IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
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Designed to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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After a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
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Our innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\n
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Topic Focused Publications - Each topic showcases high impact subject areas
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Renowned Editorial Expertise - Series Editors, Topic Editors, and a team of international Board Members that permanently support each Book Series
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Fast Publishing - quick turnaround which is unique for book publishing
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The benefit of ISSN and ISBN for increased citation and indexing possibilities
\n
\n\n\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\n
IntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
We invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
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Note: Edited in October 2021
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Thus, Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (cEOR): A Practical Overview offers key knowledge and understanding of cEOR processes using an evidence-based approach intended for a broad audience ranging from field operators, researchers, to reservoir engineers dealing with the development and planning of cEOR field applications. This book is structured into three sections; the first section surveys overall EOR processes. The second section focuses on cEOR processes, while the final section describes the electrorheology technology. These sections are presented using a practical and realistic approach tailored for readers looking to improve their knowledge and understanding of cEOR processes in a nutshell.",isbn:"978-953-51-2701-7",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2700-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4171-6",doi:"10.5772/61394",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-ceor-a-practical-overview",numberOfPages:202,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"a0b7842ba790370b5485de1694611376",bookSignature:"Laura Romero-Zeron",publishedDate:"October 19th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5143.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20666,numberOfWosCitations:52,numberOfCrossrefCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:88,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:10,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:179,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 22nd 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 13th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 15th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 8th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 14th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"109465",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Romero-Zerón",slug:"laura-romero-zeron",fullName:"Laura Romero-Zerón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109465/images/system/109465.jpeg",biography:"Laura Romero-Zerón is a Professor in the Dept. of Chemical Engineering at the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton, Canada. Her research interests include enhanced oil recovery technics and MRI for EOR applications, among others. She holds a PhD in Chemical & Petroleum Engineering from the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. She is a member of the SPE and holds the SPE Petroleum Engineering Certification.",institutionString:"University of New Brunswick",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of New Brunswick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"702",title:"Petrochemical Engineering",slug:"engineering-chemical-engineering-petrochemical-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"52155",title:"EOR Processes, Opportunities and Technological Advancements",doi:"10.5772/64828",slug:"eor-processes-opportunities-and-technological-advancements",totalDownloads:5531,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:36,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes are well known for their efficiency in incrementing oil production; however, the selection of the most suitable method to adopt for specific field applications is challenging. Hence, this chapter presents an overview of different EOR techniques currently applied in oil fields, the opportunities associated with these techniques, key technological advancements to guide the decision‐making process for optimum applicability and productivity and a brief review of field applications.",signatures:"Lezorgia Nekabari Nwidee, Stephen Theophilus, Ahmed Barifcani,\nMohammad Sarmadivaleh and Stefan Iglauer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52155",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52155",authors:[{id:"37799",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Iglauer",slug:"stefan-iglauer",fullName:"Stefan Iglauer"},{id:"179076",title:"Dr.",name:"Lezorgia",surname:"Nwidee",slug:"lezorgia-nwidee",fullName:"Lezorgia Nwidee"},{id:"179077",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Barifcani",slug:"ahmed-barifcani",fullName:"Ahmed Barifcani"},{id:"179078",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Theophilus",slug:"stephen-theophilus",fullName:"Stephen Theophilus"},{id:"189371",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Sarmadivaleh",slug:"mohammad-sarmadivaleh",fullName:"Mohammad Sarmadivaleh"}],corrections:null},{id:"51645",title:"Polymer Flooding",doi:"10.5772/64623",slug:"polymer-flooding",totalDownloads:4279,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The focus of this chapter is on polymers and their use to enhance oil recovery through the process known as polymer flooding. Emphasis is given to practical information relevant to field application(s) of polymer flooding. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to provide a brief but thorough overview of key concepts necessary to understand this technology for its successful implementation in the field.",signatures:"Antoine Thomas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51645",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51645",authors:[{id:"178596",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Antoine",surname:"Thomas",slug:"antoine-thomas",fullName:"Antoine Thomas"}],corrections:null},{id:"52000",title:"New Insight from Visualization of Mobility Control for Enhanced Oil Recovery Using Polymer Gels and Foams",doi:"10.5772/64586",slug:"new-insight-from-visualization-of-mobility-control-for-enhanced-oil-recovery-using-polymer-gels-and-",totalDownloads:1832,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods have been designed and developed in the past decades to maintain economic production from mature reservoirs with declining production rates. This chapter discuss mitigation of poor sweep efficiency in layered or naturally fractured reservoirs. EOR methods designed for such reservoirs all aim to reduce flow through highly conductive pathways and delay early breakthrough in production wells. Two approaches within this EOR class, injection of foam and polymer, specifically aim to improve the mobility ratio between the injected EOR fluid and the reservoir crude oil. Reduction in fracture conductivity may be achieved by adding a crosslinking agent to a polymer solution to create polymer gel. This may also be combined with water or chemical chasefloods (e.g. foam) for integrated enhanced oil recovery (iEOR). Polymer gel and foam mobility control for use in fractured reservoirs are discussed in this chapter, and new knowledge from experimental work is presented. The experiments emphasized visualization and in situ imaging techniques: CT, MRI and PET. New insight to dynamic behaviour and local variations in fluid saturations during injections was achieved through the use of complementary visualization techniques.",signatures:"Bergit Brattekås and Martin A. Fernø",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52000",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52000",authors:[{id:"101407",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Fernø",slug:"martin-ferno",fullName:"Martin Fernø"}],corrections:null},{id:"52245",title:"Application of Multifunctional Agents During Enhanced Oil Recovery",doi:"10.5772/64792",slug:"application-of-multifunctional-agents-during-enhanced-oil-recovery",totalDownloads:2109,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"During the application of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes, complex operational issues, such as the deposition of organic compounds (i.e., wax, resins, and asphaltenes, among others), reservoir formation damage, rock wettability alteration, and high fluids viscosity negatively affect oil recovery. This chapter presents the experimental evaluation of the multifunctional properties of two novel chemical agents recently developed: a zwitterionic surfactant (ZS) and a supramolecular complex (named here as AMESUS) for chemical EOR applications. The performance of the new multifunctional agents and the mechanisms in play on the removal/control of organic compounds deposition oil recovery, asphaltenes inhibition-dispersion activity, reduction in heavy crude oil viscosity, rock wettability modification, and relative permeability are discussed in this chapter.",signatures:"Luis A. Alcázar-Vara, Luis S. Zamudio-Rivera and Eduardo\nBuenrostro-González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52245",authors:[{id:"149836",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Buenrostro-Gonzalez",slug:"eduardo-buenrostro-gonzalez",fullName:"Eduardo Buenrostro-Gonzalez"},{id:"149837",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis A.",surname:"Alcazar-Vara",slug:"luis-a.-alcazar-vara",fullName:"Luis A. Alcazar-Vara"},{id:"180091",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis S.",surname:"Zamudio-Rivera",slug:"luis-s.-zamudio-rivera",fullName:"Luis S. 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This chapter provides an overview of MEOR including its history, strata microflora, mechanisms of MEOR for oil recovery, and a brief recount of field MEOR applications.",signatures:"Aliya Yernazarova, Gulzhan Kayirmanova, Almagul Baubekova and\nAzhar Zhubanova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51915",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51915",authors:[{id:"178534",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Aliya",surname:"Yernazarova",slug:"aliya-yernazarova",fullName:"Aliya Yernazarova"},{id:"179203",title:"Dr.",name:"Gulzhan",surname:"Kaiyrmanova",slug:"gulzhan-kaiyrmanova",fullName:"Gulzhan Kaiyrmanova"},{id:"191673",title:"Dr.",name:"Almagul",surname:"Baubekova",slug:"almagul-baubekova",fullName:"Almagul Baubekova"},{id:"194422",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",surname:"Zhubanova",slug:"azhar-zhubanova",fullName:"Azhar Zhubanova"}],corrections:null},{id:"52012",title:"Application of Electrorheology to Improve Crude Oil Flowing Properties Through Pipeline",doi:"10.5772/64858",slug:"application-of-electrorheology-to-improve-crude-oil-flowing-properties-through-pipeline",totalDownloads:2015,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes a new technology based on electrorheology (ER) that simultaneously reduces oil viscosity and suppresses flow turbulence. The application of a strong electric field in a small section of the oil pipeline causes the polarization of suspended particles contained in the oil phase aggregating them into short chains along the flow direction. This particle aggregation breaks the rotational symmetry and makes the oil viscosity anisotropic, which in turn reduces the oil viscosity along the flow direction. Simultaneously, oil viscosity increases in the direction perpendicular to the flow, which supresses flow turbulence. This green technology does not involve the addition of chemicals to the oil phase and is environmentally friendly. This approach is also energy efficient because it only targets the particles suspended in the oil phase causing the formation of aggregates. Furthermore, heat is not required to reduce the viscosity of the oil phase. Neutron scattering experiments and field tests demonstrate the effectiveness of this technology. 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\r\n\tWith this rapid transformation of the computing and communication world, information-system security has moved from a largely self-contained bounded environment interacting with a generally known and disciplined user community to a worldwide scope with a body of users that may not be known and are not necessarily trusted. Importantly, security control now must deal with circumstances over which there is largely no control or expectation of avoiding their impact. Computer security, as it has evolved, shares a similarity with liability assurance: they each face a threat environment that is known in a very general way and can face attacks over a broad spectrum of sources. However, the exact details or even time or certainty of an attack are unknown until an incident occurs. \r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to discuss some of the critical security challenges in today’s computing world and to discuss mechanisms for defending against those attacks by using classical and modern approaches to cryptography and other security solutions. With this objective, the book invites contributions from researchers in the field of cryptography and its applications in network security. Some illustrative topics of interest (but not limited to) are cryptography algorithms, authentication, authorization, integrity, confidentiality, privacy, security in wireless networks, security in wireless local area networks, wireless sensor networks, wireless ad hoc networks, vehicular ad hoc networks, security and privacy in the Internet of Things. Privacy of information, Blockchains, and Machine Learning in Security are three additional topics that the book will also deal with.
