. The hyperthermic reaction observed is thought to be mainly related to the activation of 5-HT2A receptors [14, 39]. Experimental studies confirmed the involvement of 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors in thermoregulation in rats. For example, blockade of 5-HT2 receptors by ketanserin or pirenperone causes a decrease in body temperature, while blockade of 5-HT1A receptors by pindolol results in an increase in body temperature [40].
Although not a mandatory manifestation of serotonin syndrome, hyperthermia is one of the leading causes of observed mortality in experimental serotonin syndrome. In both animals and humans, it is hyperthermia that mainly causes complications. Such complications in humans could include seizures, rhabdomyolysis, myoglobinuria, metabolic acidosis, renal failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, respiratory failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC syndrome), coma and death [6].
The manifestation of serotonin syndrome observed in rodents resembles the manifestation of serotonin syndrome in humans (Table 4). For example, neuromuscular manifestations such as tremor and muscle rigidity have been observed in both humans and rodents. Myoclonus, which is a clinical symptom of serotonin syndrome in humans, in rodents may manifest as head twitches and forepaw treading. The Straub phenomenon observed in rodents may refer to the muscle rigidity observed in humans [21]. According to autonomic dysregulation manifestation, changes in body temperature occur in both rodents and humans.
Symptoms/manifestations of serotonin syndrome | Humans | Rodents |
---|---|---|
Neuromuscular disorders | clonus tremor hyperreflexia muscle rigidity myoclonus | head weaving tremor hind limb abduction Straub phenomenon low body posture backward walking |
Autonomic dysfunction | diaphoresis hyperthermia (>38 °C) diarrhea shivering | change in body temperature (increase or decrease) |
Mental status changes | agitation confusion hyperactivity hypomania anxiety | hyperactivity hyperreactivity |
Symptoms and manifestations of serotonin syndrome in humans and rodents – Comparison.
The most difficult to differentiate in animals is the third group of symptoms typical for the manifestation of serotonin syndrome in humans - mental status changes. However, hyperactivity and to some extent the hyperreactivity observed in rodents are associated with agitation observed in humans. Moreover, it is important to note that the current criteria for diagnosing serotonin syndrome in humans, Hunter’s criteria, do not include as a mandatory diagnostic criterion changes in mental status, which confirms the validity and applicability of the animal model of serotonin syndrome [21].
Two classical models of serotonin syndrome in rats have been described in the literature induced by concomitant administration of serotonergic substances with different mechanisms of action: 5-HTP (100 mg/kg i.p.) - a precursor of serotonin and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.) - selective MAO-A inhibitor [14] and fluoxetine (10 mg/kg i.p.) - a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and tranylcypromine (3.5 mg/kg, i.p.) - a non-selective MAO inhibitor [12].
Many central neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, acetylcholine, GABA and glutamate, are involved in the thermoregulation. GABA is a major central inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in thermoregulatory processes. The role of GABA as a thermoregulatory neurotransmitter or modulator is suggested by the good distribution of the mediator in the hypothalamus, confirmed by autoradiographic and immunohistochemical studies [41, 42, 43] and its central action. In addition, GABA-ergic neurons, as well as postsynaptic GABAA-ergic receptors have been identified in PO/AH (preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus) [44, 45, 46].
Potentiation of the central inhibitory effect of GABA is achieved by several different mechanisms, including allosteric modulation of GABA receptors (benzodiazepines, barbiturates, Z-hypnotics, propofol and fospropofol), direct GABA- or GABA-receptor agonist action (respectively muscimol, baclofen), increased synthesis of GABA (e.g., gabapentin, pregabalin, sodium valproate), inhibition of enzymatic degradation of GABA (e.g., vigabatrin, sodium valproate) and inhibition of neuronal or glial uptake of GABA (e.g., tiagabine).
