Basic characteristics of research subjects.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6979",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",title:"Parasites and Parasitic Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Parasitic diseases are considered nowadays as an important public health problem due to the high morbidity and mortality rates registered in the world. These diseases result in more severe consequences for the social order of tropical and subtropical countries because many of them have low economic income that makes it even more difficult to design and implement health control programs. This situation opens the door to the emergence and reemergence of these diseases; therefore, it is convenient, necessary, and essential to study and update the epidemiological behavior of tropical diseases with the objective of offering official health professionals and institutions current information for decision-making in this area to ensure social welfare.",isbn:"978-1-83880-128-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-127-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-140-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73726",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"parasites-and-parasitic-diseases",numberOfPages:98,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f55304c8bd1d92268e33689c368f9e33",bookSignature:"Gilberto Bastidas",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6979.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6658,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238219/images/system/238219.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco is a physician with degrees in Pre-hospital Emergency Care, Executive Direction for Senior Management in Health, and Occupational Health and Safety. Along with a Health Management Course equivalent to the Public Health Middle Course, Magister Scientiae in Education Management and also in Protozoology, Prof. Bastidas holds a Ph.D. in Parasitology. He is a full professor at the Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of Public Health, University of Carabobo, Valencia, Venezuela. He has authored several articles published in national and international journal, and is also an arbitrator of scientific articles, member of the editorial committees of several journals, and a textbook writer and lecturer.",institutionString:"University of Carabobo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Carabobo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Venezuela"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"909",title:"Parasitology",slug:"parasitology"}],chapters:[{id:"66212",title:"Introductory Chapter: Parasitology and Parasitism Areas of Knowledge That Must Be Constantly Studied",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85181",slug:"introductory-chapter-parasitology-and-parasitism-areas-of-knowledge-that-must-be-constantly-studied",totalDownloads:2323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Bastidas Gilberto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66212",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66212",authors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco"}],corrections:null},{id:"63084",title:"Organ Pathology and Associated IFN-γ and IL-10 Variations in Mice Infected with Toxoplasma gondii Isolate from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79700",slug:"organ-pathology-and-associated-ifn-and-il-10-variations-in-mice-infected-with-toxoplasma-gondii-isol",totalDownloads:860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Toxoplasma gondii is an important foodborne opportunistic pathogen that causes a severe disease in immunocompromised patients. The pathology and immune responses associated with the ensuing disease have not been well described in strains from different parts of the world. The aim of the present study is to determine the IFN-γ and IL-10 variations and organ pathology in immunocompetent and immunocompromised mice infected with T. gondii isolated from a Kenyan chicken. Two groups of BALB/c mice were infected with T. gondii cysts and administered with dexamethasone (DXM) in drinking water. Other two groups: infected untreated and uninfected mice were kept as controls. The mice were euthanized at various time points: blood collected for serum and assayed for IFN-γ and IL-10 variations. After infection, significant (p<0.05) elevated levels of IFN-γ and IL-10 were observed. A significant decline in IFN-γ and IL-10 levels (p<0.05) was observed after dexamethasone treatment. Histological sections in the liver, heart, and spleen of the mice administered with DXM revealed various degrees of inflammation characterized by infiltration of inflammatory cells. The dexamethasone-treated mice presented with progressively increased (p<0.001) inflammatory responses is compared with the infected untreated mice.",signatures:"John Mokua Mose, David Muchina Kamau,\nJohn Maina Kagira, Naomi Maina, Maina Ngotho,\nLucy Mutharia and Simon Muturi Karanja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63084",authors:[{id:"255664",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Kagira",slug:"john-kagira",fullName:"John Kagira"},{id:"255668",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Mokua",slug:"john-mokua",fullName:"John Mokua"},{id:"255669",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Kamau",slug:"david-kamau",fullName:"David Kamau"},{id:"255670",title:"Prof.",name:"Naomi",surname:"Maina",slug:"naomi-maina",fullName:"Naomi Maina"},{id:"255671",title:"Dr.",name:"Maina",surname:"Ngotho",slug:"maina-ngotho",fullName:"Maina Ngotho"},{id:"255672",title:"Ms.",name:"Adele",surname:"Njuguna",slug:"adele-njuguna",fullName:"Adele Njuguna"},{id:"255673",title:"Prof.",name:"Simon",surname:"Karanja",slug:"simon-karanja",fullName:"Simon Karanja"},{id:"265279",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucy",surname:"Mutharia",slug:"lucy-mutharia",fullName:"Lucy Mutharia"}],corrections:null},{id:"62896",title:"Malaria Pathophysiology as a Syndrome: Focus on Glucose Homeostasis in Severe Malaria and Phytotherapeutics Management of the Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79698",slug:"malaria-pathophysiology-as-a-syndrome-focus-on-glucose-homeostasis-in-severe-malaria-and-phytotherap",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Severe malaria presents with varied pathophysiological manifestations to include derangement in glucose homeostasis. The changes in glucose management by the infected human host emanate from both Plasmodium parasitic and host factors and/or influences which are aimed at creating a proliferative advantage to the parasite. This also includes morphological changes that that take place to both infected and uninfected cells as structural alterations occur on the cell membranes to allow for increased nutrients (glucose) transportation into the cells. Without the availability, effective and efficient intervention there is a high cost incurred by the human host. Hyperglycaemia, hypoglycaemia and hyperinsulinemia are critical aspects displayed in severe malaria. Conventional treatment to malaria renders itself hostile to the host with negative glucose metabolism changes experiences in the young, pregnant women and malaria naïve individuals. In malaria, therefore, host effects, parasite imperatives and treatment regimens play a pivotal role in the return to wellness of the patient. Phytotherapeutics are emerging as treatment alternatives that ameliorate glucose homeostasis alternations as well as combat malaria parasitaemia. The phytochemicals e.g. triterpenes, have been shown to alleviate the “disease” and “parasitic” aspects of malaria pointing at key aspects in ameliorating malaria glucose homeostasis fallings-out that are experienced in malaria.",signatures:"Greanious Alfred Mavondo, Joy Mavondo, Wisdom Peresuh, Mary\nDlodlo and Obadiah Moyo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62896",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62896",authors:[{id:"202805",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa",surname:"Greanious",slug:"alfred-mavondo-nyajena-mukuwa-greanious",fullName:"Alfred Mavondo-Nyajena Mukuwa Greanious"},{id:"263433",title:"Dr.",name:"Obadiah",surname:"Moyo",slug:"obadiah-moyo",fullName:"Obadiah Moyo"},{id:"263434",title:"Mrs.",name:"Joy",surname:"Mavondo",slug:"joy-mavondo",fullName:"Joy Mavondo"},{id:"263435",title:"Ms.",name:"Mary",surname:"Dlodlo",slug:"mary-dlodlo",fullName:"Mary Dlodlo"},{id:"263436",title:"Mr.",name:"Wisdom",surname:"Peresu",slug:"wisdom-peresu",fullName:"Wisdom Peresu"}],corrections:null},{id:"62893",title:"Prevalence and Intensity of Intestinal Parasites and Malaria in Pregnant Women at Abobo District in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79699",slug:"prevalence-and-intensity-of-intestinal-parasites-and-malaria-in-pregnant-women-at-abobo-district-in-",totalDownloads:866,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A prospective study was carried out from 2010 to 2012 at the Hôpital Général d’Abobo (HGA) in Abidjan, in order to determine the impact of infectious and parasitic diseases on child cognitive development. Blood samples were examined by means of drop thick and blood smear, as for