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He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. 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Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"43726",title:"Mechanical Properties of Biomaterials Based on Calcium Phosphates and Bioinert Oxides for Applications in Biomedicine",doi:"10.5772/53088",slug:"mechanical-properties-of-biomaterials-based-on-calcium-phosphates-and-bioinert-oxides-for-applicatio",body:'
1. Introduction
Calcium phosphates (CaP) have been sought as biomaterials for reconstruction of bone defect in maxillofacial, dental and orthopaedic applications [1-31]. Calcium phosphates have been used clinically to repair bone defects for many years. Calcium phosphates such as hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, HAp), fluorapatite (Ca10(PO4)6F2, FAp), tricalcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2, TCP), TCP-HAp composites and TCP-FAp composites are used for medical and dental applications [3, 10-29]. In general, this concept is determined by advantageous balances of more stable (frequent by hydroxyapatite or fluorapatite) and more resorbable (typically tricalcium phosphate) phases of calcium phosphates, while the optimum ratios depend on the particular applications. The complete list of known calcium phosphates, including their major properties (such, the chemical formula, solubility data) is given in Table 1. The detailed information about calcium phosphates, their synthesis, structure, chemistry, other properties and biomedical applications have been comprehensively reviewed recently in reference [24].
Calcium phosphate-based biomaterials and bioceramics are now used in a number of different applications throughout the body, covering all areas of the skeleton. Applications include dental implants, percutaneous devices and use in periodontal treatment, treatment of bone defects, fracture treatment, total joint replacement (bone augmentation), orthopedics, cranio-maxillofacial reconstruction, otolaryngology and spinal surgery [32-35]. Depending upon whether a bioresorbable or a bioactive material is desired, different calcium orthophosphates might be used.
In the past, many implantations failed because of infection or a lack of knowledge about the toxicity of the selected materials. In this frame, the use of calcium phosphates is logical due to their similarity to the mineral phase of bone and teeth [36-40]. However, according to available literature, the first attempt to use calcium phosphates as an artificial material to repair surgically-created defects in rabbits was performed in 1920 [41]. More than fifty years later, the first dental application of a calcium phosphate (erroneously described as TCP) in surgically-created periodontal defects [42] and the use of dense HAp cylinders for immediate tooth root replacement were reported [43]. Since Levitt et al. described a method of preparing an apatite bioceramics from FAp and suggested its possible use in medical applications in 1969[44]. According to the available databases, the first paper with the term ‘‘bioceramics’’ in the abstract was published in 1971 [45], while those with that term in the title were published in 1972 [46-47]. However, application of ceramic materials as prostheses had been known before [48-49]. Further historical details might be found in literature [50]. Commercialization of the dental and surgical applications of Hap-based bioceramics occurred in the 1980’s, largely through the pioneering efforts by Jarcho [51], de Groot [52] and Aoki [53]. Due to that, HAp has become a bioceramic of reference in the field of calcium phosphates for biomedical applications. Preparation and biomedical applications of apatites derived from sea corals (coralline HAp) [54–56] and bovine bone were reported at the same time [57]. Since 1990, several other calcium phosphate cements have been developed [58-62], injectable cements have been formulated [63], and growth factors have been delivered via these cements [64]. The tetracalcium phosphate [TTCP: Ca4(PO4)2O] and dicalcium phosphate anhydrous [DCPA: CaHPO4] system was approved in 1996 by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for repairing craniofacial defects in humans, thus becoming the first TTCP–DCPA system for clinical use [65]. However, due to its brittleness and weakness, the use of TTCP–DCPA system was limited to the reconstruction of non-stress-bearing bone [66-67]. To expand the use of TTCP–DCPA system to a wide range of load-bearing maxillofacial and orthopedic repairs, recent studies have developed natural biopolymers that are elastomeric, biocompatible and resorbable [68]. Calcium phosphates in a number of forms and compositions are currently either in use or under consideration in many areas of dentistry and orthopedics. For example, bulk materials, available in dense and porous forms, are used for alveolar ridge augmentation, immediate tooth replacement and maxillofacial reconstruction [35, 69]. Other examples include orbital implants (Bio-Eye) [70-71], increment of the hearing ossicles, spine fusion and repair of bone defects [72-73]. In order to permit growth of new bone onto bone defects, a suitable bioresorbable material should fill the defects. Otherwise, in-growth of fibrous tissue might prevent bone formation within the defects [69-73]. Today, a large number of different calcium phosphate bioceramics for the treatment of various defects are available on the market.
The performance of living tissues is the result of millions of years of evolution, while the performance of acceptable artificial substitutions those man has designed to repair damaged hard tissues are only a few decades old. Archaeological findings exhibited in museums showed that materials used to replace missing human bones and teeth have included animal or human (from corpses) bones and teeth, shells, corals, ivory (elephant tusk), wood, as well as some metals (gold or silver). For instance, the Etruscans learned to substitute missing teeth with bridges made from artificial teeth carved from the bones of oxen, while in ancient Phoenicia loose teeth were bound together with gold wires for tying artificial ones to neighboring teeth.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCompound\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAcronym\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFormula\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCa/P\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tpKs \n\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Monocalcium phosphate monohydrate
\n\t\t\t
MCPM
\n\t\t\t
Ca(H2PO4)2 .H2O
\n\t\t\t
0.5
\n\t\t\t
1.14
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Monocalcium phosphate anhyrous
\n\t\t\t
MCPA
\n\t\t\t
Ca(H2PO4)2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.5
\n\t\t\t
1.14
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate
\n\t\t\t
DCPD
\n\t\t\t
CaHPO4 .2H2O
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
6.59
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Dicalcium phosphate anhydrous
\n\t\t\t
DCPA
\n\t\t\t
CaHPO4\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t
6.90
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Aporphous calcium phosphates
\n\t\t\t
ACP
\n\t\t\t
CaxHy(PO4)z .nH2O n = 3-4.5; 12-20%H2O
\n\t\t\t
1.2-2.2
\n\t\t\t
b
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Octacalcium phosphate
\n\t\t\t
OCP
\n\t\t\t
Ca8(HPO4)2(PO4)4 .5H2O
\n\t\t\t
1.33
\n\t\t\t
96.6
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
α- Tricalcium phosphate
\n\t\t\t
α-TCP
\n\t\t\t
α- Ca3(PO4)2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t
25.5
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
β- Tricalcium phosphate
\n\t\t\t
β-TCP
\n\t\t\t
β- Ca3(PO4)2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.5
\n\t\t\t
28.9
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Calcium-deficient Hydroxyapatite
\n\t\t\t
CDHAp
\n\t\t\t
Ca10-x(HPO4)x(PO4)6-x(OH)2-x (0 < x < 1)
\n\t\t\t
1.5-1.67
\n\t\t\t
85
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Hydroxyapatite
\n\t\t\t
HAp
\n\t\t\t
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.67
\n\t\t\t
116.8
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fluorapatite
\n\t\t\t
FAp
\n\t\t\t
Ca10(PO4)6F2\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1.67
\n\t\t\t
120
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Oxapatite
\n\t\t\t
OAp
\n\t\t\t
Ca10(PO4)6O
\n\t\t\t
1.67
\n\t\t\t
69
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Tetracalcium phosphate
\n\t\t\t
TTCP
\n\t\t\t
Ca4(PO4)2O
\n\t\t\t
2
\n\t\t\t
38-44
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Calcium phosphates and their major properties [3, 24]
(a): Solubility at 25°C (pKs = -logKs);
(b) : Cannot be measured precisely.
