\r\n\tThere are different types of multiple pregnancies: fraternal twins, identical twins, triplets, and higher-order multiples. Symptoms of multiple pregnancies are larger uterus than expected for the date in pregnancy, increased morning sickness, increased appetite, and excessive weight gain. In this book, we will examine the clinical aspects of multiple pregnancies and management. Also, we will examine the management of cases of twins including antenatal care, delivery, and postpartum.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-198-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-197-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-199-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"70396c6f5f2928c422c1eaf6d33c6269",bookSignature:"Prof. Hassan S Abduljabbar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11732.jpg",keywords:"Multiple Pregnancies, Twins, Physiology, Incidence, Epidemiology, Demographics, Predisposing Factors, Prenatal Diagnosis, Zygosity, Complications, Management of Birth, Antenatal Care",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"22 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology at King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia, consultant, clinician, researcher, editor, and referee of many international scientific medical journals. Dr. Abduljabbar is president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the president of the Federation of Arab Gynecology Obstetrics Societies. He has published more than seventy-five scientific articles and edited several books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:"S",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68175/images/system/68175.png",biography:"Hassan S. Abduljabbar, MD, FRCSC, American Board Diplomate, is a professor at the College of Medicine, King Abdulaziz\nUniversity, Saudi Arabia. He is also the president of the Saudi Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology and the Federation of Arab\nGynecology Obstetric Societies (FAGOS). He is a referee for\nmany international scientific journals. He is also an examiner for\ngraduate degrees as well as for the Saudi and Arab board exams.\nDr. Abduljabbar has published more than fifty articles and edited three books.",institutionString:"Dr. Erfan & Bagedo General Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"King Abdulaziz University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444312",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Tikel",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444312/images/20015_n.jpg",email:"sara.t@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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The second major stage, drug development, starts with a solitary compound, which at that point progresses through different studies intended to support its endorsement as a new drug [1]. The new drug will then be formulated as an appropriate pharmaceutical dosage form.
Pharmaceutical product is medicine intended for human or veterinary use in cure, alleviation, prevention or diagnosis of disease. The use of ineffective, harmful or poor-quality drugs will cause health hazards and waste of funds. The problem is aggravated by adverse climatic conditions and weak drug supply system (including storage and transport). These lead to deterioration of drug quality, loss of activity and may be formation of harmful degradation products [2]. All this made it a must that any pharmaceutical product should be subjected to different analytical procedures in order to ensure its efficacy and safety. Therefore, an effective drug quality assurance and assessment system should be developed and maintained.
Broadly speaking, this is the application of a process in order to identify a drug (single or combined) in its bulk or pharmaceutical dosage form. Testing pharmaceutical product involves chemical, physical and sometimes microbiological analysis [3].
Pharmaceutical analysis can be divided into two types of methods:
Qualitative methods: these methods usually are used to ascertain the presence or identity of a component and\\or impurities (predicted or expected).
Quantitative methods: determine how much of known drugs are present in bulk form or in a formulation.
Since the judgment for quality of a drug depends on the method of analysis used, the validity or control of the method used is required. The methods used in pharmaceutical analysis should be capable of:
Correct identification of the drug in bulk form or as a formulated product.
Indicating the percentage of the stated content of a drug present in formulation within acceptable stated limits.
Indicating the stability of the drug in the formulation and hence the shelf life i.e. indicating the presence of a drug in its intact form and or the presence of any impurities (whether as drug precursors, decomposition products due to chemical or photochemical causes).
Application in the dissolution rate studies i.e. at what rate is the drug released from its formulation so that can be absorbed by the body (bioavailability studies).
Ensuring that the identity and purity of pure drug (bulk form) meet official standards or monograph.
Ensuring that the identity and purity of excipients used in formulation meet specifications set by official standards.
Indicating the concentration of the specified impurities in the pure drug substance (limit test application).
The stability of a pharmaceutical product is defined as the capability of the product, in a specific container, to retain its efficacy, properties and characteristics throughout its shelf-life [4]. The recommended shelf-life (expiry date) for a commercial pharmaceutical product is 3–5 years. During this time, the concentration of the drug should not be reduced more than 95% of its value when originally prepared [5].
There are five types of stability that concern the pharmacist in the manufacturing of drugs:
Chemical (including photochemical): the product retains its chemical integrity and potency.
Physical: the conformity of the pharmaceutical product (color, appearance, dissolution, etc.) does not change upon storage or handling.
Microbiological: sterilized products should remain sterile (no pyrogenicity).
Therapeutic: the therapeutic effect remains unchanged within the specified dosage regimen.
Toxicological: no significant increase in a predetermined toxicity effect is noted.
Stability types (therapeutic, microbiological, and toxicological) are basically dependent on the chemical and physical properties of the drug.
Knowledge of the chemical stability of a drug is of great concern for selecting suitable storage condition against the effects of light, temperature, humidity, etc. and for anticipation of drugs interaction with each other or with excipients [6, 7].
A stable drug is of great concern to the pharmacist (in view of marketing, storage and distribution); to the physician and patient (in view of safety and efficacy); and to the regulator and quality control analyst (in view of quality, strength, purity and identity).
Many drugs are derivatives of carboxylic acid or contain functional groups based on this moiety, for example esters, amides, lactones, lactams, imides or carbamates [5]. Accordingly, various chemical reactions can result in the degradation of the drug. These reactions include hydrolysis, oxidation, photochemical reactions, polymerization, isomerization, racemization and dehydration [4, 5, 8].
Hydrolysis forms the most common pathway by which drugs become degraded since many drugs contain hydrolysable functional groups. It can be defined as the process by which drug molecules interact with water to yield breakdown products of different chemical constitution. Hydrolysis occurs more readily in liquid state than in the solid state. It may occur in aqueous suspensions of sparingly soluble drugs. In tablets and other solid dosage forms, there may be sufficient water to allow hydrolysis of the drug [8].
Solvolysis is a term used for the reactions involving the decomposition of the active drugs with their solvent present (not water).