stool by direct examination and concentration by formalin-ether method. We evaluated the prevalence and the parasite load of malaria and gastrointestinal parasites and then investigated the risk factors for these disorders. Overall, 331 pregnant women in the last trimester of their pregnancy were enrolled. The plasmodic index was 3.9% with an infestation specific rate for P. falciparum of 100%. Concerning digestive protozoa, it has been observed 71.3% of nonpathogenic, against 9.7% of pathogens, either an overall prevalence of 51.4% of digestive parasites. The calculated average parasitic loads revealed 3089.2 tpz/μl of blood (95% CI, 591.1–5587.3) for malaria, 6.5 eggs per gram of stool (95% CI, 0.4–13.4) for intestinal helminths, and one (1) parasite by microscopic field for protozoa (common infestation). It has been shown that the occurrence of malaria has been linked to the nonuse of impregnated mosquito nets (χ2 = 0.012, p = 0.018) to age. No link could be established between the presence of digestive parasites and the age of pregnant women or socioeconomic conditions (level of education, profession, type of toilet). Malaria is less common in pregnant women, while the rate of digestive parasites remains high.",signatures:"Gaoussou Coulibaly, Kouassi Patrick Yao, Mathurin Koffi, Bernardin\nAhouty Ahouty, Laurent Kouassi Louhourignon, Monsan N’Cho and\nEliézer Kouakou N’Goran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62893",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62893",authors:[{id:"254981",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gaoussou",surname:"Coulibaly",slug:"gaoussou-coulibaly",fullName:"Gaoussou Coulibaly"}],corrections:null},{id:"63554",title:"Current Aspects in Trichinellosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80372",slug:"current-aspects-in-trichinellosis",totalDownloads:1355,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Currently, it is estimated that more than 11 million humans in the world are infected by helminth parasites of Trichinella species, mainly by Trichinella spiralis (T. spiralis), responsible for causing Trichinellosis disease in both animals and humans. Trichinellosis is a cosmopolitan parasitic zoonotic disease, which has direct relevance to human and animal health, because it presents a constant and important challenge to the host’s immune system, especially through the intestinal tract. Currently, there is an intense investigation of new strategies in pharmacotherapy and immunotherapy against infection by Trichinella spiralis. In this chapter, we will present the most current aspects of biology, epidemiology, immunology, clinicopathology, pharmacotherapy and immunotherapy in Trichinellosis.",signatures:"José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo, Claudia Maldonado-Tapia, Argelia López-\nLuna, José Jesús Muñoz-Escobedo, Juan Armando Flores-De La\nTorre and Alejandra Moreno-García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63554",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63554",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"254888",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Armando",surname:"Flores-De La Torre",slug:"juan-armando-flores-de-la-torre",fullName:"Juan Armando Flores-De La Torre"},{id:"254889",title:"Dr.",name:"José Jesús",surname:"Muñoz-Escobedo",slug:"jose-jesus-munoz-escobedo",fullName:"José Jesús Muñoz-Escobedo"},{id:"254890",title:"Dr.",name:"Argelia",surname:"López-Luna",slug:"argelia-lopez-luna",fullName:"Argelia López-Luna"},{id:"254891",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Maldonado-Tapia",slug:"claudia-maldonado-tapia",fullName:"Claudia Maldonado-Tapia"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9025",title:"Parasitology and Microbiology Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d9a211396d44f07d2748e147786a2c8b",slug:"parasitology-and-microbiology-research",bookSignature:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco and Asghar Ali Kamboh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"238219",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilberto Antonio",surname:"Bastidas Pacheco",slug:"gilberto-antonio-bastidas-pacheco",fullName:"Gilberto Antonio Bastidas Pacheco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1692",title:"Parasitology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2110e81c765897e4ffdfbd340495e25",slug:"parasitology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5527",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d705be119e74a50305952521b2b5ece0",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",bookSignature:"Hanem Khater, M. 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\r\n\r\n\tThis book will shed light on various methods for the preparation and characterization of liposomes and their engineered versions. Technological advancements have enabled us to develop newer methods of formulating liposomes. Over time, liposomes have been modified to a larger extent and engineered to meet our growing needs for sustained and controlled delivery for developing therapeutic interventions vaccines. Further, this book will throw light on the various methods of preparation and characterization of liposomes, and discuss several biochemical and indirect methods to understand the biological and physicochemical mechanisms of action of liposomes that decide their efficiency in vivo.
\r\n\tDespite their limitations such as encapsulation efficiency, liposomes are a well-established choice for a number of unconventional and conventional biological applications. The versatility of these lipid-based vesicles presents the importance of these nanoparticles in the future applications of nanotechnology besides targeted drug delivery. Overall, this book provides the necessary and relevant information about various aspects of liposomes and their use in nanomedicine.
\r\n\t
The prevalence of Diabetes Mellitus (DM) increases globally; in 2011, about 366 million people experienced Diabetes, and it is estimated to continue to grow to 522 million people in 2030 [1]. Diabetes Mellitus will cause damage and failure of various organs; one of these organs is the kidney. This complication of DM in the kidney is called Diabetic Nephropathy. The prevalence of Diabetic Nephropathy occurs in 20–40% of all type-2 DM patients [2]. Kidney damage in Diabetic Nephropathy is irreversible and causes an increase in morbidity, mortality, and the burden of health financing in most countries [3].
The principal risks of Diabetic Nephropathy are modifiable, namely blood pressure, blood sugar, and dyslipidemia. Meanwhile, factors that cannot be modified include age, race, and genetic profile [4]. However, the pathogenesis that contributes to Diabetic Nephropathy incidence is not fully understood, especially the role of genetics [5]. So that efforts to obtain genetic information in type-2 DM patients who are susceptible/at risk of Diabetic Nephropathy provide an opportunity to predict and diagnose this complication early [6].
The ELMO-1 gene is a functional gene that codes for the formation of the ELMO-1 protein, located on chromosome 7 of mammalian cells. ELMO-1 protein helps engulf “eating” or clean apoptotic cells and plays a role in cell motility and cell shape changes [7, 8].
ELMO-1 protein increases in hyperglycemic conditions and TGF-β1 (Tumor Growth Factor Beta-1), collagen type-1, fibronectin expression, and Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM) in the kidneys. MMP-9 also plays a vital role in diabetic nephropathy. Increased secretion of MMP-9 destroys the podocyte diaphragm, which is an essential component in maintaining the standard barrier of glomerular filtration [10].
This study is an observational study with a cross-sectional comparative study design. This study was conducted at three hospitals in Jambi Province, Indonesia, with a total sample of 60 people. Control this research is Diabetes Mellitus type 2 group without Diabetic Nephropathy patients diagnosed with type-2 Diabetes without impaired kidney function and two times the value examination, Albumin to Creatinine Ratio (ACR) <30 mg/g for 2–3 months mild/normal albuminuria levels. Diabetes mellitus with nephropathy diabetes has hemodialysis, decreased Glomerular Filtration Rate, and or persistent albuminuria.
The inclusion criteria in this study were over 20 years ago, had suffered from type-2 Diabetes for at least five years, had a medical record with routine laboratory examination data in the form of blood sugar and urinalysis, assessment of kidney function (urea levels and creatinine), ultrasound, and ACR examination at least two times in 3–6 months and were willing to participate in this study by signing the informed consent. Exclusion criteria in this study were patients with urinary tract infections, other kidney diseases such as kidney stones and kidney cysts (from medical records), pregnancy, and patients with autoimmune or immunocompromised diseases.
ELMO-1 and MMP-9 levels were examined using ELISA (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay). Sample this research from blood plasma; then carried out according to the ELISA kit instructions for human ELMO-1 from MyBioSource catalog number MBS9321199 and MMP-9 from RayBioR catalog number ELH-MMP9.