Calcium phosphates are established materials for the augmentation of bone defects. They are available as allogenic, sintered materials. Unfortunately, these calcium phosphates exhibit relatively poor tensile and shear properties [74]. In practice, the strength of the calcium phosphate cements is lower than that of bone, teeth, or sintered calcium phosphate bioceramics [75] and, together with their inherent brittleness, restricts their use to non-load bearing defects [76] or pure compression loading [74]. Typical applications are the treatment of maxillo-facial defects or deformities [77] and cranio facial repair [78] or augmentation of spine and tibial plateau [74]. A successful improvement of the mechanical properties would significantly extend the applicability of calcium phosphates [79] and can be achieved by forming composite materials [80]. Second phase additives to the calcium phosphate composites have been either fibrous reinforcements or bioinert oxides that interpenetrate the porous matrix.
Hydroxyapatite and other calcium phosphates bioceramics are important for hard tissue repair because of their similarity to the minerals in natural bone, and their excellent biocompatibility and bioactivity [81-86]. When implanted in an osseous site, bone bioactive materials such as HAp and other CaP implants and coatings provide an ideal environment for cellular reaction and colonization by osteoblasts. This leads to a tissue response termed osteoconduction in which bone grows on and bonds to the implant, promoting a functional interface [81, 84, 87]. Extensive efforts have significantly improved the properties and performance of HAp and other CaP based implants [88-92]. Calcium phosphate cements can be molded or injected to form a scaffold in situ, which can be resorbed and replaced by new bone [93, 65-67]. Chemically, the vast majority of calcium phosphate bioceramics is based on HAp, β-TCP, α-TCP and/or biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP), which is an intimate mixture of either β-TCP - HAp [94-100] or α-TCP - HAp [101-111]. The preparation technique of these calcium phosphates has been extensively reviewed in literature [1, 4, 37, 102-104]. When compared to both β- and α-TCP, HAp is a more stable phase under physiological conditions, as it has a lower solubility (Table 1) [37, 109-110]. Therefore, the BCP concept is determined by the optimum balance of a more stable phase of HAp and a more soluble TCP. Due to a higher biodegradability of the β - or α -TCP component, the reactivity of BCP increases with the TCP-HAp the increase in ratio. Thus, in vivo bioresorbability of BCP can be controlled through the phase composition [95]. As implants made of calcined HAp are found in bone defects for many years after implantation, bioceramics made of more soluble calcium phosphates is preferable for the biomedical purposes [94-110]. HAp has been clinically used to repair bone defects for many years [3]. However, Hap has poor mechanical properties [3]. Their use at high load bearing conditions has been restricted due to their brittleness, poor fatigue resistance and strength.
The main reason behind the use of β-TCP as bone substitute materials is their chemical similarity to the mineral component of mammalian bone and teeth [1-3]. The application of tricalcium phosphate as a bone substitute has received considerable attention, because it is remarkably biocompatible with living bodies when replacing hard tissues and because it has biodegradable properties [1-29]. Consequently, β-TCP has been used as bone graft substitutes in many surgical fields such as orthopedic and dental surgeries [3, 11-12, 16-17]. This use leads to an ultimate physicochemical bond between the implants and bone-termed osteointegration. Even so, the major limitation to the use of β-TCP as load-bearing biomaterial is their mechanical properties which make it brittle, with poor fatigue resistance [3, 10, 21-29]. Moreover, the mechanical properties of tricalcium phosphate are generally inadequate for many load-carrying applications (3 MPa – 5 MPa) [3, 10, 20-29]. Its poor mechanical behaviour is even more evident when used to make highly porous ceramics and scaffolds. Hence, metal oxides ceramics, such as alumina (Al2O3), titania (TiO2) and some oxides (e.g. ZrO2, SiO2) have been widely studied due to their bioinertness, excellent tribological properties, high wear resistance, fracture toughness and strength as well as relatively low friction [19, 21-22, 29-31]. However, bioinert ceramic oxides having high strength are used to enhance the densification and the mechanical properties of β-TCP. In this chapter, we will try to improve the strength of β-TCP by introducing a bioinert oxide like alumina. This is because there are few articles reporting the toughening effects of an inert oxide (like alumina (Al2O3)) on the mechanical properties of β-TCP [22, 27, 29]. Alumina has a high strength and is bio-inert with human tissues [19, 22, 27, 29]. In order to improve the biocompatibility of alumina and the strength of tricalcium phosphate effectively, and in order to search for an approach to produce high performances of alumina-tricalcium phosphate composites, β-TCP is introduced with different percentages in the alumina matrix. The aim of our study is to elaborate and characterize the TCP-Al2O3 composites for biomedical applications.
This chapter proposes to study the sintering of the alumina-tricalcium phosphate composites at various temperatures (1400°C, 1450°C, 1500°C, 1550°C and 1600°C) and with different percentages of β-TCP (10 wt%, 20 wt%, 40 wt% and 50 wt%). The characterization of biomaterials will be realized by using dilatometry analysis, differential thermal analysis (DTA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS NMR), scanning electron microscopy analysis (SEM) and by using the mechanical properties, such as rupture strength (σr) of these biomaterials.
2. Materials and methods
The synthesized tricalcium phosphate and alumina (Riedel-de Haёn) were mixed in order to prepare biomaterial composites. The β-TCP powder was synthesized by solid-state reaction from calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium phosphate dibasic anhydrous (CaHPO4) [27]. Stoichiometric amounts of high purity powders such as CaHPO4 (Fluka, purity ≥ 99%) and CaCO3 (Fluka, purity ≥ 98.5%), were sintered at 1000°C for one hour to obtain the β-TCP according to the following reaction:
2CaHPO4(s)+CaCO3(s)→Ca3(PO4)2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)E1
The β-TCP and the alumina powders were mixed in an agate mortar. The powder mixtures were milled in ethanol for 24 hours. After milling, the mixtures were dried in a rotary vacuum evaporator and passed through a 70-mesh screen. After drying the powder mixtures at 80°C for 24 hours, they were molded in a cylinder having a diameter of 20 mm and a thickness of 6 mm, and pressed under 150 MPa. The green compacts were sintered at various temperatures for different lengths of time in a vertical furnace (Pyrox 2408). The heating rate is 10°C min-1. The size of the particles of the powder was measured by means of a Micromeritics Sedigraph 5000. The specific surface area (SSA) was measured using the BET method and using N2 as an adsorption gas (ASAP 2010) [112]. The primary particle size (DBET) was calculated by assuming the primary particles to be spherical:
DBET=6/SρE2
where ρ is the theoretical density and S is the surface specific area.
The microstructure of the sintered compacts was investigated using the scanning electron microscope (Philips XL 30) on the fractured surfaces of the samples. The grains’ mean size was measured directly using SEM micrographs. The powder was analyzed by using Xray diffraction (XRD). The Xray patterns were recorded using the Seifert XRD 3000 TT diffractometer. The Xray radiance was produced by using CuKα radiation (λ = 1.54056 Å). The crystalline phases were identified with the powder diffraction files (PDF) of the International Center for Diffraction Data (ICDD). Linear shrinkage was determined using dilatometry (Setaram TMA 92 dilatometer). The heating and cooling rates were 10°C min-1 and 20°C min-1, respectively. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) was carried out using about 30 mg of powder (DTATG, Setaram Model). The heating rate was 10°C min-1. The 31P and 27Al magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (31P MAS NMR) spectra were run on a Brucker 300WB spectrometer. The 31P and 27Al observational frequency were 121.49 MHz and 78.2 MHz, respectively. The 31P MAS-NMR chemical shifts were referenced in parts per million (ppm) referenced to 85 wt% H3PO4. The 27Al MAS-NMR chemical shifts were referenced to a static signal obtained from an aqueous aluminum chloride solution.
The Brazilian test was used to measure the rupture strength of biomaterials [113-114]. The rupture strength (σr) values were measured using the Brazilian test according to the equation:
σr=2⋅PΠ⋅D⋅tE3
where P is the maximum applied load, D the diameter, t the thickness of the disc and σr the rupture strength (or mechanical strength).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characterization of different powders
The X-ray diffraction analysis of β-TCP powder and α-alumina powder are presented in Figure 1. As it can be noticed from this figure, the X-ray diffraction pattern of tricalcium phosphate powder reveals only peaks of β-TCP (ICDD data file no. 70-2065) without any other phase (Figure 1a). Consequently, the XRD pattern obtained from the alumina powder illustrates α phase peaks relative to ICDD data file no. 43-1484 (Figure 1b).
The 31P MAS-NMR solid spectrum of the tricalcium phosphate powder is presented in Figure 2a. We observe the presence of several peaks of tetrahedral P sites (at 0.36 ppm, 1.46 ppm and 4.83 ppm), while there are other peaks (at -7.43 ppm, -9.09 ppm and -10.35 ppm) which reveal a low quantity of calcium pyrophosphate which was formed during the preparation of the β-TCP.
The 27Al MAS-NMR solid spectrum of the alumina powder is presented in Figure 2b. We notice the presence of two peaks which are characteristic of aluminum: one peak at 7.36 ppm corresponding to octahedral Al sites (AlVI) and the other at 37.36 ppm which corresponds to pentahedral Al sites (AlV). The results obtained for 31P MAS-NMR and 27Al MAS-NMR are similar to those previously reported by different authors [14, 22, 25-28, 31].