Hydrolysis of drugs with an ester functional group (e.g. procaine, atropine, etc.) forms one of the most common types of drug instability. It is usually a bimolecular reaction involving acyl-oxygen cleavage. Ester hydrolysis is (H+) or (OH−) ion catalyzed and is dependent on the specific compound and the pH of the solution. Atropine hydrolysis is totally pH dependent and this was characterized by the slopes of −1 and +1. In some cases, the hydrolysis of the drug can show a pH-profile with three regions: a hydrogen ion (proton) catalyzed region, (slope = −1), an uncatalyzed region (solvent dependent, slope = 0) and a hydroxyl ion-catalyzed region (slope = +1) (Figure 1) [5].
Log rate
Amides are generally more stable to hydrolysis than esters. In general the rate of hydroxyl ion-catalyzed reaction of amides is greater than the proton-catalyzed hydrolysis [6].
Penicillins and cephalosporins are amides in which the amide bond is part of the strained four membered ß-lactam rings. Their decomposition is catalyzed by hydrogen ion, hydroxyl ion and many buffers. Therefore, these compounds are too unstable to be formulated as solutions. Their pH profile is generally similar to the pH-profile shown in Figure 1.
In addition to acid-base catalyzed hydrolysis, enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis may take place in drugs of natural origin; for example enzymes catalyzes the hydrolysis of cardiac glycosides in digitalis leaf [8].
Oxidation involves the removal of an electropositive atom, radical or electron, or the addition of an electronegative atom or radical. When a reaction involves molecular oxygen (O▬O), it is commonly called autoxidation and this forms the most common pathway of oxidative decomposition of pharmaceuticals.
Oxidative degradation by autoxidation may involve chain processes consisting of three concurrent reactions—initiation, propagation and termination. Initiation can be via free radicals formed from organic compounds by the action of light, heat or transition metals such as copper and iron which are present in trace amounts in almost every buffer [5].
Many drugs are complex molecules and can be subjected to both hydrolysis and oxidation e.g. steroids, anti-inflammatory, polyene antibiotics (amphotericin B) etc.
Figure 2 show the oxidation of phenothiazines to the sulfoxide which involves two single-electron transfer reactions involving a radical cation intermediate. The sulfoxide is subsequently formed by reaction of the cation with water [5].
Phenothiazine oxidation process.
Oxidation in solution generally follows first or second order kinetics. Some oxidation reactions are redox reactions that involve the loss of electrons without the addition of oxygen e.g. oxidation of ascorbic acid, ferrous sulfate, adrenaline and riboflavin [8].
In addition to oxidation and hydrolysis, many other degradative reactions had been studied including addition, dehydration, polymerization, isomerization, acylation, transesterification, etc.
These are the reactions that take place by absorption of the visible or ultraviolet light. The reactant molecule absorbs photons of light (energy) and get excited. The excited molecule then produces the photodecomposition product.
In many photochemical reactions, the reactant molecule may not absorb the radiation directly but through a mediator which absorbs the incident radiation and subsequently transfers its energy to the reactant molecule that becomes activated. Such type of mediator is called photosensitizer.
At times, a molecule can act as a protector for the photolabile drug by preferentially absorbing the radiant energy and produce products. These compounds are referred to as screening agents [9].
The majority of therapeutic substances are white in appearance, which means that they may absorb in the UV region depending on their chemical structure.
Grossweiner, 1989 [10], divided the ultraviolet radiation (UV-R) into three sub-bands:
UV-C: which ranges between 200 and 290 nm and is termed shortwave or far UV. Sunlight at the earth’s surface is devoid of this band due to its absorption by molecular oxygen and ozone in the upper atmosphere. Artificial radiation sources such as discharge and germicidal lamps and welding arcs form the sources of UV-C which are used for forced drug photodegradation studies (stress-conditions). These also cause serious damage to the skin and cornea [11].
UV-B band: this covers the region 280–320 nm. It causes sunburn, skin cancer and other biological effects and it is responsible for the direct photoreaction of many chemicals in natural sunlight.
UV-A band: this is the long wavelength region from 320 to 400 nm, also called near-UV because it is near the visible region.
The most commonly sources for photostability studies include: day light, window-glass filtered day light and room light [12]. All these sources can be generated artificially. The artificial light source should have an output with spectral power distribution (SPD) as near as possible to the sunlight. This can be achieved by the use of arc lamps and fluorescent tubes.
A number of medicinal products have been studied for their photostability. Carbonyl, nitroaromatic and
Photodegradation of a drug is considered of practical significance if the compound absorbs light >300 nm and the photodegradation becomes evident in a short period.
Factors that govern photochemical reaction rate include aerobic (most reactions proceed in presence of oxygen) and anaerobic (N2) conditions, solvents (H2O, organic solvents), buffers, temperature, metals, intensity of radiation and spectral distribution of light, drug concentration and volume of the sample [14].
Thus, in formulations that contain low drug concentrations, the primary photochemical reaction follows first-order kinetics; the kinetics is more complicated at higher concentrations and in the solid state because most of the light is then absorbed near the surface of the product.
The mechanisms of photodegradation are of such complexity as to have been fully elucidated in only a few cases. For example, the phenothiazine chlorpromazine (CLP) is rapidly decomposed under the action of ultraviolet light, the decomposition being accompanied by discoloration of the solutions (Figure 3). Chlorpromazine behaves differently towards ultraviolet irradiation under anaerobic conditions.
The effect of ultraviolet light on chlorpromazine (CLP).
A polymerization process has been proposed which involves the liberation of HCl in its initial stages [5].
The photodegradation of ketoprofen can involve decarboxylation to form an intermediate which then undergoes reduction, or dimerization of the ketoprofen itself.
