Internet users statistics for Africa as at March 2019.
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8879",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Emerging Trends in Mechatronics",title:"Emerging Trends in Mechatronics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Mechatronics is a multidisciplinary branch of engineering combining mechanical, electrical and electronics, control and automation, and computer engineering fields. 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Emphasis on recent advances and their clinical applications offers insights to researchers that will likely lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches.",isbn:"978-1-78984-749-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-748-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-470-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80192",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"programmed-cell-death",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0459d0c7a518f61817a48fd4709c35bd",bookSignature:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib and Omar Nasser Rahal",publishedDate:"January 15th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8774.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2872,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfTotalCitations:14,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 13th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 29th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 18th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 17th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"57145",title:"Prof.",name:"Hala",middleName:null,surname:"Gali-Muhtasib",slug:"hala-gali-muhtasib",fullName:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/57145/images/system/57145.jpg",biography:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib is a tenured Professor of Cell and Cancer Biology at the American University of Beirut (AUB), Lebanon. She received her PhD from Kansas State University, Manhattan, USA and joined AUB in 1994. She assumed many administrative positions at AUB including Interim Associate Provost, Chair of Enrollment Management, Chair of Biology Department and Director of Center for Drug Discovery. She is a prominent scholar with outstanding scientific contributions to the study of the role of natural products in cancer therapy and identifying their cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. She has published 95 peer reviewed articles, more than 10 book chapters and has edited a few books. Gali-Muhtasib has received many research achievement awards for her contributions to advance the field of natural product drug discovery and drug delivery.",institutionString:"American University of Beirut",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University of Beirut",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"282536",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar Nasser",middleName:null,surname:"Rahal",slug:"omar-nasser-rahal",fullName:"Omar Nasser Rahal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282536/images/system/282536.JPG",biography:"Best described as a physician scientist, Omar Nasser Rahal earned his MD degree with outstanding performance from SABA University School of Medicine in the Caribbean, Netherlands. As an undergraduate, he earned his Bachelor of Science degree in Biology from the American University of Beirut, Lebanon and was further appointed as a translational cancer researcher in the field of Molecular Biology and Anticancer Drug Discovery. His research interests are in the field of Oncology with a focus on translational research, systematic and comparative reviews, case studies, and clinical trials. Omar co-authored 6 peer review articles and 1 book chapter. His research contributions during his clinical career have played a role in the improvement of the quality of the health care system in the United States.",institutionString:"SABA University School of Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"47",title:"Cell Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-cell-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"67900",title:"The Underlying Mechanisms of Chinese Herbal Medicine-Induced Apoptotic Cell Death in Human Cancer",slug:"the-underlying-mechanisms-of-chinese-herbal-medicine-induced-apoptotic-cell-death-in-human-cancer",totalDownloads:463,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"66895",title:"Programmed Cell Death Deregulation in BCR-ABL1-Negative Myeloproliferative Neoplasms",slug:"programmed-cell-death-deregulation-in-bcr-abl1-negative-myeloproliferative-neoplasms",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"66585",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Cell Death",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-mediated-cell-death",totalDownloads:802,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[null]},{id:"70279",title:"Cell Death Mechanisms of the Promising Anticancer Compound Gallotannin",slug:"cell-death-mechanisms-of-the-promising-anticancer-compound-gallotannin",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"57145",title:"Prof.",name:"Hala",surname:"Gali-Muhtasib",slug:"hala-gali-muhtasib",fullName:"Hala Gali-Muhtasib"}]},{id:"68414",title:"Autophagy and Cell Death: Antitumor Drugs Targeting Autophagy",slug:"autophagy-and-cell-death-antitumor-drugs-targeting-autophagy",totalDownloads:570,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"67450",title:"Autophagy and Cell Death in Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Prion Diseases",slug:"autophagy-and-cell-death-in-alzheimer-s-parkinson-s-and-prion-diseases",totalDownloads:479,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"30734",title:"Prof.",name:"Samo",surname:"Ribaric",slug:"samo-ribaric",fullName:"Samo Ribaric"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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In the scientific literature, there are algorithms and simulators to construct acid‐base titration curves, even considering a wide range of different mixtures of different polydonor systems [17–20].
\nThe buffer solutions have a certain buffering capacity that is used to maintain constant the pH of a system, having only a small uncertainty. The buffer capacity, β, has been defined as the quantity of strong acid or strong base (in the buffer solution) that gives rise to a one unit pH change in 1 L of solution, as an intensive property of the system [15]. This involves using directly the concentration of either a strong base or an acid in the buffer solution, without considering the dilution effect, as King and Kester [2], Segurado [3], Urbansky and Schock [4], De Levie [8] do, among others. Urbansky and Schock also mentioned the use of concentration to simplify the maths. Nevertheless, the dilution effect on buffer capacity was first considered by Michałowski, as Asuero and Michałowski have established in its thorough and holistic review [6].
\nThe buffer capacity considering the effect of dilution, β\ndil, is defined as the added amount of strong base or strong acid required to change in one unit the pH of an initial V\no volume of the buffer solution formed by species of only one polydonor system [7]. By their definition, β is an intensive property by considering the concentration, while β\ndil is an extensive property to include the amount of substance.
\nA buffer solution is used to impose the pH in a given system; generally speaking, therefore, the buffer is added to a working system selected to impose a given pH, thus giving rise to a mixture between both systems. It would be convenient to know the minimum concentration of the buffer components in the mixture, as well as the minimum volume that must be added in order for it to fulfill its function. From the existing works in the literature, an evaluation of the buffer performance was attempted, in general a β was provided, although up to this moment this problem has not been dealt with quantitatively.
\n\n\nFigure 1\n shows the scheme, in which a buffer solution is used to buffer the pH of a given system. It is observed that a mixture of both systems exists: the buffer system (BS) and the original system (OS). In general, it is necessary to define which would be the BS and the study system.
\nSchematization of the manner in which the pH is generally set in an original system (OS) with a buffer system (BS). \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\no\n\n\n\n is the initial concentration of the buffer system before mixing, \n\n\n\nV\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n is the volume of BS added to OS, \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\no\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nV\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n\n\n are the initial concentration and initial volume of the original system before mixing, respectively; \n\n\n\nV\no\n\n\n\n\n\n is the mixture volume formed by the solutions with volumes \n\n\n\nV\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nV\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nC\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n\n\n is the overall concentration of the mixture, \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n is the buffer components’ concentration in the mixture; and \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n is the original system’s solutes concentration in the mixture.
In many applications, it is convenient that the volume of the buffer solution that is added to the system of interest be V\nBS < V\nOS, in order not to alter much the composition of the study system.
\nThe present work extends the study of β\ndil that is contained in a mixture of polydonor systems. Moreover, a new concept is introduced, buffer efficacy (ε), as an index to estimate the performance of a buffer. Finally, it is shown how these indexes allow the determination of the useful conditions (minimum concentration and volume), for a buffer to enable imposing the pH in a system of interest.
\nIn order to evaluate the useful performance of a buffer to impose the pH in a given system, it is necessary to establish the expressions of β or of β\ndil that consider mixtures of various polydonor systems.