Benzodiazepines mediate their pharmacological effects by enhancing the inhibitory effect of GABA on the CNS by binding to a specific modulating site on GABAA-ergic receptors containing 1, 2, 3 or 5 alpha-subunits. Benzodiazepines have no affinity for receptor complexes containing 4 or 6 alpha-subunits [47]. Activation of specific benzodiazepine receptors by diazepam or other benzodiazepines increase the frequency of GABAA-associated chloride channel opening [48].
The pharmacological activity of valproic acid is expressed in potentiation of GABA-ergic neurotransmission and prolongation of the inactivation of voltage-dependent neuronal sodium channels [49]. Sodium valproate is thought to increase brain GABA concentration by the following mechanisms: (1) inhibition of GABA-transaminase enzyme activity and decreased GABA degradation [50] 2) stimulating GAD activity [51] and increasing GABA synthesis; (3) decreased GABA turnover [52]. Vigabatrin (gamma-vinyl GABA) is a vinyl-substituted analogue of GABA that selectively and irreversibly inhibits the activity of the enzyme GABA-transaminase (GABA-T) and significantly increases the concentration of GABA in the brain [53].
After central and systemic administration of diazepam, sodium valproate, and vigabatrin dose-dependent decreases of body temperature in rats is observed [54, 55, 56, 57]. GABA-induced hypothermia has been suggested to be mediated by GABAA and/or GABAB receptor activation [58, 59]. The hypothermic effect of sodium valproate and vigabatrin occurs later than diazepam-induced hypothermia, which can be explained by their indirect mechanism of potentiation of GABA-ergic mediation.
These results are further confirmed in our studies, where we found that substances with a GABA-ergic mechanism of action such as diazepam, sodium valproate and vigabatrin effectively reduced the hyperthermic response in experimental serotonin syndrome in rats induced by concomitant administration of 5-HTP (100 mg/kg i.p.) - a precursor of serotonin and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.) - selective MAO-A inhibitor [14]. The reduction in serotonergic-induced hyperthermia with pretreatment of GABA-mimetic drugs is most likely due to an increase in central GABA-ergic neurotransmission through activation of GABAA receptors (e.g., diazepam) as well as through indirect action by increasing GABA concentration (e.g., sodium valproate, vigabatrin). These results on the hyperthermia associated with serotonin syndrome support the hypothesis of an interaction between the GABA-ergic and serotoninergic systems in thermoregulatory processes.
In our studies, after the concomitant administration of 5-HTP (100 mg/kg i.p.) and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.), a model of serotonin syndrome with typical behavioral and autonomic manifestations developed. Tremor occurs 10 minutes after injection, the hyperthermic reaction develops at 30 minutes, and the maximum value is observed 60 minutes after injection of the substances. All animals in this group died between 60 and 90 minutes after injection of serotonin. Pretreatment with diazepam at a dose of 5 mg/kg i.p. reduced the hyperthermic reaction at 30 and 60 min compared to the group with a model of serotonin syndrome, in which saline was administered prior to the injection of serotonergic agent. Administration of sodium valproate at a dose of 300 mg/kg i.p. reduced the hyperthermic reaction at 30 and 60 min compared to the group with a model of serotonin syndrome, in which saline was administered before the injection of serotonergic substances [56, 60]. Additionally, in another of our experiments, we used a modified model of serotonin syndrome induced by the concomitant administration of fluoxetine (10 mg/kg i.p.) - a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and clorgyline (2 mg/kg i.p.) - selective MAO-A inhibitor. Vigabatrin at a dose of 300 mg/kg i.p. significantly decreased the hyperthermic response between 150 and 300 min in rats with a serotonin syndrome model, compared to the group with a model of serotonin syndrome in which only saline was administered before the injection of the serotonergic substances [57, 61].
In summary pretreatment with diazepam (5 mg/kg i.p.), sodium valproate (300 mg/kg i.p.), and vigabatrin (300 mg/kg i.p.) decreased hyperthermia in different experimental models of the serotonin syndrome. These results suggest involvement of interactions between GABA-ergic and serotonergic systems in the processes of thermoregulation.