Prior the development of any method for the analysis of certain compound or formulation, there are many factors must be considered before developing the method and applying it to the intended use. The first step include collecting information about the analyte itself (the analyte structure and its physicochemical properties). The mode of detection should be selected (e.g. UV detection). Sample preparation which may include centrifugation, sonication and filtration. The type of the diluent also plays an integral role in the analysis as it should be transparent and does not interfere in the analysis. The stability of the prepared solution, the mobile phase; stationary phase and mode of elution in case of chromatographic elution. All these factors and much more should be considered, optimized and the developed method is then validated and applied for the analysis.
Absorption spectrophotometry is the measurement of an interaction between electromagnetic radiation and the molecules, or atoms, of a chemical substance [15]. Techniques frequently employed in pharmaceutical analysis include UV, visible, IR and atomic absorption. Spectrophotometric measurement in the visible region was referred to as colorimetry.
The procedure of UV-unmistakable spectrophotometry includes the estimation of the measure of bright (190–380 nm) or noticeable (380–800 nm) radiation consumed by a substance in arrangement. Retention of light in both the UV and unmistakable area of the electromagnetic range happens when the vitality of the light matches the vitality required to instigate an electronic change and it is related with vibration and rotational progress in the atom. There are two systems of utilizing spectroscopic estimations in medication examination, the total and the similar strategies for measure, and the one utilized relies upon which side of the Atlantic Ocean you complete the investigation. In the UK and Europe the Beer-Lambert condition will in general be utilized in what is known as the outright technique for examine. In this strategy the absorbance is estimated tentatively and the Beer-Lambert condition is comprehended for c, the medication fixation. Hence, the British Pharmacopeia and European Pharmacopeia quote A1% 1 cm qualities in medication monographs. In the US Pharmacopeia, the near strategy for test is liked. In this sort of examine a standard arrangement of the medication to be investigated is readied, the absorbance of the example and the standard are estimated under indistinguishable conditions, and the centralization of the example is determined from the relationship:
Where [test] is the centralization of the example and [std] is the convergence of the readied standard. The relative strategy for test has the bit of leeway that it very well may be utilized regardless of whether the medication experiences a substance response during the measure (for example development of a shaded subsidiary to permit estimation in the obvious district of the range), yet experiences the hindrance that a credible example of the medication being referred to must be accessible for examination. When doing medication examines by spectroscopy it is frequently important to set up a scope of groupings of a standard example of the analyte and measure the absorbance of every arrangement. At the point when these information are plotted, a straight line of positive incline ought to be acquired that goes through the inception. Developing diagrams of this sort not just confirms that the Beer-Lambert law applies to the test at the wavelength of estimation yet additionally enables the chart to be utilized for alignment purposes. An answer of obscure fixation is set up in the very same manner as the benchmarks and its absorbance is estimated at a similar wavelength as the principles. This absorbance is then perused off the alignment chart and the fixation is determined. Standard arrangements arranged independently from the example along these lines are known as outer models. An increasingly thorough system includes the utilization of inside models. An inside standard is an exacerbate that is comparative in compound structure and physical properties to the example being investigated. The inner standard ought to be added to the example being referred to before extraction or measure initiates and is then present in the example framework all through the consequent test. In the measure of complex examples, some example pre-treatment is normally required and the recuperation of the example from the extraction procedure may not be 100%. On the off chance that an inner standard is utilized, misfortunes in test will be reflected by comparative misfortunes in the standard and the proportion of test to standard ought to stay consistent. Inner measures are especially utilized in chromatographic examination (particularly gas chromatography and elite fluid chromatography), where fluctuations in instrumental parameters (for example flow rate of versatile stage) influence precision. In certain spectroscopic examinations a comparable way to deal with the utilization of inner benchmarks is utilized. This is the strategy of standard augmentations and includes expansion of expanding volumes of a standard arrangement of the analyte to a fixed volume of the example and development of an alignment diagram. The diagram in a standard expansion examine is of positive incline however converges they-pivot at a positive estimation of absorbance. The measure of medication in the example is found by extrapolation of the alignment chart back to the point where the line crosses the x-pivot (for example at the point when y 0 in the condition of the line). The strategy for standard increments is generally utilized in nuclear spectroscopy (for example assurance of Ca2+ particles in serum by nuclear emanation spectrophotometry) and, since a few aliquots of test are examined to create the alignment chart, should expand the exactness and accuracy of the measure. The chief advantage of colorimetric and spectrophotometric methods is that they provide a simple means for determining minute quantities of substances [16, 17]. Although spectral interference (degradation products, excipients, etc.) can often occur, the selectivity and sensitivity of these methods can be improved by employing an instrumental technique such as derivative spectrophotometry.
In derivative spectrophotometry the absorbance (A) of a sample is differentiated with respect to wavelength (λ) to generate the first, second or higher order derivative [18].
In the context of derivative spectrophotometry, the normal absorption spectrum is referred to as the fundamental, zero order or 0D spectrum.
A =
Zero orderfirst ordersecond derivative
The first derivative (1D) spectrum is a plot of the rate of change of absorbance with wavelength against wavelength, i.e. a plot of the slope of the fundamental spectrum against wavelength. The second derivative (2D) spectrum is a plot of the curvature of the 0D spectrum against wavelength.
The first order derivative spectrum of an absorption band is characterized by a maximum, a minimum and a crossover point at λmax of the absorption band. This bipolar function is characteristic of all odd-order derivatives.
The second derivative spectrum is characterized by two satellite maxima and an inverted band of which the minimum corresponds to the λmax of the fundamental band.
A derivative spectrum is therefore gives better resolution of overlapping bands than the corresponding fundamental spectrum and may permit the accurate determination of the λmax of the individual bands. Secondly, it discriminates in favor of substances of narrow spectral band width against those with broad bandwidth. And consequently, substances with narrow spectral bandwidth display larger derivative amplitude than those with broad bandwidth [15].
These advantages of enhanced resolution and band width discrimination found in derivative spectrophotometry permit the selective determination of certain absorbing substances in samples in which non-specific interference may limit the application of simple spectrophotometric methods. Ephedrine hydrochloride in ephedrine hydrochloride elixir is assayed by second derivative spectrophotometry, which eliminates the broad band absorption of the excipient.