\nAlthough Ref. [8] presented equations that describe the behavior of β for polydonor systems, the nomenclature, which has shown in Ref. [7] to study β\ndil, is considered here to generalize its equations for the case of buffer solutions of mixtures of different polydonor systems.
\nA polyprotic system [6, 7] can be represented as follows:
\nH\nn\nL(n‐a) is the polyprotic acid (weak acid in general), L\na−\n is the base of the system, and the neutral species is H\na\nL; H+ is the exchanged particle in the reaction, n is the number of protons of the polyprotic acid, a− is the charge of the base (expressed in elementary charge units).
\nThe species that go from \n
The global formation equilibria of the species of a polydonor system are represented according to Eq. (2).
\nBy definition β\no = 1.
\nWhen there is a mixture of c polydonor systems in aqueous solution with (c + 1) components, a general representation of the set of polyprotic systems is given as:
\nwhere k ∈ {1, 2,…, c}, \n
\n\n
A representation of the kth polydonor system’s global formation equilibria in a mixture is given as:
\nwhere k ∈ {1, 2,…, c}, \n
Also, in this case \n
It can be demonstrated that the molar fraction to describe each of the c distributions of the species of each of the polydonor systems in the mixture with respect to H+ is given by Eq. (5):
\nwhere k ∈ {1, 2,…, c}, \n
where [Lk]T is the total concentration of the kth component in the mixture. As can be observed, the molar fractions only depend on pH and on the equilibrium constants \n
There are N solutions, each containing one \n
Each species has associated countercations or counteranions (\n
Although Asuero and Michałowski [6] and De Levie [9] have presented some mathematical representations of added volume as a function of pH for these systems, we have preferred to follow the same procedure and notation used to deduce the added volume equations, proposed by Rojas‐Hernández et al. [7]. Then, for the case of the mixtures of species of various polydonor systems, the following expressions can be deduced:
\nThe added volume expression for a strong base, Vb\n, is
\nIf one considers now that a strong acid is added to the mixture, then the Va\n expression becomes:
\n\nEqs. (6) and (7), \n
As can be observed, the added volume equations obtained for a strong base or a strong acid bear the same mathematical form. It is relevant to note which comes from the component’s balance of each polyprotic system must be independently added, thus giving rise to the double summations appearing in Eqs. (6) and (7).
\nWhen c = 1 hence giving k = 1, the equations are the same as those shown in reference [7], to determine the volume that is added to a strong base and a strong acid (Vb\n and Va\n, respectively) in a system formed by species of the same polydonor system.
\n\nEqs. (6) and (7) are exact analytic solutions to obtain titration plots pH = f(V) (estimating the volume from the pH values). These equations also allow obtaining exact equations of dpH/dV, hence the expressions for β\ndil will be shown in the next section. β\ndil is the first index used to explore quantitatively the application conditions for a buffer.
\n\nEqs. (6) and (7) are functions of the pH, thus it becomes possible to obtain analytic expressions for their first derivatives (dV/dpH). With the reciprocals of the first derivatives, exact algebraic expressions of the first derivative of the titration plot are obtained. This is to say dpH/dVb\n and −dpH/dVa\n, which are used to detect the volumes at the titration points when the reactions are quantitative.
\nExtending the expressions for dpH/dVb\n and −dpH/dVa\n considering a mixture of the species of various polydonor systems, the expressions obtained are as follows:
\nwhere k ∈ {1, 2, …, c}, ik\n ∈ {0, 1, …, nk\n} and jk\n ∈ {0, 1, …, ak\n, …, nk\n}.
\nEqually, if c = 1 and k = 1, Eqs. (8) and (9) are the same as those shown in Ref. [7] to determine dpH/dVb\n and −dpH/dVa\n for a mixture of the species of only one polydonor system.
\nIn order to determine the buffer capacity considering the dilution, β\ndil, the derivative is applied to the quantity of strong base or strong acid added as follows:
\nwhere \n
Furthermore, it is worth noting that the different plots presented along this work were constructed from spreadsheets done through Excel 2007 in Microsoft Office using the equations heretofore presented.
\n\n\nFigure 2\n shows the pH = f(Vb\n) and curve of dpH/dVb\n = f(pH) retaking experimental data from Lange’s Handbook of Chemistry [21] (markers • and ▲, respectively). The experimental curve dpH/dVb\n was calculated as the finite differences quotient of the pH values and the volumes measured during the titration (\n
Titration of 100 mL of equimolar solution of Britton‐Robinson 0.04 M ([AcO′] = [PO4′] = [BO3′] = CSB = 0.04 M) with NaOH 0.2M.—represents the calculated curve of pH = f(Vb\n), • denotes the experimental curve of pH = f(Vb\n), ‐‐‐‐‐ denotes the calculated curve of dpH/dVb\n = f(Vb\n), and ▲ denotes the experimental curve of ΔpH/ΔVb. The pKa values are as follows: pKa = 4.66 for acetic acid [23]; pKa1 = 2.1 [24], pKa2 = 6.75 [25], and pKa3 = 11.71 [26] for phosphoric acid; and pKa = 9.15 for boric acid [27]. pKw = 13.73 [28, 29].
Intuitively, it is known that the performance of a buffer solution is better whenever a larger volume is taken to set the pH. The β shown in the scientific literature [1–14, 20] does not consider this feature, for which it is necessary to have an index that evaluates the effect of the size of the buffer solution to impose the pH. For that purpose, the definition of β\ndil is used to include in its mathematic expression, the term Vo\n, as observed in Eqs. (11) and (12). Subsequently, it is shown how β\ndil takes this effect into account.
\n\n\nFigure 3\n shows a series of β\ndil = f(pH) plots for a 1000 and 10 mL buffer solutions containing the species H3PO4 and H2PO4\n− at different concentrations of the PO4’ (PO4’ = H3PO4/H2PO4\n−/HPO4\n2−/PO4\n3−/H+) system. In this case, these concentrations can be represented as \n
Calculated plots of β\ndil = f(pH) of systems initially containing the H3PO4 and H2PO4\n− at PO4’ species at overall concentrations of 10−1, 10−3, 10−5 and 10−6 M. The broken line represents the plot of β\ndil(H2O) = f(pH) for water and its basic and acid particles. Cb\n = Ca\n=0.5 M. pKa1 = 2.1 [24], pKa2 = 6.75 [25], and pKa3 = 11.71 [26]. (a) Vo\n = 1000 mL. (b) Vo\n = 10 mL.
\n\nFigure 3a\n represents a larger buffer system than that represented in \nFigure 3b\n, because the initial volumes were 1000 and 10 mL, respectively. As can be observed in \nFigure 3\n, β\ndil increases with increasing quantity of the system (Vo\n). Hence, β\ndil indicates well the expected behavior for a buffer system: the pH in a system is better imposed when the buffer amount is larger.
\n\n\nFigure 3\n also shows the plot for water, β\ndil(H2O) = f(pH), titrated with strong base and strong acid. It sets the lower limit given by this solvent and its acid and basic particles (broken line), with respect to all aqueous solutions. Therefore, it is established that any solution, including that of the same solvent, has certain β\ndil. It can be observed that the concentration diminution of the PO4’ system provokes that β\ndil diminishes and that the width of the pH interval also decreases where the PO4’ system contributes more to β\ndil than the solvent.