Figure 1.
The XRD patterns of: (a) β-TCP powder and (b) α-Al2O3 powder
Figure 2.
The 31P MAS-NMR spectra of: (a) β-TCP and the 27Al MAS-NMR spectra of: (b) α-Al2O3
The experimental characteristics of the different powders used in this study are illustrated in Table 2. Table 2 summarizes the SSA, the DTA measurements, the sintering temperature and the theoretical density of the different powders. The powder particles are assumed to be spherical; the size of the particles can be calculated using Eq. (2). The results from the average grain size obtained by the SSA (DBET) and from the average grain size obtained by granulometric repartition (D50) are presented in Table 2. Compared with those of the β-TCP powder, the grains of the alumina powder have a dense morphology. These (DBET) values obtained by the SSA do not correspond to those obtained from the granulometric repartition (Table 2). The discrepancy may be due to the presence of agglomerates which are formed during the preparation of the β-TCP powder at 1000°C.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Compounds
\n\t\t\t
SSA (m2/g) ± 1.0
\n\t\t\t
DBET (µm) ± 0.2
\n\t\t\t
D50 (µm)a ± 0.2
\n\t\t\t
DTA measurements (endothermic peak)
\n\t\t\t
T(°C)b\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
dc\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP
\n\t\t\t
0.70
\n\t\t\t
2.79
\n\t\t\t
6
\n\t\t\t
1100°C-1260°C (β → α) 1470°C (α → α’)
\n\t\t\t
1000 - 1300
\n\t\t\t
3.070 (β) 2.860 (α)
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Alumina
\n\t\t\t
2.87
\n\t\t\t
0.53
\n\t\t\t
3
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
1400 - 1600
\n\t\t\t
3.98 (α)
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 2.
Characteristics of the powders used in the study
a : mean diameter,
b : sintering temperature domain,
c : theoretical density
Differential thermal analysis studies of the different powders used in this study detected a potential phase change during the sintering process. The DTA thermogram of β-TCP, α-Al2O3 and different Al2O3 - TCP composites are presented in Figure 3. The DTA curve of alumina reported no process relative to the sintering temperature (Figure 3a). Figure 3b shows the DTA curve of β-TCP. The DTA thermogram of β-TCP shows two endothermic peaks, relative to the allotropic transformations of tricalcium phosphate (Figure 3b). The peak between 1100°C – 1260°C is related to the first allotropic transformation of TCP (β to α), while the last peak at 1470°C is related to the second allotropic transformation of TCP (α to α’). As a matter of fact, this result is similar to the result previously reported by Destainville et al. and Ben Ayed et al. [9, 14]. Figure 3c shows the DTA curve of Al2O3-50 wt% TCP composites. This DTA curve is practically similar to the one shown in Figure 3b. Indeed, the DTA thermogram of the composites also shows two endothermic peaks. Figure 3 (d), (e) and (f) illustrate the DTA curves of Al2O3–40 wt% TCP composites, Al2O3–20 wt% TCP composites and Al2O3–10 wt% TCP composites, respectively. The DTA thermograms of each composites show only one endothermic peak between 1100°C and 1260°C, which are relative to the allotropic transformation of TCP (β to α). In these curves, we notice that the endothermic peak relative to a second allotropic transformation of TCP (α to α’) has practically disappeared when the percentage of the alumina increases in the Al2O3 - TCP composites (Figure 3(d), (e) and (f)).
Figure 4 shows the dilatometric measurements of the different powders used in this study (β-TCP, α-Al2O3 and Al2O3 - TCP composites). A large sintering domain was observed for the three powders (β-TCP, alumina and composites). The sintering temperature of the initial powder began at about 900°C and at about 1400°C for the β-TCP and alumina (Figure 4a-b and Table 2). The sintering temperature of Al2O3-50 wt% TCP composites began at 1100°C (Figure 4c). It is to be noted that the presence of 50 wt% TCP in the alumina matrix decreases the sintering temperature of the alumina by around 300°C (Figure 4c). This variation of the sinterability is relative to the difference between the physicochemical compositions of these powders and the mixture of their different composites.
3.2. The mechanical properties of alumina–tricalcium phosphate composites
The influence of the sintering temperature on the rupture strength of Al2O3-TCP composites is shown in Figure 5. The mechanical resistance of Al2O3-TCP composites is studied at various temperatures (1400°C, 1450°C, 1500°C, 1550°C, 1600°C) for one hour with different percentages of β-TCP (50 wt%, 40 wt%, 20 wt% and 10 wt%). Thus, Figure 5 illustrates the rupture strength of the Al2O3-TCP composites relative to the percentages of the alumina and the sintering temperature. Consequently, the rupture strength of Al2O3 mixed with 10 wt% β-TCP reached its maximum value when sintered at 1600°C for one hour; it then decreased with the increase of this percentage. This is how the rupture strength of the Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites reached 13.5 MPa.
Figure 4.
Linear shrinkage versus temperature of: (a) β-TCP, (b) α-Al2O3 and (c) Al2O3 – 50 wt% TCP composites
Figure 5.
The rupture strength of the TCP-Al2O3 composites sintered for 1 hour at various temperatures: (a) 1400°C, (b) 1450°C, (c) 1500°C, (d) 1550°C and (e) 1600°C
Figure 6 shows the evolution of the rupture strength of the Al2O3 - 10 wt% TCP composites sintered at various temperatures (1500°C, 1550°C and 1600°C) for different sintering times (0 min, 30 min, 60 min and 90 min). The optimum value of the rupture strength was indeed obtained after an hour-long sintering process at 1600°C. Thus, the mechanical resistance of the samples reached 13.5 MPa.
Figure 6.
The rupture strength of the Al2O3–10 wt% TCP composites sintered for different lengths of time at various temperatures: (a) 1500°C, (b) 1550°C and (c) 1600°C
In this study, we showed that the presence of different amounts of alumina in the β-TCP improves the mechanical properties of Al2O3-TCP composites. In fact, the mechanical properties of Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites reached the optimum value by being sintered at 1600°C for one hour. Thus, the rupture strength of these composites reached 13.5 MPa. Table 3 displays several examples of the mechanical properties of the calcium phosphates and the bone tissues. In comparison, we notice that the properties of Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites are close to those of pure β-TCP, pure Fap and TCP-33.16 wt% Fap composites, which have a rupture strength of 5.3 MPa, 14 MPa and 13.7 MPa, respectively [15, 21, 25]. However, the mechanical properties of our composites are more closely comparable to those of the pure Fap and the TCP–33.16 wt% Fap composites (Table 3). Generally, the values found for the mechanical strength of our composites are not identical to those in Table 3, because the authors have used different mechanical modes other than the Brazilian test. In addition, many factors influence the mechanical properties of the samples such as: the use of particular initial powders as well as the conditions of the treatment process.
The sintering of materials is a complex process, involving the evolution of the microstructure through the action of several different transport mechanisms such as: surface diffusion, evaporation- condensation, grain boundary diffusion [3]. However, producing dense TCP–Al2O3 composites with a fine uniform microstructure through the sintering process does not seem to be a routine process because the β-TCP has a lower sinterability and a lower sintering temperature than those of pure alumina.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMaterials\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tσr\n\t\t\t\t\t(a) (MPa)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tσc\n\t\t\t\t\t(b) (MPa)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tσf \n\t\t\t\t\t(c) (MPa)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tReferences\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
β-TCP
\n\t\t\t
4-6
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t
[21,27]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Fap
\n\t\t\t
10-14
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[15]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Hap
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
5.35
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[115]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP - 75 wt% Al2O3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
8.60
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[27]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP – 26.52 wt% Fap
\n\t\t\t
9.60
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[21]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP – 26.52 wt% Fap- 5 wt% Al2O3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
13.60
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[22]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP – 33.16 wt% Fap
\n\t\t\t
13.70
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[25]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Hap – TCP (40:60)
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
4.89
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[115]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Al2O3 - 26.5 wt% Fap
\n\t\t\t
21.7
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[31]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Cortical bone
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
130-180
\n\t\t\t
50-150
\n\t\t\t
[1, 2]
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Cancellous bone
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
2-12
\n\t\t\t
-
\n\t\t\t
[1, 2]
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 3.
Literature examples of the mechanical properties of calcium phosphates bioceramics and bone tissues
(a): Rupture strength (Brazilian test),
(b): compressive strength
(c): Flexural strength.