Derivative spectrophotometry has found significant application in clinical, forensic and biomedical analysis. It has been widely applied in the analysis of different pharmaceutical dosage forms. It solves the problem of analysis associated with drug combination, stability studies of drug and degradation products, drug impurities and interference of excipient in drugs [19, 20]. It also solves the problem of analysis of drugs in biological fluids.
Both selectivity and accuracy of spectrophotometric analysis of samples, which contain absorbing interferons, may be greatly improved by the technique of difference spectrophotometry. In difference spectrophotometry assays the measured value is the difference in absorbance (∆A) between two equimolar solutions of the analyte, in different chemical forms which exhibit different spectral characteristics. It is sometimes referred to as differential spectrophotometry.
Certain criteria are required for applying difference spectrophotometry for the analysis of a substance in the presence of other absorbing substances:
Reproducible changes are induced in the spectrum of the analyte by the addition of one or more reagents.
The absorbance of the interfering substances is not altered by the addition of such reagents.
The simplest and most commonly used techniques for altering the spectral properties of the analyte is the adjustment of the pH of the solution by means of aqueous solution of acids, alkali or buffers [21]. The measured value (∆A) in a quantitative difference spectrophotometric assay can be proportional to the concentration of the analyte and so it obeys Beer’s law. A modified equation may be derived.
Where ∆a is the difference absorptivity of the substance at the wavelength of measurement.
The accuracy and selectivity of the method was found to be increased by conversion of normal zero-order or differential UV spectra into higher order [21, 22]. Therefore, the application of difference spectrophotometry is expected to have the totality of advantages of both derivative spectrophotometry (first, second, etc.) combined with delta spectrophotometry [23].
On the other hand, the stability-indicating property, coupled with the selectivity and simplicity of application, of the derivative spectrophotometry (first, second, etc.) and ∆D1 make these methods more preferable to use for drug analysis than the costly HPLC methods, especially in developing countries.
Colorimetric methods, although are generally dependent on functional group in the drug molecule (NH2, OH, SH), are sometimes utilized as stability-indicating methods. This can be achieved by selectively transforming a drug, its degradation product or its impurity into a derivative so that the spectrum of the derivative is shifted to the visible region.
There are several parameters, which require careful and critical consideration in colorimetry. Firstly, the color reagent should be selective for the drug molecule itself, discriminating degradation products which might be present. Secondly, the effect of any parameters which can affect the development and stability of the color should be established. Moreover, the time required to establish the chromophore should be carefully monitored and assessed.
Chromatography is essentially a group of techniques for the separation of the compounds of mixtures by their continuous distribution between two phases. One of the two phases is the fixed (stationary) phase, which can be solid or a liquid supported on a solid. The other phase is a moving (mobile) phase which can be gas or a liquid that flows continuously around the stationary phase.
According to the nature of the mobile phase, chromatography is subdivided into liquid chromatography (LC) where the mobile phase is a liquid, and gas chromatography (GC) where the mobile phase is a gas [15].
There are four classifications for liquid chromatography:
Adsorption chromatography: liquid solid chromatography (LSC).
Partition chromatography: liquid-liquid chromatography (LLC).
Ion exchange chromatography: an ionic liquid mobile phase and a solid polymeric stationary phase containing replaceable ions.
Size-exclusion chromatography.
The adsorption and partition chromatography (most widely used in pharmaceutical analysis) are subdivided to:
Column chromatography and thin-layer chromatography (TLC): solid stationary phase and liquid mobile phase.
Column, paper and thin-layer chromatography: liquid stationary phase and liquid mobile phase.
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) belongs to the category of column chromatography and it covers four classes of chromatography: adsorption (LSC), partition (LLC), ion exchange and size-exclusion.
Thin-layer chromatography has developed into a very sophisticated technique for identification of compounds and for determination of the presence of trace impurities. Separation in TLC occurs by either adsorption or partition. For adsorption, the stationary phase consists of a thin layer of sorbent (e.g. silica) which is activated by heating at 105°C to evaporate water and the mobile phase is devoid of water (usually a mixture of organic solvents).
The term retention time used in TLC is referred to as Rf value which is the distance traveled by the compound from the origin (where the compound is spotted on the plate) divided by the distance traveled by the solvent. Although TLC is widely used for qualitative analysis, it does not in general provide quantitative information of high precision and accuracy. Changes in the practice of TLC have resulted in improved performance of separation and quantitative measurement. These developments are referred to as high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) [24].
TLC is widely used in pharmaceutical analysis for:
Identification of the components of a mixture by comparing their Rf values with those of reference standard.
Detection of any impurities (synthetic route, stability during manufacturing process or storage).
Separation of a mixture of compounds and recovery by elution technique.
Following synthetic reactions for their completion.
Forensic application in drug poisoning or addiction.
HPLC is the most commonly used technique for the quantification of drugs in formulations. The principal advantages of HPLC compared to column chromatography are improved resolution of the separated substances, faster separation time and the increased accuracy, precision and sensitivity.
HPLC is based on the same separation modes of column chromatography i.e. adsorption and partition. Unmodified silica (silanol group) is the most widely used in adsorption HPLC. Partition HPLC is divided into two categories, normal-phase and reverse-phase, based on the relative polarities of the stationary and mobile phases.
In order to develop HPLC method and to select the appropriate column type, the analyst needs to know:
Suitable solvent for the drug.
Molecular structure.
Nature of analysis: whether for quantification analysis or stability-indicating method.
The following diagram (Figure 4) gives a general guide to the selection of a chromatographic method for separation of compounds of molecular weight ˂ 2000; for samples of higher molecular weight the method of choice would be size-exclusion [25, 26].
General guide for selection of chromatographic method.
In the pharmaceutical Industry, quality management is defined as the aspect of management function that determines and implements the quality policy.
The major elements of quality management are:
A quality system describing the organizational structure, procedures, processes and resources.