\nThere is one minimum concentration of the buffer system (C\nBSmin), small enough, where the PO4’ system almost does not contribute to β\ndil,(C\nBSmin ≈ 10−6 M), so that the plot of β\ndil of the PO4’ system can be discerned from the plot of β\ndil(H2O). Just as a minimum concentration is shown for the PO4’ system; whenever there is an acid‐base pair (HL/L) with pKa ≈ 7.0, the C\nBSmin will be the same (10−6 M). Although in other cases, when pKa < 7.0 or pKa > 7.0, it must be expected that the C\nBSmin be larger; this is to say, for pKa = 5 or pKa = 9, the C\nBSmin ≈ 10−5 M and for pKa = 3 or pKa = 11, the C\nBSmin ≈ 10−3 M.
\nThe previous section showed that the β\ndil has advantages over β in order to evaluate the buffer performance. However, the shortcomings of this situation refer to β\ndil, which by definition is the quantity of strong base or strong acid added to change by one unit the system’s pH, which is a fairly large change. Therefore, it is necessary to define a new index having a smaller change than β\ndil.
\nFollowing the idea proposed by Christian in his textbook [30], it is possible to approximate the derivative by means of a finite difference quotient. Even when the pH change is acceptable for a buffer system, it depends on the application or on the system to be considered, a ΔpH ≤ 0.1 is sufficiently small to comply with the approximation established through Eq. (13).
\nThen
\nIn this work, the buffer performance will be assessed considering a ΔpH = 0.1 [30]. The buffer efficacy, \n
A buffer system is used to set the pH, therefore, it is necessary to know its useful conditions to fulfill its function. Then, for the sake of a deeper understanding it is relevant to establish first a limit to determine the moment in which the buffer system’s concentration sets pH conditions over those of the water and of its acid and basic particles, just as those of the system of interest.
\nBecause the system’s pH needs to be imposed, the efficacy of the system’s buffer, the buffer \n
\n\nFigures 4a\n and \nb\n show the curves of \n
Calculated plots of \n\n\n\nε\n\n\n\n(H\n\n2\n\nO)\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nε\n\n\n\n10(H\n\n2\n\nO)\n\n\n\n\n for Vo\n = 1000 mL and Vo\n = 10 mL of water and its acid and basic particles (marker… and marker…, respectively). The \n\n\n\nε\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n curves of NH4\n+/NH3 buffer solutions at different concentrations, [NH3\']Tot = \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\no\n\n=\n\nC\n\nmix\n\n\n=\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n: —10−1 M, ———10−3 M, —10−5 M. Cb\n = Ca = 1 M. pKa = 9.25 [31]. (a) and (c) 1000 mL. (b) and (d) 10 mL.
\n\nFigure 4c\n and \nd\n shows, apart from the \n
In this case, the lowest NH4\n+/NH3 buffer concentration falls to a point that almost equals the \n
Then, whenever there is a buffer formed by an acid‐base pair HL/L with pKa ≈ 7.0 it must be expected a greater \n
Furthermore, in \nFigure 4c\n and \nd\n it can also be noted that the useful interval for the BS to set the pH, when the \n
When the \n
Finally, from the analysis of the plots in \nFigure 4\n, it can be determined that the pH limits of the buffer performance and the buffer system threshold concentration do not depend of the system’s size.
\nIt is necessary to set new limits (of pH and buffer concentration) whenever there is a mixture of the system of interest and the buffer system, because it is not sufficient to consider only the water effect.
\nThe pH of a given system (OS) is set upon adding a buffer system (BS), hence, the buffer component concentration in the mixture (\n
An example of the use of \n
\n\nFigure 5a\n shows the \n
Curves of \n\nε\n\n = f(pH) for 100 mL solutions related to \nFigure 1\n. The line marked with ….in all cases represents the buffer efficacy of water, \n\n\n\nε\n\n\n\n(H\n\n2\n\nO)\n\n\n\n\n, and its acid and basic particles. (a) Curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n belong to an acac 10−3 M ([acac\']Tot = \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\no\n\n\n=\n\n \n\nC\n\nmix\n\n\n\n=\n\n \n \n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n) solution in the absence of the buffer system (markers ××××× and ‐‐‐‐, respectively). (b) Curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n belong to the NH4\n+/NH3 buffer at different concentrations, [NH3\']Tot = \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\no\n\n\n=\n\n \n\nC\n\nmix\n\n\n\n=\n\n \n \n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n: —10−2 M, ———10−3 M, —10−4 M. (c) Curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n, and \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n belong to the solutions containing acac 10−3 M plus NH4\n+/NH3 10−2 M buffer, 10−3 M, and 10−4 M in the mixture. 1: \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n, 2:\n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n=10‐3 M +\n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−4 M, 3: \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−3 M +\n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−3 M, 4:\n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n, and 5: \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n=10‐3 M + \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−2 M. pKa = 9.0 for the system Hacac/acac− and pKa = 9.25 for the NH4\n+/NH3 system [31]. Cb\n = Ca\n = 0.2 M.
\n\nFigure 5b\n shows, apart from the \n
In order to impose the pH of the original system, the buffer efficacy of the mixture (\n
Finally, \nFigure 5c\n depicts the curve 4 as corresponding to \n
\nEq. (16) becomes specific whenever the original system is set to a pH = 9.0 when this system bears one acid‐base pair with pKa = 9.0 (Hacac/acac−) [31]. This example is the most difficult case because this OS acid‐base pair competes almost equally with the BS acid‐base pair (NH4\n+/NH3, pKa = 9.25) to set the system’s pH.
\nIf the pKa of some species in the original system moves away from the pH value that is desired to impose with the buffer system, the factor of 10 in Eq. (16) becomes smaller.
\nIt must not be forgotten that the buffer system should have a conjugated acid‐base pair with a pKa value close to the pH that is desired to impose. As can be observed from \nFigure 5c\n, in this case it is difficult that the buffer system imposes the pH to a 9.0 value because both systems (BS and OS) have pKa values similar to that pH value. It is worth clarifying that the NH4\n+/NH3 buffer imposes easier the pH to a 9.0 value to the extent that the pKa of the acid‐base pair of the original system drifts apart from pH = 9.0; then the \n
Consider now the case that a pH 9.0 shall be imposed to the 100 mL (\n
\n\nFigure 6a\n shows, apart from the curve of \n
The curves \n\nε\n\n= f(pH) are for the 100 mL of the solutions related to \nFigure 1\n. The broken line in all cases represents the buffer efficacy of the water, \n\n\n\nε\n\n\n\n(H\n\n2\n\nO)\n\n\n\n\n, and its acid and basic particles. (a) Curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n for equimolar Britton‐Robinson buffer solutions at different concentrations, [AcO\']Tot = [PO4\']Tot = [BO3\']Tot = \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\no\n\n\n\n=\n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n: ―10−1 M, ———10−3 M, ―10−5 M. (b) Curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n, and \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n of solutions that contain 10−3 M acac plus 10−2 M, 10−3 M, and 10−5 M Britton‐Robinson’s buffer in the mixture. 1: \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n, 2: [acac\'] = \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−3 M + \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−5 M, 3: [acac\'] = \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−3 M + \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n=10−3 M, 4: \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n, and 5: [acac\'] = \n\n\n\nC\n\nOS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−3 M + \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n = 10−2 M. The pKa values used in the model are as follows: pKa = 9.0 for acac’ [31]; pKa = 4.66 for acetic acid [23]; pKa1 = 2.1 [24], pKa2 = 6.75 [25], and pKa3 = 11.71 [26] for phosphoric acid; and pKa = 9.15 for boric acid [27]. pKw = 13.73 [28, 29]. Cb\n = Ca\n = 0.2 M.