This research has passed ethics from the Faculty of Medicine’s research ethics commission team, Andalas University, and received ethical clearance number 706/KEP/FK/2019. Data analysis used a t-test because the data distribution was normal.
The basic characteristics of the assessed research subjects are shown in Table 1.
Characteristics | Diabetes with Diabetic Nephropathy (n = 30) | Diabetes without Diabetic Nephropathy (n = 30) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|
Age | 51,17 ± 7,88 | 49,87 ± 8,42 | 0,539a |
Gender | |||
Male, n Female, n | 15 (57,7%) 15 (44,1%) | 11 (36,7%) 19 (55,9%) | 0,297b |
Fasting blood sugar levels | 160,40 ± 60,32 | 138,90 ± 35,54 | 0,249a |
Blood sugar levels 2 hours after eating | 245,87 ± 59,57 | 237,27 ± 84,56 | 0,428a |
Systolic blood pressure | 139,33 ± 17,21 | 122,43 ± 14,47 | |
Diastolic blood pressure | 83,33 ± 9,59 | 78,00 ± 8,87 | |
Urine creatinine | 95,64 ± 72,65 | 89,59 ± 71,53 | 0,887a |
Urine albumin | 618,83 ± 876,23 | 12,67 ± 9,65 | |
Albumin to creatinine ratio | 1387,67 ± 2743,37 | 14,21 ± 6,6 | |
Glomerular filtration rate, mL/min | 69,76 ± 36,10 | 92,91 ± 23,76 |
Basic characteristics of research subjects.
t-test.
Chi-square test.
Statistically significant; p-value < 0,05.
Based on the essential characteristics of research subjects, it is known that Type-2 Diabetes with Diabetic Nephropathy has systolic and diastolic blood pressure, fasting blood sugar levels, and blood sugar levels 2 hours after eating. Albumin to creatinine ratio (ACR) in urine is higher than non-diabetic nephropathy. And statistically significant. In contrast, the mean value of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was lower in the Diabetic Nephropathy group and statistically significant.
ELMO-1 and MMP-9 protein levels between DM subjects with Diabetic Nephropathy and without Diabetic Nephropathy are presented in Tables 2 and 3 below.
Protein | Diabetes with Diabetic Nephropathy (n = 30) | Diabetes without Diabetic Nephropathy (n = 30) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|
Plasma ELMO-1 (ng/mL) | 623,83 ± 940,73 | 211,21 ± 209,98 |
ELMO-1 plasma levels between DM subjects with diabetic nephropathy and without diabetic nephropathy.
t-test.
p-value <0,05; statistically significant (p < 0,05).
Protein | Diabetes with ND (n = 30) | Diabetes with ND non-ND (n = 30) | p-value |
---|---|---|---|
Plasma MMP-9 (pg/mL) | 1800,14 ± 1871,18 | 981,79 ± 758,49 |
Plasma levels of MMP-9 between DM subjects with ND and non-ND.
t-test.
p-value <0,05; statistically significant.
Table 2 shows that the mean ELMO-1 plasma value was higher in the DM group with Diabetic Nephropathy and without Diabetic Nephropathy group, statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Table 3 shows that the mean plasma MMP-9 value was higher in the DM group with Diabetic Nephropathy than the without Diabetic Nephropathy group. And this difference was statistically significant (p = 0.032).
The Genome-Wide Association Studies in Japan in 2005 identified the part of Engulfment and cell motility-1 (ELMO-1) in diabetic nephropathy. A study using diabetic rats found that increased ELMO-1 protein levels were in diabetic kidneys compared to normal rats [9]. Functions ELMO-1 proteins were phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and cell motility in mammals [7]. Failure to clear apoptotic cells can cause inflammation and autoimmunity damage [8].
In this study, there was no difference in age and gender. Because due to the nine samples’ consecutive sampling technique, where there is a balanced age range between the case and control groups. There is a difference in age characteristics in the literature, stating that diabetic nephropathy is more common in old age. Because it is associated with a longer duration of disease in old age, and diabetes mellitus has been more than five years [11].
Based on patient characteristics, it is known that the mean value of glomerular filtration rate is lower in the diabetic group with Diabetic Nephropathy compared without Diabetic Nephropathy. This situation is because, in diabetic nephropathy, there is a more severe decrease in kidney function. The reduction in glomerular hydration rate in type-II DM patients is proportional to the degree of albuminuria. The more significant the reduction in glomerular filtration rate, the heavier the degree of albuminuria [11, 12].
In this study, the Diabetic Nephropathy group had a higher average blood pressure than non-ND Diabetes Mellitus. Blood pressure decreases the rate of glomerular psychopathy and albuminuria in Diabetic Nephropathy [13, 14]. The elevated blood pressure in diabetic nephropathy occurred due to disruption of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAA’s) and decreased renal blood flow [13, 14].
In the study, ELMO-1 protein levels were higher in patients with diabetic nephropathy. ELMO-1 protein contributed to chronic glomerular injury progression through the increased accumulation of the extracellular matrix and decreased cell adhesion [14]. The extracellular matrix accumulation causes thickening of the glomerulus and renal tubules, a marker of advanced diabetes nephropathy [13].
This study reported higher plasma ELMO-1 and MMP-9 levels in diabetic patients with ND and was statistically significant (Tables 2 and 3). Functional studies on cultured cells and experimental animals show the role of the ELMO-1 protein in ND. Previous research has shown an increase in ELMO-1 signal with the in situ hybridization (FISH) method in the kidney of rats with nephropathy compared to those without nephropathy.
MMP-9 protein is a protein involved in the degradation of the extracellular matrix and glomerular turnover. Changes in MMP-9 expression are associated with the development of diabetic nephropathy. Hyperglycemia, an increase in advanced glycation end products, and oxidative stress that occurs in people with Diabetes increase the expression of MMP-9. MMP-9 protein cause of disrupts the integrity and increases the permeability of podocytes to albumin, and increases protein synthesis, which is involved in forming the extracellular matrix. All of these are processes that occur in Diabetes nephropathy [10, 15, 16].
Engulfment and Cell Motility-1 (ELMO-1) and Matrix Metalloproteases-9 (MMP-9) protein levels were higher in Diabetic Nephropathy compared to Diabetes Mellitus without Diabetic Nephropathy and difference was statistically significant. Required a larger number of samples and performed prospectively.
Thanks to the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Jambi University and the Raden Mattaher Jambi Regional General Hospital, the Baiturrahim Jambi Pertamedika Hospital, the Jambi MMC (Mayang Medical Center) Hospital for research.
ACR | Albumin-to-Creatinine Ratio |
ACEI | Angiotensin Enzyme Inhibitor |
ADA | American Diabetes Association |
DM | Diabetes Mellitus |
ECM | Extra Cellular Matrix |
ELISA | Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay |
ELMO-1 | Engulfment and cell motility-1 |
IDF | International Diabetes Federation |
MMP | Matrix Metalloproteases |
Buckwheat is an annual herbaceous plant that botanically belongs to the order
Buckwheat grains are the main form of consumption of this pseudocereal. Hulled grains are mostly used for human consumption in the form of breakfast cereals or as flour for the production of various bakery products (bread, cakes, snacks) and noodles enriched with buckwheat flour (0.3–60%), buckwheat-improved non-bakery products (tea, honey, and tarhana) [5] and products made of buckwheat husks such as pillows, quilts, mattresses, collars, eye masks, and children’s toys [6]. In addition to flour and groats, buckwheat sprouts are increasingly used to improve bakery products [5, 7].