A systematic action or actions necessary to ensure adequate confidence that a product (or service) will satisfy given requirement for quality.
The concepts of quality assurance, GMP and quality control are interrelated aspects of quality management. They are inter-related and have fundamental importance to the production and control of pharmaceutical products.
In fact quality assurance covers quality control in exactly the same manner as it covers other functions such as manufacturing and ware-housing. It approves methods and standards and sees to it that good laboratory practices are operative.
Each manufacturing unit must have a quality control department independent from the production and other departments and under the control of a qualified and experienced personnel and has one or several quality control laboratories at his or her disposal.
Quality control is integral part to all modern industrial processes and the pharmaceutical industry is not an exception. Testing a pharmaceutical product involves physical, chemical and sometimes microbiological analysis. It is a critical function of any business offering a product or service to consumers. In the field of pharmaceutical chemistry, quality control is vital to the successful development, manufacturing, and use of drugs meant to save lives. It determines the quality and stability of drug products via pharmaceutical analysis; it includes areas such as method validation, handling raw materials and finished products, documentations, inspections that impact the development of pharmaceutical products that are governed by specified rules.
Pharmaceutical products are developed and produced according to GMP requirements and other associated codes e.g. good laboratory practices (GLP), and good clinical laboratory practices (GcLP), … etc.
Production and control operations are clearly specified in a written form i.e. standard operating procedures (SOP’s) and GMP requirements are adopted.
Control procedures on starting materials, intermediate products and finished products and other in process controls should be carried out according to written and validated procedures.
The finished products should be correctly processed, checked, packed according to defined procedures.
Finished pharmaceutical products should not be sold or supplied unless they are released by an authorized person.
The function of the analyst is to obtain a result as near to the true value as possible by the correct application of the analytical procedure employed. Quantitative analysis is not simply a case of taking sample, carrying out a single determination and then claim that the value obtained is irrefutable. It also requires knowledge of the chemistry involvements and the possibilities of the interferences from other ions, elements and compounds as well as of the statistical distribution of values [27].
Different errors may occur during the analysis process which should be well noticed and overcome. There are three types of errors:
Gross errors: easily recognized as it leads to definite unreliable results: could be due to contaminated reagents, defective instruments, accidental loss of crucial sample etc. It is defined as a serious error so that there is no way to correct the experiment.
Random error (in determinate error): the average of the results are very close to the true value, so there is no evidence of bias i.e. some results could be high and some results could be low. Arises from sources that cannot be corrected i.e. the degree of sensitivity of the balance: fourth decimal, fifth decimal. Types of burettes or pipettes (A, B, C types) etc.
Systematic (determinant errors): this causes all the results to be in error in the same sense (constant error). May be due to (1) faults in analytical procedure or (2) the equipment used. Observed result could be too low or too high i.e. inaccuracy should be constant (all answers are 10% too high or too low). Example: True value for three samples were 25, 20 and 30% assay result was 35, 30 and 40% respectively i.e. 10% too high. It makes the assay precise but inaccurate sometimes the inaccuracy may be proportional to the true answer, giving rise to proportional error such as 10% of the answer i.e. for the above example for 25% result is 27.5%, 22% for 20% and 33% for30%.
Validation of methods for the quantitative analysis of drugs involves determining as a minimum, their selectivity, and limit of detection, limit of quantification, linearity, working range, accuracy and precision [28].
Accuracy is a measure of how closely the result of an experiment agrees with the expected result. The difference between the obtained result and the expected result is usually divided by the expected result and reported as a percent relative error [29].
Precision is a measure of how close a set of results are to each other [30]. It is often measured under repeatable (same analyst, same day, same instruments and same materials) and reproducible conditions. Precision always accompanies accuracy, but a high degree of precision does not imply accuracy.
For any developed analytical method, standard curve is constructed to verify the linear relationship between the concentration and a characteristic parameter for a component such as peak area, peak height or peak ratio in chromatographic analysis or UV-absorption in spectrophotometry.
Most analytical methods are based on processes where the method produces a response that is linear and which increases or decreases linearly with analyte concentration. In other words, it is the ability of the method to elicit test results that directly proportional to the concentration of analyte within a given range.
Statistical application is important in evaluating calibration graphs in instrumental analysis. The equation of a straight line takes the form:
Where a is the intercept of the straight line with the y axis and b is the slope of the line.
The statistical measure of the goodness of the fit of the line through the data is the correlation coefficient “r”. It falls in the range −1 ≤ r ≥+1. Negative r-values indicate negative slope and vice-versa. It is important to note that calculated r-values can be sometimes misleading and a calibration curve must be physically plotted to ensure the shape of the plot. From the calculated regression line data, the concentration of the analyte can be estimated by interpolation. Each value of y is subjected to random error and likely an error in the slope and intercept values can occur. This can be resolved by calculating standard deviations of the slope (Sb) and intercept (Sa). Sb and Sa are obtained from a calculated statistic value Sy/x [29]. The values of Sb and Sa are used to calculate the confidence limits for the slope and intercept using a
The limit of detection is the lowest content of analyte that can be distinguished from background noise and measured with reasonable statistical certainty. It can be calculated by the reduced formula:
Where SB = Sy/x (calculated from the regression analysis data), b is slope [29].
The lower limit of quantification is the amount equal to or greater than the lowest concentration point on the calibration curve that can be measured with an acceptable level of accuracy and precision [29].
It can be calculated by the equation:
Where SB = Sy/x (calculated from the regression analysis data), b is slope.
The comparison of two methods should be carried out using a suitable statistical procedure to test if there are significant differences between them. The
Pharmaceutical products must be analyzed regularly to ensure their safety and effectiveness. This chapter described the quality assurance and quality control of materials and finished products. The requirements to develop a suitable method and its validation. Also different analytical methods and their application in the field of pharmaceutical analysis was also discussed.