We assume that in addition to direct GABA-ergic mechanisms, interactions between neurotransmitters or mediator systems are involved in the influence of hyperthermia in serotonin syndrome by GABA-ergic substances. Presynaptic GABAB receptors affect the release of norepinephrine, dopamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine [62]. Expression of predominantly GABAB receptors has been found in most of the serotonin and catecholamine neurons in the nuclei of the brainstem, which are involved in the regulation of autonomic functions [63]. Interactions between the GABA-ergic and serotonergic systems are mediated by presynaptic heteroreceptor GABAB-inhibition of 5-HT release or by G-protein-coupled interaction between 5-HT1A and GABAB-ergic receptors [64].
Hyperthermia is the most common cause of complications of life-threatening forms of serotonin syndrome in humans and is one of the leading causes of mortality reported in experimental models of serotonin syndrome [6, 7].
As already mentioned, several studies indicate the role of 5-HT2A receptors in the development of a hyperthermic response in rats. In this regard, the effect of a number of 5-HT2 antagonists in influencing the hyperthermic response in experimental serotonin syndrome has been studied. Some of the serotonin antagonists investigated are cyproheptadine, ritanserin, ketanserin, mirtazapine, some antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine, risperidone and olanzapine [8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Results demonstrate a significant involvement of the 5-HT2A receptors in the development of hyperthermic response in experimental serotonin syndrome [65].
Studies have shown that cyproheptadine effectively affects the hyperthermic response in an experimental model of serotonin syndrome. Moreover, a comparative study demonstrates that, unlike other 5-HT2 antagonists, it prevents both the development of serotonin syndrome and the mortality of experimental animals [14, 66].
The role of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of serotonin syndrome has been increasingly discussed in the last few years, given that most atypical antipsychotics work primarily by blocking 5-HT2 receptors [67].
Moreover, temperature dysregulation is a documented side effect of antipsychotic drugs [68, 69, 70, 71, 72]. That most often manifests in the development of hyperthermia, a life-threatening symptom characteristic of the malignant neuroleptic syndrome (MNS). Data from various clinical cases, summarized in recent years by van Marum [68] and Zonnenberg [69, 70], show that the use of classical or atypical antipsychotics carries the risk of developing another, less well-documented adverse drug reaction, namely hypothermia. In humans, hypothermia is defined as a body temperature below 35 ° C, distinguishing three degrees: mild (33–35 ° C), moderate (28–33 ° C) and severe (<28 ° C) hypothermia [69].
Although the hypothermic effect of antipsychotics is less known than the hyperthermic one expressed in MNS, analysis of the literature data shows that there are almost equal reports of hypothermia (480 cases) and hyperthermia (524 cases) associated with the use of antipsychotics. Zonnenberg et al. consider that the actual incidence of hypothermia associated with the use of antipsychotics is at least 10 times higher than the documented [69]. For the first time, the development of hypothermia after the use of antipsychotic drugs was described by Loughnane in a 26-year-old patient on chlorpromazine therapy [73].
The analyzes of van Marum et al. and Zonnenberg et al. indicate that hypothermia most often occurs one week after starting antipsychotic therapy or after increasing the dose. They also indicated that the use of atypical antipsychotics was more common (approximately 55% of cases), with risperidone being the most commonly reported [68, 69, 74]. Mild hypothermia associated with low-dose risperidone has also been observed in a child with verbal and physically aggressive behavior [75].
Analyzes by van Marum and Zonnenberg show that antipsychotics with a higher affinity for blocking 5-HT2A than D2 receptors are more often associated with the development of hypothermia [68, 69]. This is also confirmed by experimental and clinical studies which demonstrate that the atypical antipsychotics olanzapine and risperidone cause a decrease in body temperature indicating that the mechanism of hypothermic action is associated with blockade of 5-HT2 receptors [72, 74, 75, 76].