As stated, the \n
\n\nFigure 6b\n also shows curve 4 that corresponds to \n
The concentration of the buffer components in the mixture (\n
If there are 100 mL of an acac (OS1) solution at 10−3 M concentration (\n
\n\nFigure 7a\n shows that the \n
The curves for \n\nε\n\n= f(pH) for 100 mL of different solutions. The broken line in all cases represents the buffer efficacy of water, \n\n\n\nε\n\n\n\n(H\n\n2\n\nO)\n\n\n\n\n, and its acid and basic particles. The curves of \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n of acac solutions in the absence of the buffer system (markers ××××× and ‐‐‐‐, respectively). (a) Curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n containing 100 mL of the acac solution with a 10−3 M solute concentration, curve \n\n\n\nε\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n containing the same acac solution as \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n and different added volumes of the buffer solution with a concentration \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n\n\n = 0.1 M. Volumes added: ―10 mL, ———1 mL and, 0.1 mL. (b) The curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n are the same that in (a), curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n containing the same acac solution and different added volumes of the buffer solution with \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n\n\n= 1 M. Added volumes: ―1 mL, ―0.5 mL and ―0.1 mL. (c) Curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nOS\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nε\n\n10OS\n\n\n\n\n containing 100 mL of a acac solution with 10−2 M solute concentration, curves \n\n\n\nε\n\nmix\n\n\n\n\n containing 100 mL of the acac solution with a 10−2 M solute concentration and different volumes added to the buffer solution with \n\n\n\nC\n\nBS\n\n\n\n\n\n\n= 1 M. Added volumes: ―10 mL, ―5 mL and, ― 1 mL.
The \n
If now, a larger concentration of acac is used in the original system, for example 10−2 M (\n
It is clear that if the original system solutes’ concentrations in the mixture (\n
Observing the equations shown in \nFigure 1\n, it is possible to demonstrate that the threshold volume, \n
which can be rewritten as
\nFrom Eq. (17), the following is obtained
\n\n\nFigure 7c\n shows that the \n
Just like in the case of the threshold concentration (\n
A model has been proposed to study the buffer capacity with dilution effect, β\ndil, of mixtures of various polydonor systems in aqueous solutions. From the model, exact algebraic expressions were obtained that describe the buffer capacity with dilution.
\nThrough the study of β\ndil of solutions containing one or more polydonor systems with different conditions and characteristics, it is concluded that β\ndil decreases when the total concentration of the polydonor systems (or mixtures of polydonor systems) decreases, and conversely.
\nWhen a polydonor system attains a very small concentration, this does not contributes practically to the buffer capacity, only the solvent’s acid and basic particles determine this property. Then, it is stated that any solution, even the pure solvent, has a buffer capacity.
\nIt is shown that the β\ndil depends on the size of the system, which is information that is not considered in the β known and used in the common scientific literature.
\nA new index has been introduced, \n
From the construction of the different curves of \n
Similarly, the different curves of \n
NR‐L wants to acknowledge DGAPA‐UNAM for a postdoctoral fellowship. The authors also want to acknowledge for partial financial support from PRODEP‐SEP through RedNIQAE and CONACyT through 237997 project.
\nTechnological advancements have been credited for playing a significant role in the globalization of trade, communication, economics, politics, culture and life styles. Thus, modern communication technologies or information and communications technologies (ICTs) have been ascribed to not only improving efficiency or productivity in the business world but also with improving the standard of living for the global citizens. One of the strategies is the application of e-governance which entails the use of Information and communication technologies (ICTs) in managing governmental business in the region. Information and communication technologies (ICTs) were the stimuli behind the economic, political and social revolution since the invention of the digital computer (mid-1940s), which were accelerated with the advent of the Internet (the early 90s). Currently, the work of public institutions depends increasingly more on the technical and architectural choices that are made at the level of technology. Most of the principles of good governance are expressed in the roles of e-government; in other words, focus on transparency, openness, citizen participation, effectiveness, efficiency, accountability and the likes [1]. The implementation of e-governance to carry out public services has become a global drive in public administration. It is aimed to develop a robust environment for efficiency in managing public affairs. Since 1960s through 1970s, as information technology emerged, it has been envisaged that the use of modern technology would bring revolution to the way and manner of running governmental businesses. As information communication continues to dominate the space of all organizations especially in the 1980s and 1990s, the political office holders’ arrogated recognition for the implementation of information communication technologies (ICTs). Toward the beginning of twenty-first century, the application and the use of ICTs became more popular among the citizens and public officials [2].
\nIn the management of public affairs, corruption has been recognized as one of the dominant problems in promoting economic growth and the welfare of the citizens [3]. Corruption has been acknowledged as a fundamental challenge to good governance and development, habitually embedded in the Global South. Although, it is not only restricted to the region, nonetheless, chronic poverty, conflict and discrimination embedded in developing states are accredited to be responsible for promoting corruption [4]. To combat the increasing level of corruption in developing nations, there are sundry measures put in place to checkmate the syndrome in the public sector. One of such approaches is the e-platform which provides a modern approach to promote anti-corruption agenda, resulting in accountability and transparency in the overall management of public affairs [1]. Thus, e-governance should be considered as a digital mechanism for mitigating corrupt practices in the public sector. Accessible public information for all citizenry can bring about transparency, which limiting public official to demand or accept bribe. One of the major approaches in reducing corruption in the public sector is to limit interaction between the citizens and public officials. This can ensure not only providing accessible information regarding government activities but removing the bureaucratic bottleneck inherent in public administration. Even though e-governance is not the first and last method to be employed for anti-corruption campaign in the public sector, it is being practiced very efficiently in the developed countries and in a few developing countries as well. In general, both developed and developing countries have succeeded much in implementing e-governance, although with relatively uneven attainments. Their efforts to apply the tools and strategies of e-governance have been visible since the last couple of decades. There are countries especially in Asia which have effectively utilized e-governance in reducing corrupt practices and promote good governance. These include The Republic of Korea, Singapore, Japan, Israel, Bahrain, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka [5]. There are other countries in developing nations that have embarked on such a giant stride to fight corruption, albeit they have lagged behind in the effective implementation of e-governance. International organizations such as Transparency International (TI), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and World Bank (WB) among others have reinvigorated the need to implement modern technology against the traditional approach in managing government activities [4]. Therefore, this chapter aims to provide the nexus between e-governance and anti-corruption strategies in Africa by exploring the application of e-governance in Nigerian anti-corruption campaign.