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
Ordinary differential equations are ubiquitous in the physical sciences and are fundamental for the understanding of complex engineering systems [1]. In economics they are used to model for instance, economic growth, gross domestic product, consumption, income and investment whereas in finance stochastic differential equations are indispensable in modeling asset price dynamics and option pricing. The vast majority of the ordinary differential equations in economic are autonomous differential equations or difference equations, where time is an implicit variable, whereas the more difficult to solve delay (differential-difference) equations have received much less attention. Difference equations seem a more natural choice of modeling economic processes as key economic variables are monitored at discrete time units but they can present significant complications in their asymptotic behavior and are thus more difficult to analyse. Differential equations on the other hand, can be more amenable to asymptotic stability analysis. Partial differential equations, usually of the second order, for functions of at least two variables arise naturally in modern macroeconomics from solving an optimization problem formulated in a stochastic setting and in optimal control theory. Two books that are recommended for delving deeper into the- economic applications of differential equations are the introductory one by Gandolfo [2] and the more advanced by Brock and Malliaris [3]. Both books are excellent sources for ordinary differential equations in economic dynamics. A more recent book which requires strong mathematical background is by Acemoglu [4].
Some of the most important differential equations developed by economists during a period spanning over sixty years are presented in this section. Most of them beginning with Solow’s development of a growth model, which was partly motivated by the works of Harrod and Domar, are models from Neoclassical Growth Theory. The main postulate of Neoclassical Growth Theory is that
The Harrod-Domar model was developed independently by Roy Harrod [6] and Evsey Domar [7] to analyze business cycles originally but later was used to explain an economy’s growth rate through savings and capital productivity. Output,
where
clearly demonstrates that increasing investment through savings and productivity boosts economic growth but does not take into account labour input and population size.
In his 1941 Paul Samuelson [8] paper employed simple differential equations to investigate the stability of equilibrium for several demand–supply scenarios. The simplest stability analysis was carried out under the Walrasian and Marshallian assumptions. In the former price increases (decreases) if excess demand is positive (negative), whereas in the latter quantity increases (decreases) if excess demand price is positive (negative). Excess demand is the difference between the quantity that buyers are willing to buy and the quantity that suppliers are willing to supply at the same price. Excess demand price is the difference between the price that buyers are willing to pay for a given quantity and the price required by the suppliers.
Let
It is the task of comparative statics to show the determination of the equilibrium values of price and quantity and their sensitivity on the “taste” parameter,
The dynamic formulation of the Walrasian assumption is
Retaining the first order term in a Taylor series expansion near the equilibrium,
with solution for an initial price,
The equilibrium is stable if
The dynamic formulation of the Marshallian assumption is
Neglecting high order terms and using the trivial elementary calculus result,
The equilibrium is stable if
Robert Solow [9] proposed a growth equation incorporating production, capital growth and growth in the labour force absent from the Harrod-Domar model.
Production function:
where
An important assumption of the model are the Inada conditions [10]
In the limits.
The Inada conditions ensure that
The function
In particular, choosing
The production function is expressed in terms of a unit of labour and the capital to labour ratio. The assumption of constant returns to scale allows the simplified function,
Growth of Capital in Economy: The growth of the capital stock,
or
where
Letting
Growth of the Labour Force with full employment: The assumption in the labour market is that the labour supply is equivalent to the population. There is no unemployment and the growth of labour as function of time follows an exponential growth pattern:
The fundamental differential equation of economic growth is then
The differential equations and production functions outlined in these three assumptions are the fundamental elements for Solow’s basic differential equation. In Solow’s paper, a constant fraction of income is allocated to savings, in particular,
The equilibrium solution to the basic differential equation is found from
From
The output per unit growth converges to
A multiplicative factor in the form of technological progress,
The first order nonlinear differential equation has solution
This solution includes the solution to the labour growth only model,
Differentiation of
a constant, since
The Solow residual is the part of growth unexplained by changes in capital and labour. For
The growth rate per unit output is
A positive Solow residual would indicate a faster output growth than that of capital and labour.
Phelps [11] used the neoclassical growth model to address the consumption per unit of labour at equilibrium in the so-called “golden rule”. At equilibrium with labour force growth rate,
For a maximum consumption per unit of labour
Since
The Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model, or RCK model, is a neoclassical model of economic growth which differs from Solow’s model in its inclusion of consumption, based primarily on the work of Ramsey [12], with later significant extensions by Cass [13] and Koopmans [14].
A steady state is when
There is a second equation of the RCK model, the social planner‘s problem of maximizing a social welfare function expressed by the integral
where
subject to
The Hamiltonian is
where
Also for the costate variable
and
Hence
whence
This is a nonlinear differential equation that describes the optimal evolution of consumption, known as the Keynes-Ramsey rule. Along with the differential equation,
The Jacobian matrix at equilibrium,
has eigenvalues real and opposite in sign as its determinant is
The growth in the Solow model is exogenous, the steady state depends on the exogenous parameters,
Romer [15] proposed a mathematical theory of endogenous growth based on the following three assumptions:
The production function,
The change in capital is identical to Solow’s model,
Technology is exogenous and evolves in time,
As is evident from the three assumptions, Romer’s growth model consists of three sectors: the research sector of ideas, the intermediate goods sector which implements the ideas of the research sector and the final goods sector which produces the final output.
Let
In Romer’s model, the output production function is given by
and the capital dynamics is
The respective stable equilibria are
The labour involved in the production of the final goods,
A nice accessible exposition of both Solow’s and Romer’s growth models is Chu [16]. Jones [17] argued that the predicted scale effects of Romer’s theory of growth is inconsistent with the time-series evidence from industrialized economies and that long-term growth depends on exogenous parameters including the rate of population growth.