3.3. Characterization of alumina-tricalcium phosphate composites after the sintering process
Figure 7 shows the 31P MAS-NMR spectra of the Al2O3-TCP composites obtained after the sintering process for 1 hour at 1550°C with different percentages of β-TCP (50 wt%, 40 wt%, 20 wt% and 10 wt%). The addition of 50 wt% Al2O3 to the TCP matrix shows the presence of several peaks which are assigned to the tetrahedral environment of P sites (1.03 ppm; 1.93 ppm; 3.50 ppm and 4.84 ppm) (Figure 7a). In fact, the increasing of the percentage of alumina in the TCP matrix decreases the number of the tetrahedral phosphorus site peaks which are reduced to a large single peak with 90 wt% alumina (Figure 7 b-d). Moreover, the tetrahedral environment of the phosphorus in tricalcium phosphate is not changed after the sintering process with different percentages of alumina. But the effect of the addition of alumina to the β-TCP matrix provokes the structural rearrangement of the coordination of phosphorus in β-TCP. Similar results were previously reported in literature [14, 26-27, 31].
The 27Al MAS-NMR spectra of Al2O3-TCP composites sintered for 1 hour at 1550°C with different percentages of β-TCP (50 wt%, 40 wt%, 20 wt% and 10 wt%) are shown in Figure 8. The chemical shifts at 35 ppm and at 7.3 ppm indicate the presence of octahedral Al sites (AlVI) and pentahedral Al sites (AlV), respectively. The peak of pentahedral Al sites increases with the increase of the percentage of alumina in the Al2O3-TCP composites (Figure 8 b-8d). We notice especially the appearance of another octahedral Al peak at 18.6 ppm for alumina sintered with 40 wt% and 20 wt% of β-TCP (Figure 8 b-d). The aluminum in the alumina is primarily in one pentahedral Al site (35 ppm) and in one octahedral Al site (7.3 ppm) (Figure 8e). For the alumina sintered with different percentages of β-TCP (50 wt%, 40 wt%, 20 wt% and 10 wt%), the spectra show two octahedral aluminum environments: AlO6 at about 7.3 ppm and at 18.6 ppm (Fig 8b-d). Indeed, the intensity of the octahedral signal at 18.6 ppm increases with the percentage of alumina. The estimated concentrations of AlO5 and AlO6 are reported in Table 4. During the sintering process, the aluminum in the Al2O3-TCP composites provokes the structural rearrangement of the coordination of aluminum. Similar results were provisionally reported by different authors [22, 27, 31]. Indeed, these authors show that the coordination of the aluminum in octahedral sites was forced to change into another coordination in pentahedral sites [31]. The same authors point out that the structural rearrangement of the coordination of aluminum was probably produced by the formation of calcium aluminates which was produced after the sintering process and the reaction between calcium phosphates and alumina [31]. In conclusion, the 31P magic angle scanning nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of different composites reveals the presence of tetrahedral P sites, while the 27Al magic angle scanning nuclear magnetic resonance analysis shows the presence of both octahedral and pentahedral Al sites.
Figure 7.
The 31P MAS-NMR spectra of the Al2O3-TCP composites sintered for 1 hour at 1550°C with different percentages of β-TCP: (a) 50 wt%, (b) 40 wt%, (c) 20 wt% and (d) 10 wt%
Figure 8.
The 27Al MAS-NMR spectra of the Al2O3-TCP composites sintered for 1 hour at 1550°C with different percentages of β-TCP: (a) 50 wt%, (b) 40 wt%, (c) 20 wt%, (d) 10 wt% and (e) 0 wt%
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCompounds\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAlO5 (%)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAlO6 (Type 1) (%)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tAlO6 (Type 2) (%)\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
δ (ppm)
\n\t\t\t
30-40
\n\t\t\t
7
\n\t\t\t
18
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP - 50 wt % Al2O3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
0.50
\n\t\t\t
99.50
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP - 60 wt % Al2O3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
15.38
\n\t\t\t
65.37
\n\t\t\t
19.25
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP - 80 wt % Al2O3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
19.71
\n\t\t\t
67.81
\n\t\t\t
12.48
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
TCP- 90 wt % Al2O3\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
14.85
\n\t\t\t
73.71
\n\t\t\t
11.44
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Al2O3
\n\t\t\t
1.40
\n\t\t\t
98.60
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 4.
Properties of pentahedral and octahedral Al sites in the Al2O3-TCP composites sintered with different percentages of β-TCP at various temperatures for 1 hour
Figure 9 presents XRD patterns of Al2O3-TCP composites sintered at 1550°C for 1 hour with different percentages of β-TCP. Besides, the spectra show the characteristic peaks of β-TCP (ICDD data file no. 70-2065) and α- Al2O3 (ICDD data file no. 43-1484). This analysis shows that the peak of alumina is predominant in the elaboration of any composite.
Figure 9.
The XRD patterns of the Al2O3-TCP composites sintered at 1550°C for 1 hour with different percentages of β-TCP: (a) 50 wt%, (b) 40 wt%, (c) 20 wt%, (d) 10 wt% and (e) 0 wt%
The SEM technique helps to investigate the texture and porosity of any biomaterial. Figure 10 shows the fracture surface of the Al2O3-TCP composites sintered at 1550°C for 1 hour with different percentages of β-TCP. These micrographs show the coalescence between β-TCP grains produced with all the percentages of added alumina (Figure 10 a-d). The samples sintered with 50 wt%, 40 wt% and 20 wt% β-TCP present cracks and an important intragranular porosity (Figure 10 a-c). This result is a proof of the fragility of the composites elaborated with the different percentages of alumina as shown in Figure 10a-c. In fact, the microstructure of the composites shows different cracks relative to the allotropic transformation of TCP (β to α) (Figure 10 a-c). But the intensity of the cracks in the composites decreases with the increase in the percentage of β-TCP (Figure 10 a-d). Thus, the absence of micro-cracking and the reduction of the sizes of the pores in the Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites explain the increase in the rupture strength of the samples (Figure 10 d1-d2). Indeed, the composites present excellent mechanical properties and a good aptitude for sinterability (Figure 10 d1-d2). The SEM micrographs of the alumina sintered without β-TCP shows an intergranular porosity (Figure 10e).
The effects of the sintering temperature on the microstructure of the Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites are presented in Figure 11. The SEM micrographs show the coalescence between the grains with the increase of the sintering temperature. At 1500°C, the samples present an important intergranular porosity (Figure 11a). The microstructure of Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites sintered at 1550°C shows a continuous phase relative to β-TCP phases and small-sized grains relative to the alumina phases (Figure 11b). Furthermore, at 1600°C, the boundaries between grains are evident in the micrographs (marked with arrows in Figure 11c), confirming the best mechanical resistance of Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites in this temperature and with the addition of 10 wt% β-TCP (Figure 11c). In fact, the continuous phases in addition to the formed spherical pores prove that a liquid phase has appeared at 1600°C relative probably to the allotropic transformation of the β-TCP. This similar result was observed by Bouslama and colleagues [25].
Figure 10.
The SEM micrographs of the Al2O3 - TCP composites sintered at 1550°C for 1 hour with different percentages of β-TCP: (a) 50 wt%, (b) 40 wt%, (c) 20 wt%, (d1-d2) 10 wt% and (e) 0 wt%.
Figure 11.
The SEM micrographs of the Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites sintered for 1 hour at: (a) 1500°C, (b) 1550°C and (c) 1600°C.
The results of the microstructural investigations of Al2O3-10 wt% TCP composites sintered at 1600°C for different lengths of time (0 min, 30 min, 60 min and 90 min) are shown in Figure 12. These micrographs reveal the influence of different lengths of time on the microstructural developments during the sintering process at 1600°C. The microstructure of the samples leads to the formation of important cracks of different sizes with composites sintered for 0 min, 30 min and 90 min (Figure 12 ba-b and 12d). The continuous phases are relative to the β-TCP phase while the grains of a small size are relative to the alumina phase (Figure 12 ba-b and 12d). In Figure 12c, we notice the coalescence between the grains after the sintering process for 60 min confirming the best mechanical resistance in these conditions.
Furthermore, the sintering behavior of the Al2O3-TCP composites has been studied relative to the β-TCP content. It has been shown that alumina should be used in order to prevent the β-α transition of the tricalcium phosphate during the sintering process. At any rate, the results obtained in the present work would be valuable in the performance of Al2O3 - TCP composites resembling bone tissue engineering (Table 3). In fact, our preliminary tests indicated that the rupture strength of Al2O3-TCP composites is from 2 to 14 MPa. The optimum value of the Al2O3 - 10 wt% TCP composites sintered at 1600°C for one hour reached 13.5 MPa. This is true for the values of calcium phosphates fabricated by conventional techniques [116] and is close to a cancellous bone (2-12 MPa) [1-2, 117].
Figure 12.
SEM micrographs of the Al2O3 - 10 wt% TCP composites sintered at 1600°C for: (a) 0 min, (b) 30 min, (c) 60 min and (d) 90 min.