Since buckwheat is gluten-free, these products can be included in a gluten-free diet for patients with gluten intolerance [8, 9].
The addition of buckwheat into bakery products is of particular importance. This pseudocereal is gaining increasing attention as potentially functional food [4, 10]. Namely, buckwheat is recognized as a good source of nutritious proteins, lipids, dietary fiber and minerals and, in combination with other components that have a positive impact on health such as phenolic components and sterols, it is attracting increasing attention as a functional food.
Buckwheat is the only pseudocereal that contains rutin, which has shown anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiatherogenic, and antioxidant activity [4, 12]. Buckwheat protein extracts are associated with anticancer and cholesterol-lowering effects in animals [13, 14]. Apparently, the incorporation of buckwheat into bread results in significantly lower blood glucose and insulin responses compared to white wheat bread [15]. Buckwheat grain contains very rare D-
Buckwheat proteins have a high biological value thanks to a well-balanced amino acid composition. The protein content of buckwheat is relatively lower than the protein content of legumes. However, the amino acid score of buckwheat protein is 100 and the content of essential amino acids corresponds to the recommended amino acid intake for children and adults [17].
They are rich in lysine, which is the first limiting amino acid of plant proteins, and arginine [18, 19]. However, the content of glutamine and proline is much lower compared to wheat [20], and threonine and methionine are the first and second limiting acids in buckwheat. Furthermore, Giménez-Bastida et al. [5] stated that buckwheat proteins are rich in albumin and globulin and that they are very poor in prolamin and gluten. Therefore, buckwheat flour is suitable for use in the diet of people with celiac disease due to its low non-toxic prolamin content [21]. The protein content in buckwheat flour is significantly higher compared to rice, wheat, corn, millet, and sorghum flour. While it is lower only compared to the protein content of oat flour [19]. Guo et al. [22] pointed out that the average protein content in buckwheat is 12.94%.
The digestibility of buckwheat proteins is about 80%, which is lower compared to proteins of animal origin such as hemoglobin and ovalbumin. However, it is higher than cereal proteins (e.g., sorghum 55–59%; corn 66–75%) and has a value approximate to rice bran (89%) and wheat germ (77–93%). Despite the balanced composition of essential amino acids, the bioavailability of buckwheat protein after digestion is not complete. Relatively low digestibility is attributed to the molecular structure of buckwheat protein and the presence of antinutritive factors in flour and protein isolates [17].
Buckwheat, along with other pseudocereals such as quinoa and amaranth, is recommended for use in creating new value-added bakery products because it can provide high levels of essential amino acids in the human diet [23].
The literature states that buckwheat proteins have many unique physiological functions, such as treating chronic diseases in humans, reducing serum cholesterol, suppressing gallstones and tumors, inhibiting angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE), and so on [17, 24, 25]. An ACE inhibitory tripeptide (Gly-Pro-Pro) was isolated and identified from common buckwheat [26]. In humans, buckwheat consumption has also been associated with a lower prevalence of hyperglycemia and improved glucose tolerance in people with diabetes [27]. Since many health benefits of buckwheat are inherently related to peptide radical binding activity from digested proteins, it is hypothesized that buckwheat protein hydrolysis may release peptide fragments capable of stabilizing reactive oxygen kinds and inhibiting lipid oxidation. By in vitro digestion of buckwheat protein six peptide fractions were obtained, whereas LC-MS/MS identified Trp-Pro-Leu, Val-Pro-Trp, and Val-Phe-Pro-Trp (IV), Pro-Trp (V), and tryptophan (VI) as the prominent peptides/amino acid in these fractions [28]. Six peptides DVWY (H-Asp-Val-Trp-Tyr-OH), FDART (H-Phe-Asp-Ala-Arg-Thr-OH), FQ (H-Phe-Gln-OH), VAE (H-Val-Ala-Glu-OH), VVG (H-Val-Val-Gly-OH), and WTFR (H-Trp-Thr-Phe-Arg-OH) identified from buckwheat sprouts fermented with
Many health benefits of buckwheat are attributed to the high content of phenolic components and high antioxidant activity [18]. Whole grain buckwheat was found to contain 2–5 times more phenolic components than barley and oats, while the husk and bran of buckwheat have 2–7 times higher antioxidant activity compared to barley, triticale, and oats [32, 33]. The research by Begić et al. [34] showed that Tartary buckwheat contains about 20 times more total phenol content and that it shows antioxidant activity nine times higher than common buckwheat.
Among the polyphenolic components present in buckwheat, those from the group of flavonoids, and among them rutin, are the most important ones.
The presence and amount of flavonoids in buckwheat grain make it specific compared to cereals, which contain small amounts of flavonoids. This group of polyphenolic components is the basic antioxidant of buckwheat [35, 36]. Buckwheat is considered to be one of the best dietary sources of rutin [36]. The content and composition of flavonoids are different in different types of buckwheat. In general, the flavonoid content in
Flavonoids demonstrate a protective effect in lipid oxidation in vitro as “scavengers” of free radicals and metal chelators [39]. They generally occur as O-glycosides in which one or more hydroxyl groups are bound to sugars.
Six flavonoids were isolated and identified from whole buckwheat grains: rutin, quercetin, orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, and isovitexin. The presence of rutin and isovitexin was found in hulled grain while buckwheat husk contained all 6 flavonoids [40, 41]. Buckwheat is the only pseudocereal that contains rutin and is, therefore, a useful source of this flavonoid [25]. Except in buckwheat, rutin has not been detected in cereals and pseudocereals [41, 42]. Rutin (quercetin-3-O-β-rutinoside), a secondary metabolite present in buckwheat, is the best-known glycoside derived from flavonol quercetin. Buckwheat is considered the best source of dietary rutin. Buckwheat grains (groats and husk) and sprouts are important sources of rutin and their content depends on the type and conditions of growth [43, 44]. It is important to develop new well-adaptive varieties with a high content of rutin, and improved biological value of the proteins [45].
Tartary buckwheat groats contain more rutin—80.94 mg/g dry matter (DM) than common buckwheat groats—0.20 mg/g DM [46, 47] while Tartary buckwheat sprouts have 2,2 times more rutin than common buckwheat sprouts [48]. Li et al. [49] stated that Tartary buckwheat can contain up to 100 times more rutin than common buckwheat.
Rutin has attracted much attention mainly because of its many health benefits observed in vitro and in vivo: anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hypocholesterolemic, antiatherogenic, antiatherosclerotic, and anticancer ones [4, 12, 36, 50, 51, 52, 53] and its activity are related to antioxidant capacity [54]. Furthermore, rutin may be effective in preventing the toxic effects of methotrexate on the kidneys [55].
Rutin has relaxing effects on smooth muscles and is effective in preventing capillary apoplexy and retinal bleeding, lowers high blood pressure and shows antioxidant activity and lipid peroxidation activity. It also has lipid-lowering activity by reducing dietary cholesterol absorption, as well as reducing plasma and liver cholesterol [56, 57]. In addition, possibilities of rutin as a new strategy for the prevention of type 2 diabetes are noted [58]. Alkaline luminol chemiluminescence and electron spin resonance analysis revealed the formation of the rutin-ovalbumin complex which significantly increases the radical-binding activity in rutin. Rutin has also demonstrated antioxidant activity against hydroxyl radicals in a DNA protection test [59].