Mankiw, Romer and Weil [18] argued that the marginal product of capital,
where
The equilibrium is
In the steady state,
Introduce the transformations,
For small deviations,
The eigenvalues of the Jacobian matrix,
are given by the roots of the quadratic
From the production function,
Kaldor [19] presented a model of the trade cycle involving non-linear investment and saving functions that shift over time in response to capital accumulation or decumulation so that the system moves from stable equilibrium to unstable equilibrium to stable equilibrium again. In Kaldor’s model investment,
Kaldor used a differential equation system with general non-linear forms. Net investment,
Also growth in capital determines investment is given by
Since income will rise if investment is greater than savings, the dynamics of the national income is captured by the differential equation
The necessary and sufficient assumptions for the generation of a perpetual cyclical movement are:
For normal income levels,
For extreme income levels, either low or high,
At equilibrium, where
National governments design their expenditure policies to steer the national economy towards a desired income. The theory of feedback control or servomechanisms provides the mathematical methodology of correcting deviations of the controlled variables from their target values. Feedback policies applied to economic stability were implemented by Phillips [20].
If
A similar differential equation holds for the actual,
Aggregate and government demand are related by
where
Eliminate
Differentiate the above to obtain
or
Phillips’ model is thus described by the linear second-order differential equation where
Proportional,
Derivative,
Integral,
Kalecki [21] was the first economist to investigate the relationship between production lags and endogenous business cycles by considering a closed economic system over a short period of time without trend.
Any orders placed during the “gestation period”,
If
The rate of change in investment is for some constants,
Denoting the deviation of
or
During the interval
The sign of the real parameter,
Zak [22] considered a version of the Solow model with delay. Capital can be used
At equilibrium,
Deviations of the form,
with characteristic equation
In many cases depending on the initial conditions, the roots of the characteristic equation have real parts with opposite signs, indicating the presence of a saddle point unlike Solow’s stable model. The model exhibits endogenous cycles when the roots are purely imaginary.
Goodwin [23] presented a nonlinear model of nonlinear business cycles with time lags between decisions to invest and the corresponding outlays. Changes at time,
Hence the nonlinear delay differential equation modeling the evolution of income is
where
Goodwin assumed that
where
The asymptotic behavior of the transformed equilibrium,
with characteristic roots,
Since
and
can be either positive or negative, both eigenvalues have positive or negative real parts. So if
We close this chapter by providing a very brief snapshot of the current state of the art in theories of economic growth. Most of the very recent works cited are predominantly mathematical in nature. There is an enormous literature, not touched upon here, which employs Econometrics methods, like for instance panel data regression to estimate economic growth based on explanatory variables such as income, investment, policy indicators, education and others over several decades.
In a short article Zhao [24] discusses how technology was integrated into economic growth by Romer.
Boyko et [25] use least squares linear regression to determine the values of the coefficients at which the production functions of Cobb–Douglas in Solow’s growth model provide the best fit for available statistical data. Borges et al. [26] examine the dynamics of Solow’s economic growth model assuming that the labour force growth rate function is a solution of a delay differential equation thereby avoiding the use of exponential growth,
Zhang et al. [27] base their analysis of how the redistribution of emission quotas would impact short-run equilibrium in a specific market of interest and long-run growth on the Solow growth model with endogenous dynamics and exogenous technological shocks.
Zhang [28] develops an endogenous growth model based on modifications of both Solow’s model by introducing endogenous knowledge. and Romer’s by allowing knowledge to be gained from learning as well as from research.
The paper by Caraballo et al. [29] is devoted to analysis of the stability of the economy according to an extended version of Kaldor’s economic growth model. They consider the role of the government’s monetary and fiscal policies and we study whether or not a time delay in implementing and the fiscal policy can affect the economic stability.
Dayal [30] considers long run historical data and uses difference equation simulation to explore the Solow growth model to assess the growth changes in the recent decade.
Perez-Trujillo et al. [31] investigate the impact of improvement in accessing innovation and knowledge on economic growth and convergence among countries using an augmented Solow-Swan growth model on data from 138 countries.
Turnovsky [32] discusses contemporary aspects of stabilization policy in reference to Phillips’ contributions in a lengthy paper of substantial mathematical control theory content.
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Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12084,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1*1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81958",title:"New Approaches to Innovation Management in the Context of Digital Transformation",slug:"new-approaches-to-innovation-management-in-the-context-of-digital-transformation",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104769",abstract:"The previous decade is rightfully called the era of digital transformation. The purpose of the study is to assess the impact of global trends on innovation activity, as well as to identify new factors influencing innovation models. A conceptual approach to the analysis of the evolution of innovation models based on the transformation of information and communication technologies for innovation based on the bibliographic analysis and integration of existing concepts and theories of innovation, digitalization and sustainable development is created. With the help of the factor method, the analysis of the main innovation models is carried out and a promising innovation model is determined. It is found out that digital technologies are the technological basis of the modern model of the innovation ecosystem. The result of the research is the author’s classification of modern factors of innovation activity that determine the directions and types of implemented innovations, as well as the role of innovation in society. The peculiarity of the study is that it has a conceptual nature, does not use the collection of empirical data, but is based on the integration of previously developed concepts and theories.",book:{id:"11198",title:"Digital Transformation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11198.jpg"},signatures:"Zhanna Mingaleva and Vladimir Postnikov"},{id:"81959",title:"A Review of Optical Interferometry Techniques for Quantitative Determination of Optically Active Materials in a Solution",slug:"a-review-of-optical-interferometry-techniques-for-quantitative-determination-of-optically-active-mat",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104937",abstract:"Human diet is primarily comprised of optically active ingredients like glucose, sucrose, fructose, amino acids, lactic acid, cholesterol etc. Quality control is one of the most important processes in food industries to test, measure and verify the product for quality control standards. Optical techniques are mostly adopted in these industries for standardization of purity and concentration of optically active ingredients in their products. Quantitative measurements of optically active materials (OAMs) in a solution by interferometry have attracted the intention in present days due to their wide working range, high sensitivity and lower limit of detection. OAMs cause rotation of the angle of polarization when a plane-polarized light passes through them. The angle of rotation is distinct for different materials