\nThe traditional concept of governance emerged from the Greek language (κυβερνᾶν), which connotes “to steer”. The concept transcends a mere existence of government. In all societies, people employ governance in their daily lives to manage human relationship, interaction and activities. In this context, the use of governance can be metaphorically referred to steering of a ship. Actually, steering of a ship requires navigation toward a particular direction, and this necessitates an existence of seamanship who is saddled with the responsibility of navigating the ship toward certain destination. Thus, governance as a process requires steering of people toward development [6]. Moreover, governance is the capacity of the government to steer society [7]. Nonetheless, to avoid absolutism and self-steering capacity of the appointed/elected leaders, the modern perspective of governance requires peoples’ participation in decision making process. The conceptualization of governance in a modern expression stipulates citizens’ involvement in public decision making. This makes governance a participatory task by both the ruler and the ruled. The participation of every citizen in allocating and managing public resources defines the modern approach of governance across the globe. According to World Bank, governance implies the management of social, political and economic affairs for sustainable development. The World Bank acknowledged three fundamental elements of governance which include the nature of political regime; the strength and ability of the governments to effectively formulate, implement and discharge responsibilities; and the way and manner the regime in power manage the social and economic resources for development [8]. Therefore, governance entails institutional environment in which individual citizen and the political actors interact and participate in the public decision making. It requires the management of public affairs in a transparent, inclusive, participatory, responsive and accountable manners. Allocating resources and judicious use of these resources for development purpose becomes sacrosanct [9]. Hence, it can be argued that governance articulates and accommodates both the formal and informal actors in public decision making. This is to facilitate equal participation in a more inclusive, transparent and accountable management of public resources guided by the rule of law.
\nIn line with the above, the digital revolution which provides transformation in all human societies delineates the concept of governance from primordial model to a modern perspective which indulges the application of information communication technologies (ICTs) in public decision making. e-Governance as a concept emerged at the inception of 21st century in the management of public sector. There is a paradigm shift from traditionalism to modernism in public administration. The emergence of e-governance therefore radicalized the nature of doing governmental businesses around the world. This opportunity paves way for a new path in conducting and managing public affairs, and this introduced e-services in public sector. Thus, e-governance has been acknowledged as capable of increasing the impact of government on the people [2]. e-Governance implies political and civil operation of government using information and communication technologies (ICTs) by which both the government and citizens interact. It is a strategy employed by the government through the use of ICTs with the aimed of encouraging citizens to participate in governance and make the government more transparent and accountable to the general citizenry [10]. e-Governance entails the use of web-based internet application to interact with citizens, employees, other government agencies, associate or business partners. It encourages participation of every citizen in the government business through technological platform [11]. It has been further argued that “the application of information communication technology (ICT) by the government to enhance accountability, create awareness and ensures transparency in the management of governmental business”. It further explained that e-governance can be recognized as a political tool employed by government to promote public oriented services [12]. Therefore, it can be acknowledged from the above view that e-governance appears to be a paradigm shift from traditional model of carrying out governmental businesses which emphasizes compliance with the hierarchical chain of command to the application of internet that allowed the citizens to source for information on government services at their own convenience time which does not necessarily need physical presence in government offices. The primary focus of e-governance is to ensure that citizens have access to government services without direct contact with the public official. The service often delivered through government internet platform. It is believed that the use of internet will reduce the negative impression toward public officials that have been denounced as corrupt. The government websites provide a landscape for the citizens to interact with the government and receive feedback regarding the services provided by the government. In this context, e-governance has the potential to minimize corrupt practices in government establishment [13]. Thus, it can be argued that the major single focus of every e-governance project is to reduce corruption in the management of public affairs across the world.
\nMany governments around the world have chosen the path of e-governance to manage all government departments and agencies (Figure 1). This requires all activities and services provided by the government to be available online such as income tax, customs, property tax and sales tax. The government services are delivered through online platform to the citizenry. e-Governance often necessitates the centralization of data to improve audit and analysis. The inability of the public official to follow online procedures in the conduct of government businesses usually leads to exposure of such act. The citizen complains can also be recounted through e-platform created by government which often requires feedback from the appropriate authority. This environment may facilitate successive strategy to expose corrupt civil servants within the government agencies [11].
\nDefinition of e-governance. Source: Misuraca [6].
In the world over, governments have supported the use of electronic means to provide cost effective services as well as improving the way and manner in which government businesses are carried out. As a result of global acceptance of this strategy, Africa has initiated policies, mechanism and programs toward ensuring effective implementation of e-governance in the region. e-Governance has been one of the key strategies to strengthening democratic governance and as an important instrument in achieving developmental agenda in Africa. The realization and implementation of e-governance has penetrated the social and political space in the region. This makes it possible for all the stakeholders to participate in governance processes. Moreover, the intra-governmental communication provided as a result of the implementation of e-governance makes it easier to reduce the cost of service and also provides wider reach to the general citizens [14]. Among the several strategies for the actualization of e-governance is the creation of websites, linking the citizens with the numerous services provided by the government – Federal, State and Local. The creation of websites therefore becomes interactive space where the citizens and the government can share their views regarding the activities of government while receiving feedbacks on the same platform. Some of the services available to the citizens range from birth certificate, identity card, voter’s registration, payment of tenement rate, taxes and levies etc. One of the countries that showcased e-governance capacity in the management of public is South Africa government. The web provides detail information about the government’s services. The South African government offers services within the following spectrum: services for the citizens; services for organization; and services for foreign nationals. The services to the citizens revolves around information concerning youth, education and training, retirement and old age, birth, social benefits, relationship, living with disability, parenting, death, citizenship, sports and recreation, law, transport among others. Services implying organizations include import and export, health and safety, labor related issues, business tax, transport, health and safety at work place, intellectual property among others. Information related to foreign national include immigration and working in South Africa. Similar features are also found in Kenya where the issues related to e-civil service, e-business, e-citizenship, e-education, e-taxes and revenue among several other categories [15]. A comparable features are found in Nigeria where activities such as tourism, drug administration, company registration, immigration, tax, investment, driver’s license, education, health, housing projects, corruption reporting, national identity management are embedded in government portal. Thus, it can be deduced that e-governance has facilitates citizen’s participation as well as reducing cumbersome nature of traditional mode of governance in Africa. The table and figures below reveals the population of internet users and the level of penetration as compared to the rest of the world.
\nFrom the above, Figure 2 reveals that Asia region constitutes 50.4% of the world internet users, it further shows that Europe has 16.5%. The data also found that Africa has 10.9%, Latin America and Caribbean 10.1%, North America 7.5%, Middle East 3.9% while Oceania and Australia constitutes 0.7%. In this context, Asia has the largest number of internet users across the world, followed by Europe. The implication of this as related to e-governance is that the more accessible internet is, the more the people interact with the government on electronic platforms. In Figure 3, the data shows internet world penetration rates by geographic regions. The data found that North America 89.1% which constitutes the highest level of penetration globally. This is followed by Europe which has 86.6%. Australia and Oceania has 68.0% while Latin America and Caribbean has 66.8%. The Middle East constitutes 65.8% while the world average is equated to 56.3%. Asia has 51.7% while Africa has 35.9% which is considered as the lowest rate when compared with other regions.