Quercetin (quercetin-3-ramnoside) is another glycoside present in buckwheat in concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 0.05% DM in Tartary and from 0.54 to 1.80% DM in common buckwheat [46, 60]. Isoquercetin (quercetin-3-glucoside) is present in buckwheat hypocotyl (1.4 μM/g DM) [61] and has been shown to exhibit antidiabetic and anticancer activity [36, 49, 62, 63]. Quercetin, an aglycone of rutin, is present in hulled grain (semolina) of buckwheat (0.001 mg/g DM) and husk (0.009–0.029 mg/g DM) in lower concentrations than rutin [18, 47]. Quercetin is the most studied flavonoid, primarily due to its pronounced antioxidant activity, as well as significant absorption in the digestive tract. It is predominantly in the form of glycoside as rutin (quercetin-3-O-beta-rutinoside). In addition to this, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside and quercetin 3-O-rutinoside-3’-O-β glucopyranoside have been found in buckwheat seeds [49, 64].
Three flavonoids from Tartary buckwheat bran: quercetin, isoquercetin and rutin were evaluated as R-glucosidase inhibitors (controlling blood glucose) using fluorescence spectroscopy and enzyme kinetics. The R-glucosidase activity was clearly influenced by extractives (mostly rutin) and their hydrolysis products (a mixture of quercetin, isoquercetin, and rutin) from buckwheat bran [65].
Recent research relating to the examination of the antiviral activity of rutin in the treatment of patients with COVID-19 symptoms have been topical [66, 67].
In addition to rutin, catechins, the antioxidant activity of which is higher than the antioxidant activity of rutin, were isolated from ethanol extracts of buckwheat groats. Four catechins were isolated and their structures were determined as: (−)-epicatechin, (+)-catechin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, (−)-epicatechin 3-O-p-hydroxybenzoate, and (−)-epicatechin 3-O-(3,4-di-O-methyl)gallate [68]. The following components from the catechin group were identified in buckwheat: catechin, epicatechin, catechin glucoside (A or B isomers), catechin gallate, epicatechin gallate, epicatechin-O-3,4-dimethylgallate, epiaphzelchin-(4─8)-epicatechin-3,4-O- dimethylgallate, while catechin-3,4-O- dimethylgallate was identified in thermally treated buckwheat and epiaphzelchin- (4─6) -epicatechin was identified in green buckwheat [69].
These ingredients in plant tissue are influenced by numerous environmental factors such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation, harvest time and damage caused by pests, and genetic and aging-related factors. Studies have shown significant positive correlations between the mean altitude of the growth site and the amount of individual phenolic antioxidants [70, 71]. Buckwheat, as a source of rutin, can be successfully grown in Mediterranean conditions, too [72]. Flavon-3-glycosides present in buckwheat (vitexin, isovitexin, orientin, and homoorientin), anthocyanin and proanthocyanin content [61] and the presence of squalene, epicatechin, and vitamin E [73] make buckwheat a good antioxidant source in the human diet.
Phenolic acids in buckwheat also contribute to its antioxidant activity. In the grain of different varieties of Tartary buckwheat, p-hydroxybenzoic, ferulic and protocatechuic stand out, and other acids, including p-coumaric, gallic, caffeic, vanillic, and syringic acid, were also detected [74]. Several phenolic acids have been described during the flowering of different varieties of buckwheat: chlorogenic, p-anisic, salicylic, and methoxycinnamic [75].
Buckwheat is also an important source of vitamins, especially those of the B group. The total content of B vitamins, including B1 (thiamine, 2.2–3.3 μg/g DM), B2 (riboflavin, 10.6 μg/g DM), B3 (niacin, 18 μg/g), B5 (pantothenic acid, 11 μg/g) and B6 (pyridoxine, 1.5 μg/g) is higher in Tartary buckwheat compared to common buckwheat. The levels of vitamin C indicated for it in the literature go as high as 50 μg/g DM while its content, as well as the total amount of vitamins B1 and B6, increases by germination of buckwheat and, consequently, the content of vitamin C in buckwheat sprouts reaches 250 μg/g DM [4, 54, 76, 77]. Vitamin B1 is found in thiamine-binding proteins of buckwheat grains, which, according to Li and Zhang [37] increases the availability of vitamin B1 and improves its stability during storage. The content of vitamin E (tocopherols) in buckwheat is higher compared to wheat, barley, oats, and rye [18]. The most common tocopherol in buckwheat is γ-tocopherol. In addition to γ-tocopherol, α- and δ-tocopherol have also been identified in buckwheat [78]. The concentration of total tocopherols in buckwheat grains ranges from 14.3 to 21.7 mg/kg [79]. Tocopherols, along with the other components mentioned above, make buckwheat a good antioxidant source in the human diet. Tocotrienols were not detected in buckwheat [80, 81], while Piironen et al. [82] identified traces of tocotrienols in whole buckwheat grains. High levels of vitamin E intake are associated with a reduction in cardiovascular disease, a reduction in the risk of Alzheimer’s disease, and an improvement in the immune system [73].
Squalene is an isoprenoid component that has six isoprene units and antioxidant activity and is widely produced in buckwheat plants. Squalene protects cells from radicals, strengthens the immune system, and reduces the risk of various types of cancer. There are some differences between buckwheat species, especially in the content of squalene and rutin [73].
Buckwheat grains contain a very rare D-
So far, several studies have described the role of D-
Buckwheat is also significant for its phytosterol content. Phytosterols present in buckwheat, although in low concentrations, also show a positive effect in lowering blood cholesterol levels. In addition, phytosterol intake significantly reduces in vivo cholesterol absorption. Buckwheat phytosterols are present throughout the grain, but their content varies by grain parts [37]. The most abundant phytosterol in buckwheat flour is β-sitosterol (0.86 mg/g DM) and makes up about 70% of total sterols, followed by campesterol (0.11 mg/g DM) and stigmasterol (0.02 mg/g DM) [94].
According to the research of Dziedzic et al. [95]. the sterols content in Tartary buckwheat whole grains was 15,398 mg/kg of lipids and the most prevalent was the β-sitosterol (10,944 mg/kg of lipids).
D-fagomin is a minor component from the group of iminosugars detected in the dehulled grain of common buckwheat which shows a glucose-lowering effect [96, 97].
Similar to D-fagomin, other imino sugars such as 1-deoxynojirimycin (DNJ) are intestinal glucosidase inhibitors, associated with a reduced risk of developing insulin resistance, gaining weight, and suffering from excess potentially pathogenic bacteria [97, 98]. Anthraquinone emodin is present in buckwheat concentrations between 1.72 and 2.71 mg/kg DM [99]. Due to the wide range of biological activities that emodin exhibits, it can be considered an important bioactive factor in buckwheat [100].
Along with vitamins, other components were detected, such as glutathione (1.10 mmol/g DM in buckwheat groats), phytic acid (35–38 mg/g DM in bran), carotenoids (2.10 mg/g DM in grain), and melatonin (470 pg/g DM in groats). These components may contribute to the antioxidant activity of buckwheat [4, 47].
Both types of buckwheat, common and Tartary, have a high tannin content (1.76 and 1.54%). Tannins isolated from buckwheat showed a relatively high level of activity against
It has also been found that γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and 2″-hydroxynicothianamine (2HN) serve as functional components in buckwheat. Grains and sprouts contain GABA, while 2HN was identified in flour. Literature states that these components lower blood pressure in humans and inhibit the activity of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) [102, 103, 104]. Suzuki et al. [105] quantified GABA and 2HN concentrations in common and Tartary buckwheat leaves 14, 28, and 42 days after sowing (DAS). The concentration of GABA reached a peak at 42 DAS, while the concentration of 2HN decreased with the age of the plant.
It is well known that processing can cause chemical changes in food products. Therefore, it is important to consider the effects on bioactive components in buckwheat. Today, there are several technological processes related to buckwheat, which will be presented below.