According to the authors’ best knowledge, the highest values of the mechanical characteristics for different samples are detailed in Table 3. As it can be seen from this table, the various techniques used to prepare dense sintered bioceramics affect the final density, as well as the composition of the phase and, consequently, the final mechanical properties of samples. The Al2O3 - 10 wt% TCP composites show high rupture strength, which is in concordance with the other results [10, 15, 21, 25-27, 29]. The rupture strength obtained for TCP-Al2O3 composites is from 2 to 14 MPa, within the values reported in the literature (Table 3). Moreover, the wide variation in the reported rupture strength of the composites is due to the synthesis route of the β-TCP powder, the size of its particle as well as to its density; it is also due to the application of different processing parameters.
At first, the objective of this work was to characterize the mechanical properties of alumina – TCP composites produced after the sintering process. A sintering stage appears to be of great importance to produce biomaterials with the required properties. Several processes occur during the sintering process of tricalcium phosphate and bioinert oxide. Firstly, the TCP powders are synthesized by solid reaction. Secondly, alumina – TCP powders are sintered for production of dense bioceramics with subsequent shrinkage of the samples. Thirdly, the mechanical properties of alumina–TCP composites are accompanied by a concurrent increase in grain size and a formation of cracks in the alumina sintered with different percentages of TCP (20 wt%, 40 wt% and 50 wt%). Besides, sintering causes the toughening and the increase of the mechanical strength of alumina–10 wt% TCP composites. An extensive study on the effect of the sintering temperature and time on the properties of alumina–TCP composites revealed a correlation between these parameters and density, porosity, grain size, chemical composition and strength of different composites. The degree of densification and mechanical properties of alumina–TCP composites appeared to depend on the sintering temperature and the duration of sintering. Alumina–TCP powders can be pressed and sintered up to theoretical density at 1400°C–1600°C. Processing them with higher percentage of TCP (20 wt%, 40 wt% and 50 wt%) may lead to exaggerated grain growth and formation of cracks because of the formation of α-TCP at higher temperatures. Indeed, the allotropic transformation of TCP is a function of the sintering temperature. The presence of cracks in the alumina–TCP composites is reported to inhibit the mechanical properties. A definite correlation between mechanical strength and grain size in sintered alumina–TCP composites was found: the strength started to decrease at lower sintering temperature and with higher percentage of TCP (20 wt%, 40 wt% and 50 wt%). The sintering process of alumina – 10 wt% TCP composites makes it possible to decrease the grain size and achieve higher densities. This leads to finer microstructures, higher thermal stability of alumina–10 wt% TCP composites and subsequently better mechanical properties of the prepared bioceramics composites. The mechanical properties of alumina – TCP composites is from 2 to 14 MPa. Generally, the mechanical properties of samples increase with the decrease in grain size. In fact, the mechanical strength of alumina–10 wt% TCP composites reaches a maximum value with the decrease in the size of the grains of composites. The optimum measured value of the strength of the alumina–10 wt% TCP composites was 13.5 MPa. This value is compared to those of cancellous bone. Similar values for porous HAp are in the ranges of 2-10 MPa [118]. Generally, variations of mechanical properties of samples are caused by a statistical nature of the strength distribution, influence of remaining microporosity, grain size, presence of impurities and Ca/P ratio [118].
In conclusion, an interfacial reaction between β-TCP and alumina has been studied in the nanocomposites of Al2O3-TCP. It was found that the alumina did not completely react with the β-TCP and did not form calcium aluminates. Moreover, it has been shown that the alumina prevents the formation of cracks in the microstructure of composites containing 10 wt% of β-TCP. The mechanical characteristics should be taken into consideration in order to better assess the relationship between the processing conditions, the microstructural design as well as the mechanical response.
4. Conclusions
The biomaterials of alumina-tricalcium phosphate composites have been characterized by using MAS NMR, XRD and SEM analysis after the sintering process. The effect of β-TCP additive on the alumina matrix was observed in different thermal analyses: dilatometry analysis and DTA analysis. The mechanical properties have been investigated by the Brazilian test. This investigation has allowed us to define the sintering temperature and the percentage of added alumina for which β-TCP should have an optimal densification and better mechanical properties. This study has also allowed us to summarize the effect of the sintering temperature and the length of sintering time on the mechanical properties of the Al2O3-TCP composites. The produced Al2O3-TCP composites with different percentages of β-TCP (50 wt%; 40 wt%; 20 wt% and 10 wt%) exhibited much better mechanical properties than the reported values of β-TCP without alumina. The Al2O3-TCP composites showed a higher rupture strength at 1600°C, which certainly increased with the alumina content and reached the optimum value with 90 wt%. However, no cracks were observed in the microstructure of the composites which contained this percentage of alumina. This is due to the allotropic transformation of the tricalcium phosphate. The partial or reversal transformation of tricalcium phosphate (β to α or α to α’) during the cooling period could induce a residual stress within the dense bioceramics, marking it much more brittle. Accordingly, the optimum performance of alumina-tricalcium phosphate composites achieved 13.5 MPa. Furthermore, the best mechanical properties of the composites were obtained after the sintering process at 1600°C for 1 hour. With different weight rations of tricalcium phosphate: alumina (50:50, 40:60 and 20:80), the performance of the composites was hindered by the formation of both cracks and intragranular porosity.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Mr Ahmed BAHLOUL for his assistance in this work.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/43726.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/43726.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43726",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43726",totalDownloads:4806,totalViews:512,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:30,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:11,impactScorePercentile:98,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 15th 2012",dateReviewed:"September 19th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 27th 2013",dateFinished:"March 14th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/43726",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/43726",book:{id:"3420",slug:"advances-in-biomaterials-science-and-biomedical-applications"},signatures:"Siwar Sakka, Jamel Bouaziz and Foued Ben Ayed",authors:[{id:"50775",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben Ayed",middleName:null,surname:"Foued",fullName:"Ben Ayed Foued",slug:"ben-ayed-foued",email:"benayedfoued@yahoo.fr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Materials and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Characterization of different powders ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. The mechanical properties of alumina–tricalcium phosphate composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Characterization of alumina-tricalcium phosphate composites after the sintering process ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgements",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hench L L. Bioceramics: From Concept to clinic. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 1991; 74 (7) 1487. '},{id:"B2",body:'Hench L L. An Introduction to Bioceramics. J. Wilson (ed.). Vol. 1. World Scientific, Singapore; 1993.'},{id:"B3",body:'Elliott J C. Structure and Chemistry of the Apatite and Other Calcium Orthophosphates. Amsterdam : Elsevier Science B.V.; 1994.'},{id:"B4",body:'Landi E, Tampieri A, Celotti G, Sprio S. 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Mechanical and in vivo performance of hydroxyapatite implants with controlled architectures. Biomaterials 2002; 23, 1283–93.'},{id:"B87",body:'Hench LL, Polak JM. Third-generation biomedical materials. Science 2002; 295, 1014–7.'},{id:"B88",body:'Tamai N, Myoui A, Tomita T, Nakase T, Tanaka J, Ochi T, et al. Novel hydroxyapatite ceramics with an interconnective porous structure exhibit superior osteoconduction in vivo. J Biomed Mater Res 2002; 59, 110–7.'},{id:"B89",body:'Simon JL, Roy TD, Parsons JR, Rekow ED, Thompson VP, Kemnitzer J, et al. Engineered cellular response to scaffold architecture in a rabbit trephine defect. J Biomed Mater Res 2003; 66A, 275–82.'},{id:"B90",body:'Deville S, Saiz E, Nalla RK, Tomsia AP. Freezing as a path to build complex composites. Science 2006; 311, 515–8.'},{id:"B91",body:'Miranda P, Pajares A, Saiz E, Tomsia AP, Guiberteau F. Fracture modes under uniaxial compression in hydroxyapatite scaffolds fabricated by robocasting. 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J Mater Res 1998; 13, 94–117.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Siwar Sakka",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Industrial Chemistry, National School of Engineering, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia
Laboratory of Industrial Chemistry, National School of Engineering, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia
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Laboratory of Industrial Chemistry, National School of Engineering, Sfax University, Sfax, Tunisia
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1. Introduction
Edentulism is defined as an irreversible condition in the patient’s mouth and the “final marker of disease burden for oral health” [1, 2]. It is still one of the major problems among older adults globally, regardless of its declining incidence. The prevalence of complete edentulism varies among different countries all around the world since it depends on numerous factors such as education, economic and social situations, lifestyle, oral and general health knowledge and views, and attitudes to dental care [3, 4]. The rate of edentulism tends to vary not only among different countries but among different regions within a country too, with wealthier, more industrialized provinces tending to have lower rates than others [5]. A large number of studies confirm the close relationship between edentulism and age and gender of the patients, their educational and income level, activities of daily living, social isolation and poor self-experienced health [6, 7]. These findings should be recognized at the national level of each country and used to create preventive measures identifying older people who are in need of oral care.
2. Aging - tooth loss - bone loss
Edentulous patients are in need of wearing some kind of prosthodontic replacement to establish lost oral function caused by tooth loss. It occurs because of biologic disease processes and age-related changes, such as dental caries, trauma, periodontal conditions and diseases, as well as poor oral hygiene and oral cancer [8, 9]. Total tooth loss is not only reflected in patients’ inability to chew and speak but to their social behavior and self-image and it has a complex and multidimensional impact on oral health related and general quality of life [10, 11].