From all data reported thus far, it can be concluded that 5-HT2 receptors and the GABA system are strongly involved in the development of hyperthermia in serotonin syndrome and the mortality associated with it.
Drug-induced hyperthermia is resistant to the action of classical antipyretics therefore their use is not recommended. The use of acetylsalicylic acid and other classical antipyretics not only has no effect in the case of drug-induced hyperthermia but may even cause a worsening of the course of the hyperthermic reaction. In our opinion, due to the proven hypothermic effect of the mentioned GABA-ergic drugs and 5-HT2-antagonists, their use in the therapeutic regimen of hyperthermia in specific hyperthermic syndromes is appropriate.
The similarity in the manifestation of the syndrome in rats and humans can serve as a basis for further elucidation of the mechanism of development of serotonin syndrome in humans. The animal model of serotonin syndrome can be used to study drugs and drug combinations that pose a potential risk of developing serotonin syndrome in humans and the possibilities for its prevention.
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In this chapter, cloud computing and other information technologies based accounting start-ups are covered, and the effects of these highly increasing start-ups on the profession of accounting have been addressed. In conclusion, it has been predicted that technology-based accounting start-ups with both accounting professionals and entrepreneurs having an expertise on information technologies will come together and will increase in the future, and cloud-based accounting initiatives will shape the future of the profession.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Burak Özdoğan",authors:[{id:"203445",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",middleName:null,surname:"Ozdogan",slug:"burak-ozdogan",fullName:"Burak Ozdogan"}]},{id:"55274",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68832",title:"Paradigm Shift in Corporate Reporting",slug:"paradigm-shift-in-corporate-reporting",totalDownloads:2209,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"In this paper, we present the evolution of integrated reporting and organizations playing an active role in this process. 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By means of these studies, it becomes easier to understand accounting as a social and political activity within itself and thus to be able to understand the economic, institutional, political and social environment of the turnover of the practices. In this regard, the main aim of this study is to explain the development of the public accounting system in Turkey with the help of institutional theory. Thus, it is aimed to explain all the dynamics that provide the institutionalization of state account in the national sense, together with the economic, political and social processes of the period in question. 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We also explore the effect of accounting reforms on value relevance that is measured as the strength of the association between a firm’s NI and BV and its market value. We specifically investigate the impact of the Turkish Uniform Chart of Accounts (1994), mandatory inflation accounting, consolidations and voluntary (2003–2004), and the mandatory (2005) adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). We hypothesize that these reforms have reduced information asymmetry and thus are expected to enhance the value relevance of accounting information. We find strong evidence that the Ohlson model is a valid model, and BV is more value relevant than NI in BIST. We also find that inflation accounting and consolidations have enhanced the value relevance of BV, while IFRS has increased the value relevance of NI, but reduced that of BV. We contribute to the debate by exploiting the unique sequence of reforms, to come up with comparative value relevance testing designs and interesting results for all major reforms, which we believe will be instructive for researchers and for all emerging and developed economies undergoing similar reforms and best practices.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Mine Aksu, Ayse Tansel Cetin and Can Simga Mugan",authors:[{id:"203574",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mine",middleName:null,surname:"Aksu",slug:"mine-aksu",fullName:"Mine Aksu"},{id:"204249",title:"Prof.",name:"Can Simga",middleName:null,surname:"Mugan",slug:"can-simga-mugan",fullName:"Can Simga Mugan"},{id:"204250",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayse",middleName:null,surname:"Tansel Cetin",slug:"ayse-tansel-cetin",fullName:"Ayse Tansel Cetin"}]},{id:"61095",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76867",title:"Ethical Awareness, Ethical Decision Making, and Transparency: A Study on Turkish CPAs in Istanbul",slug:"ethical-awareness-ethical-decision-making-and-transparency-a-study-on-turkish-cpas-in-istanbul",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This research aims to reveal the connections among ethical awareness, ethical decision making, and transparency from the perspective of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Istanbul. Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. Hypotheses were tested using ordinary least squares regression, and the results show that, based on the participants’ average responses, CPAs are affected mainly by the level of their ethical awareness in decision making about an ethical issue or transparency of financial reports, which indicates that the three concepts are strongly connected to each other.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Nida Türegün",authors:[{id:"238085",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nida",middleName:null,surname:"Türegün",slug:"nida-turegun",fullName:"Nida Türegün"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"78825",title:"Accounting Quality and Its Challenges in 21st Century",slug:"accounting-quality-and-its-challenges-in-21st-century",totalDownloads:278,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This paper describes current research to drive future research challenges in accounting quality. The definition of accounting quality is mainly varying depending on the objective that the study pointed. Previous research revealed that many proxies describe the accounting quality but most of them from the financial perspective. Furthermore, this paper tries to expose this research issue in the behavioural approach and drive future research in the mixed method. It concludes that the behavioural issues can be a research model, triggering future research challenges in accounting quality. The authors support these triggers from the perspectives of political hegemony, bureaucracy ratcheting, cognitive distortion, and international accounting standard. Finally, we infer and simultaneously predict that accounting quality would broaden its concepts and lasting impression in the 21st century.",book:{id:"10818",slug:"accounting-and-finance-innovations",title:"Accounting and Finance Innovations",fullTitle:"Accounting and Finance Innovations"},signatures:"Sumiyana Sumiyana, Hendrian Hendrian, Ruslan Effendi, Krisnhoe Fitrijati and Sriwidharmanely Sriwidharmanely",authors:[{id:"328451",title:"Prof.",name:"Sumiyana",middleName:null,surname:"Sumiyana",slug:"sumiyana-sumiyana",fullName:"Sumiyana Sumiyana"},{id:"328452",title:"Dr.",name:"Sriwidharmanely",middleName:null,surname:"Sriwidharmanely",slug:"sriwidharmanely-sriwidharmanely",fullName:"Sriwidharmanely Sriwidharmanely"},{id:"350499",title:"Dr.",name:"Hendrian",middleName:null,surname:"Hendrian",slug:"hendrian-hendrian",fullName:"Hendrian Hendrian"},{id:"350500",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruslan",middleName:null,surname:"Effendi",slug:"ruslan-effendi",fullName:"Ruslan Effendi"},{id:"350501",title:"Dr.",name:"Krisnhoe",middleName:null,surname:"Fitrijati",slug:"krisnhoe-fitrijati",fullName:"Krisnhoe Fitrijati"}]},{id:"61095",title:"Ethical Awareness, Ethical Decision Making, and Transparency: A Study on Turkish CPAs in Istanbul",slug:"ethical-awareness-ethical-decision-making-and-transparency-a-study-on-turkish-cpas-in-istanbul",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This research aims to reveal the connections among ethical awareness, ethical decision making, and transparency from the perspective of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Istanbul. Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. Hypotheses were tested using ordinary least squares regression, and the results show that, based on the participants’ average responses, CPAs are affected mainly by the level of their ethical awareness in decision making about an ethical issue or transparency of financial reports, which indicates that the three concepts are strongly connected to each other.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Nida Türegün",authors:[{id:"238085",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nida",middleName:null,surname:"Türegün",slug:"nida-turegun",fullName:"Nida Türegün"}]},{id:"78745",title:"Analysis of Return and Risk of Cryptocurrency Bitcoin Asset as Investment Instrument",slug:"analysis-of-return-and-risk-of-cryptocurrency-bitcoin-asset-as-investment-instrument",totalDownloads:485,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This study aims to explore the potential use of the cryptocurrency bitcoin as an investment instrument in Indonesia. The return obtained from bitcoin cryptocurrency is compared to other investment instruments, namely stock returns, gold and the rupiah exchange rate. The research period was carried out based on research data from 2011 to 2020. This study employee compares means test (t test) and analysis of variance (F test) on rate of return of bitcoin investment. The bitcoin return compare to the rate of return form the others investments instruments namely exchange rate, gold and stock. The