Milling is one of the technological processes that is inevitable during the processing of buckwheat into flour. During the processing of buckwheat grains into white flour, the husk and outer layers are separated, which lowers the ratio of fibers, minerals, and polyphenolic components.
Hung and Morita [106] explored the possibility of improving the functionality of buckwheat flour by successively milling buckwheat and they found that in 16 different fractions of flour the content of ferulic acid and rutin increases with an increased ratio of outer grain layers. The same authors found that the antiradical activity on DPPH extracts of free and bound polyphenolic components of buckwheat, the fraction of the successive milling of buckwheat is highest for fractions containing external grain parts. Additionally, better antiradical activity on DPPH was registered for extracts of free polyphenolic components compared to extracts of bound polyphenolic components in buckwheat grain.
Inglett et al. [107] examined the antioxidant activity of ethanolic extracts of four types of commercial buckwheat flour and found the highest antiradical activity on DPPH in buckwheat flour containing a high ratio of husk and aleurone layer, while the lowest antiradical activity was registered in white flour consisting exclusively of the endosperm. The highest content of total polyphenolic components and total flavonoids was registered in whole buckwheat flour. Gallardo et al. [108] established that the content of rutin in buckwheat flour is 0.7 mg/100 g and 11.2 mg/100 g in buckwheat husk.
A recent study found that the buckwheat protein contents decreased from the exterior to the interior parts of the groats [109]. Significantly higher content of amino acids, fatty acids, polyphenols, and flavonoids was found in the bran of Tartary buckwheat, compared to the flour [110].
It should be noted that the milling conditions should be adapted to the type of buckwheat. The granulation composition of common and Tartary buckwheat flour differed under the same milling conditions and affected the physical characteristics of the obtained flour fractions. Tartary buckwheat flour contained larger fractions compared to common buckwheat flour under the same milling conditions [111]. By adjusting the grinding and knowing the content of different components in the fractions of Tartary buckwheat, it is possible to obtain products of different nutritional value [45, 111].
The number of studies researching the effects of heat treatment on buckwheat foods has increased significantly. Today, many new thermal techniques are used in the food industry to improve the quality of functional buckwheat food. The extrusion process has become important in the production of pasta, ready-to-eat cereals, snacks, animal feeds, and textured plant proteins. Microwave heating has gained popularity in food processing due to the ability of this technique to achieve high heating rates, significantly reduce cooking time, provide more uniform heating and safe handling. This technique could change the taste and nutritional properties of food to a lesser extent, as opposed to conventional heating during the cooking process [112]. However, data on the effects of heat treatments on the antioxidant capacity of buckwheat and its products are still limited. In general, most studies are aimed at determining the effect of heat treatment on the content of total phenols and flavonoids due to their role in the management of human health and diseases.
It was established that the heat treatment of buckwheat causes changes in its chemical composition and, above all, that it affects the functional properties of the selected bioactive components. The results published so far on the effects of the heat treatment on buckwheat grain and processed flour are contradictory.
One of the first studies was conducted by Dietrych-Szostak and Oleszek [40] who examined the effect of heat processing on flavonoid content in hulled grains and buckwheat husks by removing the husk using heat. Removing the husk from buckwheat grain by applying heat treatment resulted in a product that was both visually and chemically different. The peeling process removed primarily the multitude of tannins and crude fibers that are naturally present in the husk. As for the concentration of total flavonoids, dehulling process with different temperature treatments caused a drastic reduction of the total flavonoid concentration in the grain (by 75% of the control) and smaller but significant (15–20%) reduction in the hulls.
Kreft et al. [12] compared the content of rutin in buckwheat products with its content in the raw materials used to obtain these products. Noodles prepared with 70% of integral buckwheat flour contained much less rutin (78 mg/kg DM) compared to the integral buckwheat flour (218 mg/kg DM) out of which they were produced. As a possible explanation for this reduction in rutin content in the product, the authors cited the presence and activity of an enzyme that degrades rutin, flavonol 3-glucosidase, during dough mixing. The presence of this enzyme in buckwheat was confirmed by Suzuki et al. [113]. In raw (uncooked) hulled buckwheat grain (raw buckwheat semolina) the rutin content was 230 mg/kg DM, while in pre-cooked hulled buckwheat grain its content was 88 mg/kg DM. The aforementioned authors explained the established reduction of rutin content in hulled buckwheat grain due to hydrothermal treatment by possible degradation of rutin molecules or its combination with some other molecules, in such a way that it becomes insoluble in the applied solvent. A similar reduction in rutin content was observed during bread production in different combinations of wheat and Tartary buckwheat flour (100:0; 70:30; 50:50; and 0:100) where the effect of making bread and baking on the content of rutin, quercetin, and polyphenols and the antioxidant activity of said loaves was examined. After baking, rutin (0.47 mg/g) was present in bread which is made of 100% Tartary buckwheat flour, together with quercetin (4.83 mg/g). The dough that this bread was made of contained a lower concentration of rutin and greater concentration of quercetin compared to flour used to prepare it; wherein 0.0175 mmol of rutin degraded with the addition of water and yeast to Tartary buckwheat flour, and 0.0149 mmol of quercetin was obtained at the same time. This indicates that 85% of the rutin was converted to quercetin by adding water and yeast to the flour [114].
Degradation of rutin can be the result of activities of the rutin-degrading enzyme found in buckwheat. This enzyme is stable and active at pH 5–7 and below 40°C. Based on the comparison of the level of concentration, it appears that quercetin is more stable compared to rutin in the process of proofing and baking bread. There were no significant differences in the content of rutin and quercetin between the bread crumb and crust. Additionally, the results showed a reduction in the total polyphenol content in all samples of bread as a result of the heat treatment in the baking process [112].
The obtained results were consistent with the results of the authors Alvarez-Jubete et al. [21] which showed a significant decrease in the concentration of total polyphenols, particularly phenolic acids in bread made of common buckwheat flour (0.65 mg GAE/g) compared to the concentrations of these components in buckwheat grain (3.23 mg GAE/g). During the process of mixing and proofing the bread, there was a modest increase in the concentration of total polyphenols in bread samples made with 100% wheat flour and 100% Tartary buckwheat flour, and a slight reduction in the other samples, containing a combination of both kinds of flour (70:30 and 50:50).
Reductions in polyphenol content and antioxidant activity were also reported during baking of bread samples prepared in different combinations (90:10; 80:20; and 70:30) of rice and buckwheat flour (wholemeal and white) relative to their content in flours. It was noticed that the baking process resulted in a higher percentage of reduction in total polyphenols in bread samples made white buckwheat flour, while only minor or insignificant changes were observed in lower percentages (10 and 20%) in samples with wholemeal buckwheat flour, and only the sample with 30% of wholemeal buckwheat flour had a decrease of about 17%. In addition, the decrease in antioxidant activity was more pronounced in bread samples prepared with white buckwheat flour. During baking, there was a loss in rutin content in bread samples relative to its assumed (calculated) content, and this loss increased with increasing the proportion of buckwheat flour, both types (wholemeal and white), in the range of 4.57–40.4%. The opposite trend was observed in the quercetin content, which increased from 1.5 to 7 times, probably due to the hydrolysis of rutin into quercetin [115].
Similar results were shown in bread samples produced with the addition of buckwheat in the amount of 15 g/100 g and 30 g/100 g. A decrease in the content of total phenols, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity in bread samples relative to their content in flour was found. The content of total flavonoids in bread samples was 2 to 4 times lower compared to its content in flour [116].