A large number of studies have already proven that bone loss represents an ongoing process following tooth loss [12, 13], affecting the mandible four times more than the maxilla [14]. This particularly affects the patients who become completely edentulous and creates a large problem for their future maintenance (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Current condition of the edentulous maxilla and mandible caused by years of toothlessness. The height of the frontal mandibular bone has been measured to evaluate the possibility of implant placement.
For the purpose of better understanding of the existing conditions, analysis of the edentulous jaws, easier diagnosis and therapy determination the American College of Prosthodontists (ACP) has developed a classification system for complete edentulism helping prosthodontists determine appropriate treatments for their edentulous patients [15]. This classification consists of four categories, the first representing an uncomplicated clinical situation with ideal or minimally compromised bone height, inter-jaw relationship, residual ridge morphology and muscle attachments and the fourth, representing the most complex and severely compromised oral conditions significantly negatively affecting the prosthodontic outcome [16].
3. Prosthodontic solutions in completely edentulous patients
Toothless residual alveolar ridges in edentulous patients imply the construction of retentive and stable conventional complete dentures [17]. Unfortunately, this can only be achieved in favorable oral conditions that mostly apply to the satisfactory edentulous ridge form and height affecting stability and retention of the dentures in function [18, 19]. It has already been proved that ill-fitting conventional complete dentures can compromise patient’s oral function and therefore cause psychosocial problems and decrease his/her oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) [20, 21]. The most often recorded complains among conventional complete denture wearers are pure or fair chewing ability, mostly within the subjects who had lost more than 50% of their estimated original ridge height, correlating the residual ridge resorption with worsening of the complete denture stability during mastication [22, 23].
4. Implant prosthodontics
In the last few decades, implants have been increasingly introduced in prosthodontics to replace patient’s tooth/teeth lost for several reasons including trauma, caries, and periodontal disease as one of the main causes of edentulism occurring in the elderly population [24]. The loss of single, several or even all the teeth in the jaws can be compensated by placing one or more implants and constructing fixed or removable prosthodontic restorations on them [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30].
A large number of risk factors related to the implant-prosthodontic therapy are listed in the literature, both at the level of implants as well as of implant prosthodontic restorations [31, 32, 33, 34]. It has already been proved in many studies that poorer bone quality and lack of bone volume may be the one of the main reasons of implant failure [35]. Therefore, numerous classifications assisting the therapist in determination of the proper implant-prosthodontic therapy have been suggested for assessment of the degree of atrophy of edentulous jaws, among which the classification system for jaw bone shape and quality proposed by Lekholm and Zarb in 1985 is very often used [36]. One of the major problems in elderly population certainly is the lack and poorer quality of bone structure (Lekholm and Zarb quality 3 or 4 and quantity C, D, or E), especially in the distal part of the alveolar ridges, offering a great challenge for the placement of multiple implants or immediate implant loading and fixed implant prosthodontic constructions [37, 38]. Therefore, in these patients, having compromised bone conditions, implant-retained overdentures may be the best solution [39].
5. McGill consensus statement on overdentures
With an increase of the life expectancy in the following years an increased number of completely edentulous patients will visit dental offices [40]. With a higher standards of their life quality they will expect the same level of standards in prosthodontic treatments demanding improvement in the oral health quality of life, too [40]. With conventional complete dentures relying upon resorbed residual bone ridges of maxilla and mandible and overlying mucosal soft tissues satisfactory retention and stability of the dentures is usually not possible to achieve. Therefore, it is up to the prosthodontics to find new solutions to this issue.
In May 2002, at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, prosthodontic symposium was held where numerous relevant experts who worked in the field of removable prosthodontics stated that the current available evidence suggested the restoration of the completely edentulous mandible using conventional complete denture is no longer the first choice in prosthodontic treatments and instead it should be a two-implant overdenture, regardless of the type of attachment system used (bar, ball or magnet) [41, 42]. According to the available literature patients find mandibular implant-retained overdentures to be superior over conventional ones in retention, ability to chew and speak, comfort, and satisfaction and in oral health related quality of life [43, 44, 45, 46]. In April 2009. In York, UK a further consensus statement created by members of British Society for the Study of Prosthetic dentistry Council was released highlighting that uptake by dentists of implants for completely edentulous patients has still been rather slow [47].
As it is stated in the Consensus Statement, the solution in completely edentulous patient should be maxillary conventional complete denture and mandibular two implant-retained overdenture and this therapy presents a minimum standard that should be sufficient for the most patients, taking into account patient comfort and satisfaction, costs and both clinical and dental laboratory time [41, 47]. According to the Statement, placement of only two implants increases the total cost of the treatment, but it is still low enough (in comparison to the multiple implant-prosthodontic restorations) to be affordable to most edentulous patients [41].
6. Prosthodontic indications and advantages for implant supported overdenture in completely edentulous patients
A large number of completely edentulous patients wearing conventional complete dentures are dissatisfied with their prosthodontic restorations [48]. Therefore, implant-retained overdentures were introduced to fulfill a need for maximum support in edentulous dental arches together with the desire to improve esthetic appearance [49]. Consequently, they are indicated in patients suffering from severe morphological destruction of denture supporting regions with significant loss of denture retention and stability (Figures 2 and 3), those with poor oral muscular coordination and low tolerance of soft underlying tissues, having parafunctional habits increasing soreness and instability of the conventional restorations or severe gag reflexes [50].
Figure 2.
Three-dimensional measurement of maxillary bone in completely edentulous patient. Notice the extreme resorption of the whole maxillary residual arch.
Figure 3.
Three-dimensional measurement of mandibular bone in completely edentulous patient. The resorption of the mandibular residual arch is not so progressive, therefore the placement of 4 implants in the frontal region is indicated.
This type of removable prosthodontic rehabilitation is also strongly recommended in patients with unrealistic conventional prosthodontic expectations and those having psychological problems in wearing removable dentures, even when adequate retention and stability are present in the function [50].
This type of implant-prosthodontic rehabilitation offers several advantages such as need for less implants resulting in lower component costs and less expensive treatments for the patient, easy handling and home care maintenance, achieving extremely high level of facial esthetics by labial acrylic flanges and denture teeth replacing missing bone structure and avoiding parafunctions by removing dentures at night (Figures 4 and 5).
Figure 4.
Vestibular view of 2 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
Figure 5.
Oral view of 2 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
The results of the trial reported in Feine et al. and Grandmont et al. suggested that many patients having the chance to compare both fixed and removable implant-supported mandibular prostheses considered removable types to be a first class treatment [51, 52]. Half of the primarily older individuals monitored in this trial preferred removable over fixed prostheses for easier cleaning and ability to take them out during the night, but reported to be less efficient for chewing [51, 52]. Therefore, this finding should be used by clinicians when choosing the most appropriate type of dentures in completely edentulous patients, too.
It is also important to mention that both clinical and dental laboratory procedures when fabricating implant-retained maxillary and mandibular overdentures do not differ significantly from the conventional on, with the exception of the use of implant transfers, laboratory analogs and individually adjusted trays (Figures 6–8).
Figure 6.
Individual tray, functional imporession and laboratory analogs for 4 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
Figure 7.
Open acrylic individual tray and implant transfers ready for impression.
Figure 8.
Both vertical and horizontal dimension registration of the future maxillary conventional and 4 implant-retained mandibular overdenture using wax rims.
7. Number of implants in implant-retained overdentures
Implant-retained overdentures are usually indicated in completely edentulous cases with mild to severe bone resorption in certain regions and therefore go with reduced number of implants. The minimum number of implants needed for an over denture is still in debate.
According to the literature in case of maxillary overdenture with both implant and soft tissue support four to six implants are needed for retention and stability [53, 54, 55]. In case of four implants reduction in palatal plate of the denture is reported and recommended (Figures 9 and 10) [56, 57].
Figure 9.
Four dental implants in maxilla. Clinical procedure of adjusting locators in 4 implant-retained maxillary overdenture.
Figure 10.
Distal reduction of the 4 implant-retained maxillary overdenture palatal plate.
There are many reports in literature on two implant-retained overdentures in maxilla, too, but it is still the subject of debates (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
Clinical check-up of the patient five years following the placement of two implants in maxilla and delivery of the 2 implant-retained maxillary overdenture.
Klemetti et al. concluded that using only two implants in the maxilla did not compromise the dentures longevity or patient satisfaction when compared with four implant overdentures on one hand, but many authors claim that this design of implant-retained overdenture may result in a hinging movement and cause discomfort [58, 59, 60].
In mandible, in case of overdenture with both implant and soft tissue support, two implants supported overdenture or single implant retained overdenture is also advisable [61, 62, 63, 64].
8. Types of attachment systems on implant-retained overdentures
According to The McGill Consensus Statement on overdentures mandibular two-implant overdentures (Figure 12) are considered to be the first choice standard of care for edentulous patients regardless of the type of attachment system used [41].