study collected 120 data of each investments instruments: bitcoin, exchange rate, gold and stock from various of sources during 2011–2020. Then, we calculate the return and risk of individual investment instruments. The results showed that the bitcoin currency had the highest rate of return 18% with a standard deviation of 61% compared to exchange rate, gold and stock returns. While the rate of return for the others investment instruments showed less than 0.5% with standard deviation less than 5%. The rate of return bitcoin has significance difference compare to the rate of return of exchange rate, gold and stock. The study contribute for the investors who would like to invest on bitcoin. The investors should understand the characteristic of bitcoin in term of rate of returns and also the risk. This study also contributes to government of Indonesia on crypto currency development. The Indonesia government should adopt and regulate on crypto currency in the future to secure the investor and economic growth.",book:{id:"10818",slug:"accounting-and-finance-innovations",title:"Accounting and Finance Innovations",fullTitle:"Accounting and Finance Innovations"},signatures:"Sunita Dasman",authors:[{id:"348739",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunita",middleName:null,surname:"Dasman",slug:"sunita-dasman",fullName:"Sunita Dasman"}]},{id:"55587",title:"Historical Development of Government Accounting",slug:"historical-development-of-government-accounting",totalDownloads:2795,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Government accounting aims at preventing waste in government services and establishing a balance between optimal expenditure and services by managing government assets and government sources in the most efficient way. This balance can be established only by obtaining complete and accurate information from government accounting system on time. Since the users have a low level of knowledge needs in government accounting system, it has been recorded for long years in a cash basis manner. However, as the government’s area of operation expanded and the needs increased, it became obvious that cash basis system had lacking parts. So it started to focus on recording financial transactions and financial reporting. These lacking parts in the accounting system tried to be overcome through a new regulation by focusing on the areas where cash basis accounting system was insufficient; and a change was experienced with regard to applying the accrual basis in the areas of government accounting and financial reporting. This study aims to explain the historical development of government accounting by applications in countries and especially by detailed expressions for Turkey. As a result of the literature review and the examination of countries’ government accounting practices, it has been determined that the government accounting practice has made the correct transition from cash basis to accrual basis.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Mihriban Coşkun Arslan",authors:[{id:"203724",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihriban",middleName:null,surname:"Coşkun Arslan",slug:"mihriban-coskun-arslan",fullName:"Mihriban Coşkun Arslan"}]},{id:"55289",title:"Behavioral Accounting and its Interactions",slug:"behavioral-accounting-and-its-interactions",totalDownloads:4036,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Behavioral accounting is a branch of accounting that is related to behavior besides the accounting knowledge. It deals with the attitude and behavior of people when they are encountered with an accounting phenomenon which determines the behavior that they will show in decision‐making. This special area of accounting addresses such aspects as human information‐processing behavior, judgment quality, accounting problems that are created by users and providers of accounting information, and accounting information users’ and producers’ decision‐making skills. Behavioral research tries to find out how individuals make decisions and interact and influence other individuals, organizations, markets, and society. Behavioral accounting concept is examined under the topics of the influence of accounting information on behavior, managerial control (budget participation, nonfinancial measures, leadership, and balanced scorecard), auditing (auditor‐client negotiations, auditor’s judgment, and decision‐making), and ethics (ethical decision‐making, ethical orientation, and rationalizations on unethical behavior) in this chapter.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Filiz Angay Kutluk",authors:[{id:"203083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Angay Kutluk",slug:"filiz-angay-kutluk",fullName:"Filiz Angay Kutluk"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"62",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/99187",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"99187"},fullPath:"/profiles/99187",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()