The thermal treatment of Tartary buckwheat bran and flour significantly reduced the content of fatty acids, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. As for the content of amino acids and total flavonoids, their content in bran after heat treatment decreased, while increased in the flour of Tartary buckwheat [110].
In addition to bread and cakes, a decrease in the content of bioactive components was observed in the production and cooking of other products with the addition of buckwheat such as spaghetti, pasta, noodles, etc. A decrease in the content of free (about 74.5%) and bound (about 80%) phenolic components “farm to table”, i.e., from flour to cooked spaghetti with buckwheat was found. Regarding the content of total phenolic components, the spaghetti production process (mixing, extrusion, and drying) caused a loss of 45.9%, which the authors explain by the increase in temperature during the extrusion process and the high temperature (about 95°C) reached during drying. Further degradation of phenolic components was found after cooking spaghetti. The boiling process caused the degradation of 52.9% of the total phenolic components. This degradation was significantly different (p < 0.05) compared to post-production degradation. This effect can be attributed to the solubility of phenolic components in boiled water. Of the total phenolic components that were present in the spaghetti after the drying process, 11.6% were dissolved in water after cooking [117].
Biney and Beta [118] also reported that the production and cooking process led to a reduction in phenol content and antioxidant activity in spaghetti enriched with buckwheat flour and bran. The production process did not cause statistically (p < 0.05) significant changes in the content of total phenols between flour mixtures and uncooked products. However, cooking significantly reduced total phenols in all spaghetti samples. Although the addition of buckwheat flour resulted in a significantly higher content of these components in all spaghetti samples, the average percentage of decrease in total cooking phenols due to cooking was higher in samples containing buckwheat flour or bran, compared to control samples prepared from semolina. The production and cooking process also led to a significant reduction in the content of rutin and total flavonoids in spaghetti samples. The higher the proportion of buckwheat in the spaghetti formulation, the greater the losses in rutin content.
The results of similar research (pasta enriched with buckwheat flour in the amount of 20%) showed a reduction of about 44% of total phenolic components after cooking compared to their content in pasta after drying; 8.37% of total phenols from dried pasta was present in the water in which it was boiled, and 35.63% was degraded. The cooking process reduced the rutin content by about 8.50%. During cooking, rutin was converted from its bound form to quercetin, which is shown in the increase of quercetin content by about 20%. The results also showed that catechin showed a minimum tolerance to the cooking process, with a loss of about 57% [119].
Furthermore, the autoclaving of buckwheat grains caused a decrease in free and an increase in bound phenolic forms in flour. Similarly, this was found in noodles produced by adding this flour to the formulation with wheat flour, compared to the content of these components in noodles produced in the same way with flour obtained from untreated buckwheat grains. Although autoclaving caused an initial reduction in rutin in treated grain flours, it prevented further degradation and conversion of rutin to quercetin in uncooked and cooked samples obtained from these flours, causing a possible improvement in the sensory acceptability of noodles. The loss of phenolic components in noodle samples with added buckwheat flour during cooking (48.1–61.1%) was at the same level as in the control sample with wheat flour only, indicating that buckwheat-containing pasta can maintain the quality during cooking [120].
Cho and Lee [121] examined the thermal stability of rutin in wheat instant fried noodles fortified with rutin-enriched material (REM) from buckwheat milling fractions. The noodles were fried at different temperatures (150, 170, and 190°C) during different periods of time (1, 2, and 3 minutes). Also, noodles were placed in boiling water at different periods (0, 3, and 6 minutes) to examine the effect of cooking on rutin content. The results showed that different temperatures and frying times did not negatively affect the rutin content, while a marked loss of rutin was observed after cooking the noodles.
However, the results of another study showed a reduction in bioactive components in buckwheat products during various heat treatment processes and reported an increase in the total antioxidant activity in buckwheat sprouts and shoots after autoclaving treatment. Furthermore, an increase of 20% and a reduction of 7% of total phenols were observed in buckwheat sprouts and shoot respectively [122].
Contradictory results were also found by Zieliński et al. [123] during extrusion of buckwheat, which showed a decrease in antioxidant capacity accompanied by a reduction in rutin and isovitexin, but at the same time an increase in free phenolic acids and those freed from ester bonds. The authors stated that the reported increase in phenolic acids could be due to the increased release of these bioactive components from the matrix, making them available for extraction. The same authors report that, although the extrusion caused a marked reduction in antioxidant content in hulled buckwheat grain, the amount of bioactive component in hulled buckwheat grain after thermal treatment was still significant, resulting in a decrease in antioxidant activity of only 10%.
Hes et al. [124] also reported contradictory results when testing the impact of cooking in water on the antioxidant properties and dietary fiber of hulled buckwheat grain. It was shown that cooking in water for 30 minutes in a ratio of 2:1 (water: grain) has no negative effects on the nutritional characteristics of the hulled buckwheat grain. Extracts of cooked hulled grain showed a significantly higher content of polyphenols and total dietary fiber compared to raw grain. The detected higher content of polyphenols in cooked hulled grain is explained by the authors as a result of their partial release from the bound form of the protein as a result of cooking. Additionally, phenols can also be associated with other components such as carbohydrates. In terms of individual phenolic components, a significantly higher content of catechin particularly stands out, and, in contrast to that, a considerably lower content of p-coumaric acid in the extracts of cooked buckwheat grain compared to the extracts of the raw buckwheat grain. Cooking did not cause any changes in rutin content.
It has been recognized that the possible beneficial effects of phytochemicals present in buckwheat may be related to the inherent antioxidant capacity of these components. Therefore, during the last decade, the relationship between antioxidant capacity and these components after heat treatment has been exposed. The antioxidant capacity of buckwheat products is linked to flavonoid concentrations after hydrothermal treatment [125]. Kreft et al. [12] described significant correlations between rutin content and antioxidant activity of buckwheat grain and buckwheat food products. Chlopicka et al. [116] found positive and significant correlations between total phenols and antioxidant activity in buckwheat bread samples, as well as between total phenols and antioxidant activity of buckwheat bread samples, and, finally, between antioxidant activities themselves. Zhang et al. [126] reported that the baking, heating under steam pressure, and microwave heating of integral buckwheat flour had a statistically significant (P < 0.05) effect on the decrease in total flavonoids and antioxidant activity of flour, while the decrease in total phenols in buckwheat flour was less pronounced for all three applied treatments. As a possible explanation, the authors cited the creation of Maillard reaction products, which react with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, resulting in masking the actual decrease in polyphenol content.
Similar conclusions regarding the formation of Maillard reaction products were reached by the authors Constantini et al. [127] during the production of bread with the addition of Tartary buckwheat flour, where a loss in the total antioxidant capacity and content of total polyphenols and flavonoids was observed, relative to their values in flour mixtures. The aforementioned authors pointed out that it is possible that the real reduction is greater than what was found in this study. As an explanation, they stated that heat treatment of cereals and pseudocereals, such as during baking, can also result in the synthesis of substances with antioxidant properties, including certain products of the Maillard reaction that occur in the crust of bread. These syntheses can mask the actual decrease in the content of total phenols and flavonoids (which are able to react with Folin-Ciocalteu reagent), as well as any loss in total antioxidant capacity.