Figure 12.
Standard implant-prosthodontic procedure in completely edentulous patient according to the McGilly consensus.
Numerous types of attachment systems supporting implant overdentures have been developed over years, such as bars, balls, magnets, different cylindrical attachments etc., made of different materials, according to different concepts and designs [65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71].
Of the previously listed systems, only bars require mechanically constructed splinting of the implants and the need to connect them via rigid construction or not is still being discussed.
Both splinted and unsplinted overdenture implant attachment systems have unique advantages and disadvantages. Although different in construction, it seems that both systems achieve similar results with regard to marginal bone loss, prosthetic complications and implant survival rate [72]. A systematic research, carried out from 2000. to 2018., investigated the influence of splinted vs. unsplinted designs for 4 implants retained maxillary overdentures in terms of the outcome assessed in implant survival, prosthodontic longevity and patients’ satisfaction. The results revealed no influence of the overdenture design on survival rates of both implants and dentures, as well as on patients’ satisfaction with implant survival rate higher than 97%, overdenture survival rate of 100% and patients’ satisfaction scores higher than 4.5 (on a 1 to 5 Likert scale) for general satisfaction, chewing ability, denture stabilization, esthetic results and speech [73].
Location of the implants in the edentulous jaw serving for the retention and stability of the overdenture as well as each edentulous arch shape highly influence the stress concentration and distribution around the implants and denture bearing area [74, 75].
If it is about splinted overdenture implant attachment systems using bars made from different materials polyetheretherketone (PEEK), titanium and Co-Cr alloys) the question of designing additional distal cantilever arises. Numerous authors confirmed that, if used, the length of the cantilevel should not exceed the anteroposterior span length, with most commonly mentioned length from 7 to 12 mm (Figure 13) [76, 77].
Figure 13.
Splinted 4 implant-retained maxillary overdenture with short distal cantilevers.
Although it has already been proven that cantilevering of the bars in this type of implant prosthodontic restoration may increase bone loss around supporting implants, especially around the implant adjacent to cantilever, without cantilevers there is less retention and stability of the dentures in the function [78, 79, 80]. However, not only does the cantilever and its length cause the problems with loss of bone structure around the implants, but increase in bar height can increase stress levels on the peri-implant crestal bone, too [81].
From the technical point of view, unsplinted overdenture implant attachment systems such as Locators, balls or magnets are much easier to construct, provide more prosthodontic space and require up to 1 cm vertical space for the attachments (Figures 14–16) [82, 83].
Figure 14.
Radiological assessment of implant osseointegration prior to the delivery of 4 implant-retained mandibular overdenture.
Figure 15.
Stone casts with laboratory analogs indicating the position of the locators in the edenetulous mandible.
Figure 16.
Titanium housings on the laboratory analogs.
9. Prosthodontic maintenance of different implant-retained overdentures
Prosthetic complications with implant-retained overdentures are unavoidable and are mostly mechanical [84]. Compared with conventional complete dentures there is a higher rate of repair and replacement of this type of dentures, mostly regarding their design and type of the attachment system [84].
In cases where implant retained overdenture is not reinforced by the metal framework higher rate of acrylic fractures must be expected, especially in the cases where the patrix size of the attachment system is relatively too large [85].
Different attachment systems require different care. It has been proven that rigid bars connecting 4 implants show lower incidence rate of maintenance such as clip activation or resolving the fracture, than resilient system such as round bars most likely because of its inability to rotate around the fulcrum line during the function [86]. The data also demonstrates an increase in prosthodontic maintenance for ball attachments related to the wear or fracture of the ball head or need for activation of the ball matrix or relining of the denture [87, 88].
Numerous authors reported different types of matrix repairs, too, such as clip fractures or clip activation in the period of 5 years, most commonly in the first year [89, 90].
Furthermore, the longevity of the implant retained overdenture depends on maintaining oral and denture hygiene, as well as frequency of use. It is clear that simpler constructions, away from mucosa, are easier to maintain and clean, such as balls and locators in comparison to the bars, especially if they are in the close relationship with the mucosa [91]. Nocturnal use of this type of dentures has also showed higher incidence of stomatitis due to the excellent retention, less saliva produced and more bacteria to develop in that environment [92].
It is necessary to emphasize that the prosthodontic complications can be reduced to an expected level if a close follow-up protocol is applied (Figures 17 and 18).
We must also not forget that ultimate goal of producing implant-retained overdentures is patient’s satisfaction not only with the esthetics but also with the long-term function of the removable prosthodontic restoration (Figures 19 and 20).
Figure 19.
Appearance of 4 implant-retained maxillary and mandibular overdentures - frontal and both lateral views.
Figure 20.
Portrait view of the patient with 4 implant-retained maxillary and mandibular overdentures in occlusion and in smile.
10. Conclusion
Implant-retained overdentures are very attractive implant-prosthodontic treatment because of its relative simplicity in construction and design, easy handling, minimal invasiveness and lower costs. They are particularly suitable to maintain facial support and achieve higher level of esthetics with denture acrylic material when moderate to extreme alveolar ridge resorption is present in patient’s mouth, mainly in the older population. It is very important to emphasize that the implant-retained overdentures are supported by both implants and denture underlying soft tissue and therefore fewer implants are requested compared to the prosthodontic restorations supported only by implants.
This type of overdenture is usually connected with two or four implants, depending on which jaw is involved and on quality and quantity of the residual bone structure. These implants are mainly placed within the alveolar bone on the opposite sides of the completely edentulous arch and connected to the complete denture using different correspondent coupling units placed on the tissue surface of the prosthodontic restoration. When implant and denture attachments are appropriately connected, the complete denture is held in position over the denture bearing area and both implants and mucosa provide support, retention and stability in function. The main advantage of this type of implant-prosthodontic solution over fixed one is that the implant-retained overdenture can be easily removed and cleaned (easy access to both the denture and the implants’ abutments) and therefore provides better oral hygiene and may affect greater longevity of the restoration itself.
The results of this systematic review indicate the superiority of implant-retained overdentures when compared to conventional complete dentures in fully edentulous patients suffering from moderate to severe alveolar bone resorption with regards to efficacy, patients’ satisfaction and quality of their life.
Notes
All the cases presented in this chapter were patients from Dental Polyclinic Ars Salutaris, Zagreb, Croatia, and the laboratory work was done in Naturaldent dental laboratory, Zagreb, Croatia.
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Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. Different indications, types of the overdentures and the attachment systems will be discussed in this chapter.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78320",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78320",signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo",book:{id:"10808",type:"book",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-864-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-863-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-865-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Aging - tooth loss - bone loss",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Prosthodontic solutions in completely edentulous patients",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Implant prosthodontics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. McGill consensus statement on overdentures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Prosthodontic indications and advantages for implant supported overdenture in completely edentulous patients",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Number of implants in implant-retained overdentures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Types of attachment systems on implant-retained overdentures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Prosthodontic maintenance of different implant-retained overdentures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Notes",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Cunha-Cruz J, Hujoel PP, Nadanovsky P. Secular trends in socio-economic disparities in edentulism: USA, 1972-2001. 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Int J Prosthodont. 2000;13(3):246-53.'},{id:"B90",body:'Watson RM, Jemt T, Chai J, Harnett J, Heath MR, Hutton JE, Johns RB, Lithner B, McKenna S, McNamara DC, Naert I, Taylor R. Prosthodontic treatment, patient response, and the need for maintenance of complete implant-supported overdentures: an appraisal of 5 years of prospective study. Int J Prosthodont. 1997;10(4):345-54.'},{id:"B91",body:'Park JH, Shin SW, Lee JY. Bar versus ball attachments for maxillary four-implant retained overdentures: A randomized controlled trial. Clin Oral Implants Res. 2019;30(11):1076-84. DOI: 10.1111/clr.13521.'},{id:"B92",body:'Naert I, Gizani S, van Steenberghe D. Rigidly splinted implants in the resorbed maxilla to retain a hinging overdenture: a series of clinical reports for up to 4 years. J Prosthet Dent. 1998;79(2):156-64. DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3913(98)70210-0.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić",address:"knezovic@sfzg.hr",affiliation:'
Department of Removable Prosthodontics, School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb, Croatia
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13633",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhamid",middleName:null,surname:"Mellouk",slug:"abdelhamid-mellouk",fullName:"Abdelhamid Mellouk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13633/images/1567_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Paris 12 Val de Marne University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"109268",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ataby",slug:"ali-al-ataby",fullName:"Ali Al-Ataby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109268/images/7410_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Liverpool",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"3807",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:"Jose Albanez",surname:"Bastos-Filho",slug:"carmelo-bastos-filho",fullName:"Carmelo Bastos-Filho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3807/images/624_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38850/images/system/38850.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"239041",title:"Prof.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/239041/images/system/239041.jpeg",institutionString:"Virginia Tech",institution:{name:"Virginia Tech",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. 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