\nInternet users in the world by region as at March 2019.
Internet world penetration rates by geographic regions as at March 2019.
Table 1 shows the Internet Users Statistics for Africa as at March 2019. The table revealed all the countries in Africa with the divergence population, number of internet users, level of penetration and internet growth. In Figure 4, the data reveals internet users in Africa as at March 2019. It shows that Africa has 10.9% while the rest of the world constitutes 89.1%. In Figure 5, it shows the level of penetration rate in Africa compared to the rest of the world as at March 2019. The data reveals that Africa has 35.9% while world average constitutes 56.1%. The data further shows that 60.2% constitutes the rest of the world. This indicates that, there is a need to reduce the cost of access to digital technology in order to make it affordable for the wider segment of the population. In all, it is acknowledged that Africa has lagged behind in the implementation of digital technology, as indicates in the above data, many African nations have not fully implemented e-governance in managing public affairs. Even though some of these African nations have continually promote the use of ICTs in major government activities, it is believed that the affordability of digital technology will encourage the citizens to employ these platforms to interact more with the government especially regarding governance and anti-corruption campaign.
\nAfrica | \nPopulation (2019 Est.) | \nInternet users 31-Dec-2000 | \nInternet users 31-Mar-2019 | \nPenetration (% population) | \nInternet growth % 2000–2019 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Algeria | \n42,679,018 | \n50,000 | \n21,000,000 | \n49.2 | \n41,900 | \n
Angola | \n31,787,566 | \n30,000 | \n7,078,067 | \n22.3 | \n23.493 | \n
Benin | \n11,801,595 | \n15,000 | \n3,801,758 | \n32.2 | \n25.245 | \n
Botswana | \n2,374,636 | \n15,000 | \n923,528 | \n38.9 | \n6057 | \n
Burkina Faso | \n20,321,560 | \n10,000 | \n3,704,265 | \n18.2 | \n36,942 | \n
Burundi | \n11, 575,964 | \n3000 | \n617,116 | \n5.3 | \n20,470 | \n
Cabo Verde | \n560,349 | \n8000 | \n265,972 | \n47.5 | \n3225 | \n
Cameroon | \n25,312,993 | \n20,000 | \n6,128,422 | \n24.2 | \n30,542 | \n
Central African Rep | \n4,825,711 | \n1500 | \n256,432 | \n5.3 | \n16,995 | \n
Chad | \n15,814,345 | \n1000 | \n768,274 | \n4.9 | \n76,727 | \n
Comoros | \n850,910 | \n1500 | \n130,578 | \n15.3 | \n8605 | \n
Congo | \n5,542,197 | \n500 | \n650,000 | \n11.7 | \n129,900 | \n
Congo Dem Rep | \n86,727,573 | \n500 | \n5,137,271 | \n5.9 | \n1,027,354 | \n
Cote d’Ivoire | \n25,531,083 | \n40,000 | \n6,318,355 | \n25.6 | \n16.246 | \n
Djibouti | \n985,690 | \n1400 | \n180,000 | \n18.3 | \n12,757 | \n
Egypt | \n101,168,745 | \n450,000 | \n49,231,493 | \n48.7 | \n10,840 | \n
Equatorial Guinea | \n1,360,104 | \n500 | \n312,704 | \n23.0 | \n62,441 | \n
Eritrea | \n5,309,659 | \n5000 | \n71,000 | \n1.3 | \n1320 | \n
Ethiopia | \n110,135,636 | \n10,000 | \n16,437,811 | \n14.9 | \n164,270 | \n
Gabon | \n2,109,099 | \n15,000 | \n985,492 | \n46.7 | \n6470 | \n
Gambia | \n2,228,075 | \n4000 | \n392,277 | \n17.6 | \n9707 | \n
Ghana | \n30,096,970 | \n30,000 | \n10,110,0001 | \n33.6 | \n33,600 | \n
Guinea | \n13,398,180 | \n8000 | \n1,602,485 | \n12.0 | \n19,931 | \n
Guinea-Bissau | \n1,953,723 | \n1500 | \n120,000 | \n6.1 | \n7900 | \n
Kenya | \n52,214,791 | \n200,000 | \n43,329,434 | \n83.0 | \n21,564 | \n
Lesotho | \n2,292,682 | \n4000 | \n627,860 | \n27.4 | \n15,596 | \n
Liberia | \n4,977,720 | \n500 | \n4,028,418 | \n80.9 | \n805,583 | \n
Libya | \n6,569,864 | \n10,000 | \n3,800,000 | \n57.8 | \n37,900 | \n
Madagascar | \n26,969,642 | \n30,000 | \n1,900,000 | \n7.0 | \n6233 | \n
Malawi | \n19,718,743 | \n15,000 | \n1,828,503 | \n9.3 | \n12,090 | \n
Mali | \n19,689,140 | \n18,800 | \n12,480,176 | \n63.4 | \n66,283 | \n
Mauritania | \n4,661,149 | \n5000 | \n810,000 | \n17.4 | \n16,100 | \n
Mauritius | \n1,271,368 | \n87,000 | \n803,896 | \n63.2 | \n824 | \n
Mayotte (FR) | \n266,380 | \nN/A | \n107,940 | \n40.5 | \nN/A | \n
Morocco | \n36,635,156 | \n100,000 | \n22,567,154 | \n61.6 | \n22,467 | \n
Mozambique | \n31,408,823 | \n30,000 | \n5,279,135 | \n16.8 | \n17,497 | \n
Namibia | \n2,641,996 | \n30,000 | \n797,027 | \n30.2 | \n2557 | \n
Niger | \n23,176,691 | \n5000 | \n951,548 | \n4.1 | \n18,931 | \n
Nigeria | \n200,962,417 | \n200,000 | \n111,632,516 | \n55.5 | \n55,716 | \n
Reunion (ER) | \n889,918 | \n130,000 | \n480,000 | \n53.9 | \n269 | \n
Rwanda | \n12,794,412 | \n5000 | \n3,724,678 | \n29.1 | \n74,393 | \n
Saint Helena (UK) | \n4096 | \nN/A | \n2200 | \n53.7 | \nN/A | \n
Sao Tome & Principe | \n213,379 | \n6500 | \n57,875 | \n27.1 | \n790 | \n
Senegal | \n16,743,859 | \n40,000 | \n9,749,527 | \n58.2 | \n24,274 | \n
Seychelles | \n95,702 | \n6000 | \n67,119 | \n70.1 | \n1018 | \n
Sierra Leone | \n7,883,123 | \n5000 | \n902,462 | \n11.4 | \n17,949 | \n
Somalia | \n15,636,171 | \n200 | \n1,200,000 | \n7.7 | \n599,900 | \n
South Africa | \n58,065,097 | \n2,400,000 | \n31,185,634 | \n53.7 | \n1199 | \n
South Sudan | \n13,263,184 | \nN/A | \n2,229,963 | \n16.8 | \nN/A | \n
Sudan | \n42,514,094 | \n30,000 | \n11,816,570 | \n27.8 | \n39,288 | \n
Swaziland | \n1,415,414 | \n10,000 | \n446,051 | \n31.5 | \n4360 | \n
Tanzania | \n60,913,557 | \n115,000 | \n23,000,000 | \n37.8 | \n19,900 | \n
Togo | \n8,186,384 | \n100,000 | \n899,956 | \n11.0 | \n800 | \n
Tunisia | \n11,783,168 | \n100,000 | \n7,898,534 | \n67.0 | \n7798 | \n
Uganda | \n45,711,874 | \n40,000 | \n19,000,000 | \n41.6 | \n47,400 | \n
Western Sahara | \n582,478 | \nN/A | \n28,000 | \n4.8 | \nN/A | \n
Zambia | \n18,137,369 | \n20,000 | \n7,248,773 | \n40.0 | \n36,144 | \n
Zimbabwe | \n17,297,495 | \n50,000 | \n6,796,314 | \n39.3 | \n13,492 | \n
Total Africa | \n1320,038,716 | \n4,514,400 | \n474,120,563 | \n35.9 | \n10,402 | \n
Rest of World | \n6,433,444,493 | \n83.0 | \n3,872,441,290 | \n60.2 | \n89.1 | \n
World Total | \n7,753,483,209 | \n100% | \n4,346,561,853 | \n56.1 | \n100.0 | \n
Internet users statistics for Africa as at March 2019.