Aside from phenols, other components, such as proteins, appear to be involved in the formation of the antioxidant activity of buckwheat products. The frying hulled buckwheat grain, in addition to reducing antioxidant activity, also resulted in a decrease in protein content and quality, while heat treatment did not show an effect on whole grain proteins [125]. In addition, during thermal treatment, Maillard components are generated due to a chemical reaction between the free amino groups of lysine and the carbonyl groups of reducing sugars [128]. It was observed the formation of Maillard products was caused by heat treatment of both whole and hulled buckwheat grains. Although Maillard components may be harmful to health, they may contribute to an increase in antioxidant activity, masking the actual decrease in total phenolic components, as highlighted in the above studies [125, 126, 127]. In addition, it has been suggested that antioxidant capacity may increase as a result of dissociation (separation) of phenolic forms and release of phenols bound to cell walls due to heat treatment followed by polymerization/oxidation of phenolic constituents or by-product generation [122].
The influence of baking on the content of tocopherols in buckwheat bread was investigated. Vitamin E loss was found to be about 30%. Smaller losses were observed in bread samples of 100% buckwheat flour compared to samples in which the share of buckwheat flour was 50% [81]. A significant reduction in vitamin E content (about 63%) in buckwheat was also found during the extrusion process [123].
The importance of common and Tartary buckwheat is generally recognized. However, one should also keep in mind some disadvantages of their application in the bakery in terms of sensory impression. This primarily refers to the particle size and the proportion of bran that can negatively affect the rheological properties of the dough and result in an inappropriate texture of bakery products. In addition, the finished products with Tatary buckwheat may appear a slightly bitter taste [6].
Based on all of the above, it is indicative that the contradictory results obtained so far greatly emphasize the importance of determining the exact composition and ratio of bioactive components. In addition, more studies are needed to identify the effect of heat treatment on the functional components, including proteins and phenolic components, of buckwheat products, in order to ultimately obtain buckwheat of consumption quality. Therefore, processing conditions, such as time and temperature, need to be optimized to preserve the functionality of bioactive components.
High pressure has been shown to be a viable alternative to heat treatment, with no adverse effects such as forming an off flavor, loss of vitamins and phytochemical properties, and discoloration [129]. The effect of high hydrostatic pressure treatment (200 MPa at 2, 4, and 9 minutes) on total antioxidant capacity (TAC), reducing capacity (RC), and rutin content of raw and roasted buckwheat groats were examined. After high-pressure treatment, the content of TAC and rutin differed in the case of raw and fried semolina. The TAC of raw and fried semolina subjected to high-pressure treatment was 16–20% and 12.5–17% lower, respectively, compared to the TAC of untreated semolina. Hydrophilic antioxidants were the main components contributing to the TAC of raw and fried semolina subjected to high-pressure treatment. RC decreased in the case of raw buckwheat (raw semolina), while the rutin content dropped in a shorter time compared to fried semolina. In contrast, overpressure in fried semolina increased the RC formed by hydrophilic antioxidants by 18% when measured by cyclic voltammetry on average and decreased the concentration of rutin after treatment [130].
The results of Zhou et al. [131] suggested that treatment under high pressure at 45 °C improves the nutritional properties of buckwheat compared to untreated and treated under high pressure at room temperature.
Radiation is a method of treating food to make it safer to eat and to extend its shelf life. Traditionally, this process is used to control surface microorganisms on vegetables and fruits without affecting nutritional quality. Hayashi et al. [132] reduced the microbial load to a lower level by exposing buckwheat grains to soft-electrons without affecting their quality. Chun and Song [133] conducted a study in which aqueous chlorine dioxide, fumaric acid, modified packaging atmosphere enriched with CO2, and ultraviolet radiation (UV) were combined in the treatment of buckwheat sprouts to improve microbiological quality. A decrease in total aerobic bacteria, yeasts and moulds, and enterobacteria to low levels was observed without affecting sensory quality. However, after the treatment, there was an increase in the concentration of rutin. A comparative study by Orsák et al. [134] studied the effects of UV, microwave, and γ-radiation on three buckwheat samples. Different effects were observed depending on the radiation system and the applied dose on the content of polyphenols and rutin. In addition, it has been described that the content of rutin and flavone C-glycosides is improved in sprouts after exposure to LED (light-emitting diodes) [135].
Therefore, radiation could be offered as a way to increase the half-life of food, maintain sensory quality, improve microbiological quality and increase nutritional value due to bioactive components in buckwheat products. Although public knowledge about radiation remains limited, interest in buying “safe—radiation-enhanced food” is increasing, especially after obtaining information about the potential benefits and risks.
A detailed review of the literature showed that the data on the stability of the most important bioactive components in all types of buckwheat products (bakery and others) during storage is quite limited. Unlike stability during processing, which can still be stated to have been the subject of a significant number of studies in recent years, and that the number of studies is constantly increasing, stability during storage is still almost unexplored. One of the studies that could be related to a certain extent to the mentioned topic is the one conducted by the authors Cho and Lee [121].
Namely, these authors established experimental extraction procedures for preparing rutin-enriched material (REM) from buckwheat milling fractions. Then the REM was used for the fortification of wheat instant fried noodles with rutin. After frying, the noodle samples were stored for 14 days at 60°C and its peroxide value was measured every other day in order to examine the effect of REM on the oxidative stability of the noodles. The monitoring showed that the peroxide number of noodle samples tended to increase with increasing storage time. However, it was noted that the rate of increase in peroxide value was markedly lower in noodle samples with incorporated REM compared to the control sample which did not contain REM. This indicates that the oxidizing improvement of instant fried noodles in storage was reduced using REM. These results can be expected from the high level of rutin in REM, since rutin has strong antioxidant activity [32].
Tabaković et al. [136] found that the most suitable way to store buckwheat seeds for a long period is paper material in order to retain their physiological and morphological properties to the greatest extent.
Buckwheat, a pseudocereal belonging to the
When it comes to processing, there are several processes associated with buckwheat, the first and inevitable one being the milling process. Milling is the processing (conversion) of buckwheat grains into flour, the primary raw material for the production of bakery products. During the processing of buckwheat grains into white flour, the husk and outer layers are separated, which removes the ratio of fibers, minerals, and polyphenolic components. Then there is the process of heat treatment, and baking, which belongs to the category of heat treatment, is also inevitable during the production of bakery products. In general, when it comes to the effects of heat treatment on bioactive components in buckwheat, a considerable amount of research has been conducted so far. However, the results of the conducted studies are contradictory. Although in most cases heat treatment resulted in a decrease in bioactive components, on the other hand, there are studies in which heat treatment did not have a significant effect on bioactive components. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct more studies with an emphasis on optimizing the conditions of heat treatment in order to ultimately obtain buckwheat and buckwheat-based products of appropriate quality for use. Recently, high-pressure treatments and the application of radiation are becoming increasingly important. However, although knowledge about radiation remains limited, there is an increased interest in buying “safe—radiation-enhanced food”, especially after obtaining information about the potential benefits and risks.
Although a considerable number of studies have been conducted on the effects of processing, and primarily on the effects of heat treatment, there are still significant gaps in this area. They are primarily related to the fact that most of the conducted studies are aimed at determining the effects of processing on the content of phenolic components, especially flavonoids, due to their recognized role in health benefits. Therefore more research that focuses on the effects of processing on all other bioactive components in buckwheat is needed in the future.
When it comes to the effects of storage, this topic is still almost unexplored. A review of the literature revealed that there is a small number of studies dealing with this topic, and therefore further research is needed to identify the effect of storage on bioactive components of buckwheat products, and ultimately to preserve their quality for as long as possible.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
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\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
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\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
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\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
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\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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A new type of memristors with a floating photogate based on biocompatible graphene and other 2D crystals with extremely low power consumption and footprint is considered. The photocatalytic oxidation of graphene is proposed as an effective method of creating synapse-like 2D memristive devices with photoresistive switching for nonvolatile electronic memory of ultrahigh density. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. 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Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. 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Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"