at different concentrations. For interferometric quantitative determination, the OAMs are generically placed in an arm of the interferometer and their effect on the interference fringe patterns are monitored as a function of their concentrations. Furthermore, the refractive indices of OAMs varies with their concentrations which directly affect the resultant interference pattern. Owing to the vast range of interferometric arrangements and processing techniques, this review assesses the different approaches adopted in detection of concentration of OAMs in a solution by interferometry.",book:{id:"11156",title:"Optical Interferometry - A Multidisciplinary Technique in Science and Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11156.jpg"},signatures:"Rahim Ullah, Raja Yasir Mehmood Khan and Muhammad Faisal"},{id:"81957",title:"Network Reconfiguration and Reactive Power Compensation Dispatch in Smart Distribution Systems",slug:"network-reconfiguration-and-reactive-power-compensation-dispatch-in-smart-distribution-systems",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102820",abstract:"A significant challenge is to design strategies to minimize electrical losses in smart distribution systems while observing voltage and feeder loading constraints. Unfortunately, few studies have solved the problem of simultaneously coordinating already installed capacitors banks with network reconfiguration problems. This book chapter presents two methodologies for solving the reconfiguration and reactive power compensation dispatch. Both methodologies are formulated as two-stage solve reconfiguration and reactive power compensation problems with the characteristic of having acceptable computational efficiency and loss reduction close to the optimal solution. In the first stage, network reconfiguration is carried out to discriminate radial configurations that do not satisfy voltage and overload restrictions. In the second stage, a reactive power compensation dispatch is applied to each feasible network configuration by connecting capacitor blocks successively until all available reactive capacity has been used or until a specified loss tolerance has been reached. Finally, switching each capacitor block is carried out using voltage linear sensitivities related to shunt reactive compensation to make a relatively low computational work during the process.",book:{id:"11178",title:"Smart Grids Technology and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11178.jpg"},signatures:"Ulises Tovar Ramírez, José Horacio Tovar Ramírez and Guillermo Gutiérrez Alcaraz"},{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",abstract:"Essential oils have received increasing interest due to the high potential of their novel properties, i.e. antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activities. Essential oils are obtained from various parts of aromatic cultures, i.e. roots, leaves, seeds, bark, fruits, flowers, stems, etc. by various oil production methods, i.e. field distillation unit (FDU), steam distillation, water and steam distillation & several advanced (supercritical fluid extraction). Therefore, it is necessary to understand the characterization of the essential oils. This study reports on the method of determination of physiochemical properties with the test parameters, i.e. odor, color, optical rotation, solubility, refractive index, specific gravity, acid value, ester value, and ester value after acetylation. There is also discussion about instruments such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry due to one of the best tools for identifying and quantifying the constituents of essential oils as its simplicity, rapidity, accuracy, and efficiency.",book:{id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg"},signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav"},{id:"81208",title:"Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence (TADF) Compounds as Photocatalyst in Organic Synthesis: A Metal-Free Greener Approach",slug:"thermally-activated-delayed-fluorescence-tadf-compounds-as-photocatalyst-in-organic-synthesis-a-meta",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103960",abstract:"Thermally activated delayed fluorescent (TADF) molecules undergo efficient intersystem crossing (ISC) and reverse intersystem crossing (RISC) processes, making them as third-generation emitters in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), photodynamic therapy (PDT) and time-resolved luminescence imaging. Apart from these applications, recently, TADF molecules have been used extensively as photocatalysts in light-mediated synthesis. In general, highly expensive complexes of Rh, Ir, Ru and organic dyes (Eosin Y, Rose Bengal, 9-mesityl-10-methylacridinium perchlorate [Acr-Mes]+ClO4−) are commonly used in the photocatalysis process. Organic-TADF based molecules help to avoid these costly metal catalysts and frequently used organic dyes, making the reaction economical and greener. This chapter will briefly summarize the photocatalytic properties of organic-TADF compounds in organic synthesis.",book:{id:"11211",title:"Green Chemistry - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11211.jpg"},signatures:"Suresh Rajamanickam and Bhisma K. Patel"},{id:"80930",title:"Lightweight Cryptographic Techniques in 5G Software-Defined Internet of Things Networking",slug:"lightweight-cryptographic-techniques-in-5g-software-defined-internet-of-things-networking",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102984",abstract:"Lightweight cryptography (LWC) is an area of cryptographic techniques with low computational complexity and resource requirements. There must be a reason for using it in Internet of Things (IoT) network with a strict resource constraints environment. The key features of a 5G network are low latency, high throughput, heterogeneous network architecture, and massive connectivity. A new area of network architecture called SDN-IoT comes into the picture to control and manage IoT devices in a network with low latency and high throughput. SDN helps to reprogram the network according to the application’s requirements. Also, higher mobile applications lead to higher data growth. SDN helps to secure, manage, and control the huge data in the network. SDN-IoT architecture divides the network into three layers: The infrastructure layer, the control layer, and the service or application layer. In this chapter, we are focusing on the LWC algorithms from different perspectives so that they will fit into different layers of SDN-IoT network. We will discuss all the pros and cons of implementing LWC algorithms in hardware and software environments and also, the different layers of the SDN-IoT network. We also discuss SDN security architecture and different performance metrics for LWC algorithms.",book:{id:"11190",title:"Cryptography - Modern Theory and Practices",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11190.jpg"},signatures:"Sumita Majhi and Pinaki Mitra"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:728},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:289,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). 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His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"81821",title:"Pneumococcal Carriage in Jordanian Children and the Importance of Vaccination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104999",signatures:"Adnan Al-Lahham",slug:"pneumococcal-carriage-in-jordanian-children-and-the-importance-of-vaccination",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81813",title:"Schistosomiasis: Discovery of New Molecules for Disease Treatment and Vaccine Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104738",signatures:"Andressa Barban do Patrocinio",slug:"schistosomiasis-discovery-of-new-molecules-for-disease-treatment-and-vaccine-development",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. 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Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"81545",title:"Physiochemical Properties of Essential Oils and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104112",signatures:"Sunil Kumar Yadav",slug:"physiochemical-properties-of-essential-oils-and-applications",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. 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