Source: The data was adapted from Internet World Stats. Available at
Internet users in Africa as at March 2019.
Penetration rate in Africa as compared to the rest of the world as at March 2019.
Corruption is the abuse of public office for personal gain. Corruption may occur at any levels of government – local, state and national. It can also manifest at the legislative, executive and judicial arms of governments. By and large, corruption exists in every sphere of life, be it public or private establishments. Irrespective of where it occurs, it tends to have a mammoth impact in the general lives of the citizenry especially on the provision of the basic services [16]. Before the introduction of e-governance system, a vast number Nigerian public employees at the local, state and federal levels acknowledged to be terrifically corrupt. The employees in the public sector are recognized to be smart in inflating government contracts and procurements; the system was moribund with ghost worker syndrome in which the names of non-existing public officials were used to pay fraudulent salaries. The committers of such offense initiated a system that bypass banking measure in the payment of salary. In such an environment, they pay public personnel by cash through their ministries cashiers. A huge amount of funds was diverted to the pocket of perpetrators through this channel. Several regimes have contended with this challenge through the inauguration of special staff audit committees, the committee introduced “Table Payment” which requires physical presence of staff. However, this measure was unable to rule out the corrupt elements in the public sector [13]. Consequently, the diversion of government revenue and foreign aid into the individual personal purse within the public sector has contributed to the deprivation of some basic social services. It has been estimated that approximately 400 billion was stolen from Nigerian public treasury from 1960 to 1999, between 2005 and 2004, the sum of $182 billion was diverted from the public accounts via illegitimate financial flows. The stolen common wealth meant for educational development, health sector and general infrastructural development was diverted by public office holders for personal aggrandizement [17]. The culture of corruption entrenched in Nigerian public sector has a great impact in the life of the citizens. Its effect on infrastructural development has been acknowledged and its corollary has being experienced by the citizens in their daily engagement (Figure 6).
\nHow e-Governance can prevent corruption. Source: Iqbal and Seo [10].
In Figures 7 and 8, these platforms showcase the electronic model designed to mitigate corruption in Nigeria. On these platforms, several activities are embedded, ranging from corruption reporting, whistleblower channel, number of people prosecuted for corruption, complaint and observation of the citizens against the mandate of anti-corruption institutions, petition among other related activities. These platforms have encouraged the citizens to report several cases of corruption which the anti-corruption institutions have investigated in recent time. Without physical presence of the citizens, corrupt practices can be reported on the website of the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offenses Commission (ICPC) and Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC). This effort has yielded an expected outcome following the adoption of e-governance in combatting corruption in Nigerian domain. Therefore, anti-corruption war is considered as government and citizens’ struggle, it is believed that if government co-opted the citizens in fighting corruption, corruption will be mitigated to a barest minimum level in the country.
\nIndependent corrupt practices and other related offenses commission.
Economic and financial crimes commission.
The nexus between e-governance and anti-corruption war has been globally pronounced by a number of scholars [12, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Information communication technology is considered as a fundamental instrument that can be employed to tame the ugly trend of corruption. ICT is capable of mitigating corruption by promoting good governance, monitoring the activities of government and the governed. The use of electronic measure in the daily governmental business has a great impact in the fight against corruption among other measures put in place by the government in many developing nations of the world [1]. Several efforts have been put forward to prevent corruption by different regimes. The creation of Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC), Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and Code of Conduct Bureau among others. Despite the creation of different institutions to checkmate the spreading wave of corruption in both the public and private sector in the country, it appears that these measures were not absolutely capable of reducing corrupt practices in Nigerian society. The ineptitude of the above-mentioned measures triggered the development of e-governance scheme which was strengthened to foster transparency in the conduct of public affairs. The implementation of e-governance approach was made possible with the adoption of Information Communication technologies (ICTs) revolution. The implementation process was initiated as a pilot scheme initiated in some ministries and federal parastatals. Following this event, other levels of governments began to adopt this policy to tackle the high level of corruption in the country. The adoption of this policy aimed at block the manifold sources by which public officials employed in siphoning public funds such as double payment of contracts and ghost workers. A huge amount of public funds has been saved by the three tiers of government due to implementation of e-governance project. The philosophy behind this policy is to reduce corruption and increase the level of transparency and accountability in the public and private sectors [22]. It is a by-product of ICT, which is an efficient and effective strategy to tackle corruption idiosyncrasy. Even though e-governance is not the first and last method to curb corruption in the public sector, it is being practiced very efficiently in the developed countries and in a few developing countries as well. In general, developing countries have succeeded much in implementing e-governance. Their efforts to apply the tools and strategies have been discernible since the last couple of decades [4]. The services delivered through electronic means such as tax payment, rate, license are capable of mitigating human error and corruption in the public arena. In an environment where public administration is digitalized, physical contact which has the potential of promoting corrupt practices is mitigated. e-Governance serves the purpose of bringing transparency, accountability and openness to the public service [3]. Nigeria has embarked on numerous strategies in reducing corruption especially through e-governance within the public sector. The public sector reform includes Treasury Single Account (TSA), Biometric Time and Attendance, Integrated Payroll and Personnel Information System (IPPIS), Prepaid Meter. Other initiatives include e-passport, online registration of Joint Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB) by candidates, introduction of computer based examination to reduce exam malpractice, the use of card reader during election, e-reporting of human rights abuse, monthly publishing of local and state governments allocation by the ministry of finance which allows citizens to be aware of how the government use their public resources [22]. According to Davies and Fumega, there are eight kinds of ICT mechanism that can be used to prevent corruption, these include the following:
Online services: Platforms offer public self-services that citizens can explore
Transparency portals: These platforms provide periodic government publication of important documents which are accessible to the citizens online;
Open data portals: These platforms offer free access to data sets in machine-readable formats.
Crowd sourced reporting: This entails the citizens to report grievances regarding the activities of government;
Online corruption reporting: The platforms that provide opportunity for citizens to report cases;
Online right-to-information requests: platforms that allow citizens to file right-to-information requests.
Issue reporting: platforms that allow citizens to report problems with public services
Service automation: platforms that replace discretionary decision-making by public officials with auditable software processes [23].
In Nigeria, there are policies implemented by the government to curb corruption in the public domain, some of these policies are discussed below:
\nThe TSA policy was initiated as part of Economic Reform and Governance program in 2004 by the Federal government in Nigeria. TSA is an integrated national bank account in which all the federal government ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) remit daily government revenue. The implementation of this policy by the national government aimed to block all leakages in Nigerian revenue generating agencies as well as to guarantee judicious use of government resources for the benefit of the citizens. The TSA is one of the components of public financial management (PFM) reforms which was under the third pillar of National Strategy for public service reforms geared toward achieving vision 20:20:20 aimed to address the challenge of ineffective and inefficient cash management in the country. The implementation of this policy necessitates adoption of e-payment system for every single financial transaction, and it came into full force in January 2009. The adoption of this policy aimed at ensuring efficiency, effectiveness, transparency, openness and accountability in the management of the country’s financial resources. Although, before the implementation of TSA, the country was moribund with challenge of monitoring all government accounts by the Office of the Accountant General of the Federation (AOGF). The TSA was guided by three fundamental principles: the unification and synchronization of government treasury accounts; only the chief financial agents of the government are saddled with the oversight responsibility in managing cash resources of the government; and there should be comprehensive coverage of both the budgetary and extra-budgetary as well as consolidation government’s cash resources [24].
\nIn 2012, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) inaugurated the implementation of cashless policy, projected to eliminate the physical cash flow in the national economy so as to promote e-transaction. The policy was first implemented in Lagos in January 2012. The policy is aimed to reduce the primary cost of banking services; promote modernization and development of Nigeria’s payment system in accordance with vision 20:20 goal to be among the top 20 economies by the year 20:20; reducing high cash usage outside the formal sector and therefore provide opportunity for effective management of inflation to promote economic growth; reducing the risk of high handling of cash which encourages robberies and related crimes; and to mitigate systemic leakage that promote corruption. The fundamental objective of this policy is to encourage cashless economy. The cashless economy inculcates the promotion of payment without the involvement of physical cash. It does not totally exclude the use of physical cash from the economy but an economy where the use of cash is reduced to a bearable minimum level. In such a cashless environment, electronic based payments dominate the economy with the use of credit cards or mobile or bank transfer. Some of the components of cashless policy may incorporate e-exchange, e-money, e-brokering, e-finance among others. The primary measures for the cashless policy in Nigeria imply:
Daily cumulative cash limit: N500, 000 and N3 million on free cash withdrawals and lodgments by individual and corporate customers respectively. These are upward reviews from the daily cumulative limits of N150, 000 and N1 million set in January, 2012.
Processing fees for withdrawals above limit: 3% for individual and 5% for corporate. These are downward reviews from the respective 10% and 20% fees set in January, 2012.
Processing fees for lodgments above limit: 2% for individual and 3% for corporate. These are downward reviews from the respective 10% and 20% fees set in January, 2012.
Exemptions from processing fees: this applies to accounts operated by ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) of the federal and state governments, solely for the purpose of revenue collections. Exemptions also extended to embassies, diplomatic missions and multi-lateral and aid-donor agencies, as well as micro finance banks.
The major goal of this policy is to ensure that the larger percentage of Nigerian populace utilizes electronic platform in their daily transaction. Several measures put in place to accomplish the cashless policy include the following methods:
Automated Teller Machine (ATM). ATM can be used for the payment of bill, deposit cash, funds transfer, recharge airtime for mobile phone
Internet banking: This can be employed to make instant balance enquiry, funds transfer, payment of application fees and utility bills. Some of the banks require the customers to use token in order to guarantee security and safeguard the account against fraudsters.
Point-of-Sale (POS) Terminals: This can be used to make payment of any transaction made by the customers.
Electronic Transfer: This can be employed to transfer funds electronically from the customer’s account to other sources or destinations [25].
This is an integral component of the ERGP initiative targeted toward tackling corruption through information technology. It was implemented to provide support to public resource management by employing integrated and automated mechanism to ensure effective and efficient economic system. The implementation of this policy is aimed to enhance transparency, accountability and cost effective public service delivery. The primary objective of the GIFMIS is to key into computerized financial information system for the federal government to increase:
Federal government capacity to effectively control and monitor the general expenditure and receipts of MDAs
The capability to understand the general costs of collections of activities
The ability to exhibit transparency and accountability to the public and partners
The ability to access information on government’s economic performance and cash flow
Medium term planning through a medium term expenditure framework (MTEF).
Internal controls to identify and prevent possible fraudulent actions
The access to information on financial operation
Ultimately, the focus of the GIFMIS is to support and improve the federal government public financial management performance. The financial management obligations constitutes the overall financial management cycle of government which includes budget preparation, budget execution and financial reporting. GIFMIS aimed to be used in all areas of government budget preparation, execution and general management of financial resources. Additionally, GIFMIS enables effective revenue collection through integrated system of revenue collection especially in some agencies like Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS), Customs, Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and providing effective revenue remittance and transfer to the TSA [24].
\nThis chapter has examined e-governance as an effective mechanism in tackling corruption in Nigeria. Although, there have been several efforts by the past political regimes in fighting corruption in the public sector, it appears that some of the efforts put in place were able to yield minimal outcomes. The recent initiative regarding application of information communication technologies (ICTs) in the general management of public affairs has been considered as effective mechanism to complement the effort in curbing corrupt practices in the public sector. This chapter demonstrates that e-governance as a modern technological tool is capable of reducing high level of corruption in the public sector in the country. The current initiative to reduce the level of corruption in Nigeria necessitates the implementation of e-governance strategy which revolves around the Treasury Single Account (TSA), internet banking, limitation in cash withdrawal, the Government Integrated Financial Management Information System, cashless policy among others. These numerous strategies have been utilized to minimize corrupt practices in Nigeria. Some of these strategies have provided opportunity to prevent ghost workers from continuous existence in Nigerian public sector. Although, the adoption of these measures has been producing positive outcomes, however, there are numerous challenges affecting the effective functioning of e-governance especially among the citizens. These challenges range from social arena where there is low literacy level, poor basic education, lack of access to internet by rural populace, lack of feedback, low level of technological adaptation, different languages, shortage of skills, poor IT literacy as well as political aspects that revolves around lack of cyber laws, poor reform agenda, low budget allocation among others. To make the use of ICTs more effective in the public sector, the government needs to ensure training and retraining of its staff in handling ICTs for effective service delivery, provide affordable market for internet users, re-orientate the local community of its benefits and provide enabling environment for effective implementation of e-governance at the local, state and national levels.
\nWe pride ourselves on our belief that scientific progress is generated by collaboration, that the playing field for scientific research should be leveled globally, and that research conducted in a democratic environment, with the use of innovative technologies, should be made available to anyone.
\n\nWe look forward to hearing from individuals and organizations who are interested in new discoveries and sharing their research.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. 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I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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