Calculated and experimental data on the migration of melted Al-Si inclusions in polycrystalline aluminum and single crystalline silicon.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3092",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Anopheles mosquitoes - New insights into malaria vectors",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Anopheles mosquitoes are highly important insects due to their involvement in the transmission of human malaria and its devastating consequences in endemic countries worldwide. In 2010 alone, malaria was responsible for an estimated 660,000 deaths. As the study of Anopheles species and populations is a key element for reaching the goal of malaria elimination, an enormous amount of information has accumulated over the past century, and together in recent decades with the advent of novel technologies the acquisition of new knowledge has accelerated even further. The originality of this book is to offer the latest compilation on various research, new concepts, paradigms and innovative approaches for the control of anophelines using state-of-the-art methodologies and analysis. The 24 chapters, written by internationally recognized experts from 5 continents, cover the rich landscape for the understanding of Anopheles mosquitoes and the development of more effective weapons to control the vector of malaria.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1188-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4244-7",doi:"10.5772/3392",price:169,priceEur:185,priceUsd:219,slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",numberOfPages:830,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",publishedDate:"July 24th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",numberOfDownloads:91186,numberOfWosCitations:545,numberOfCrossrefCitations:323,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:31,numberOfDimensionsCitations:760,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:39,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1628,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 7th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 28th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 1st 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 27th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",middleName:null,surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/50017/images/3936_n.png",biography:"Sylvie Manguin is a Full Research Professor at the Institute of Research for Development (IRD), based at the University of Montpellier, France. She is a leading medical entomologist and academician researcher whose main interest concerns mosquitoes and vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue. She has developed studies on Anopheles mosquitoes from three continents (Asia, Africa, Americas) including molecular species identification, population genetics, phylogenetic, vectorial capacities, spatial surveillance, midgut microbiota biodiversity, salivary immunological markers and vector control approaches. She is the author of 90 indexed publications, six book chapters, three books including “Anopheles mosquitoes: New insights into malaria vectors” for which she is the Editor (InTech Open Access) and “Biodiversity of malaria in the World” (John Libbey Ed.), respectively published in 2013 and 2008. She is also the Secretary General of the International Federation of Tropical Medicine (IFTM) http://www.iftm-hp.org/board.html, member of the Editorial Boards of the Malaria Journal and Acta Tropica and she serves as reviewer in several international institutions and more than 20 scientific journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Institut de Recherche pour le Développement",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"41407",title:"The Phylogeny and Classification of Anopheles",doi:"10.5772/54695",slug:"the-phylogeny-and-classification-of-anopheles",totalDownloads:4860,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:69,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ralph E. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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In this case, as is known [4, 5], the near-contact regions and metal-semiconductor contacts may heat up to temperatures over the melting points for eutectics of relatively fusible systems (Al-Si, Ag-Si, Au-Si; the melting point for Au-Si eutectic
To illustrate, during operation of a thermoelectric generator for automobile internal-combustion engines, certain modules or their parts may be heated for a short time to temperatures over 330°C [6]. The result can be fusion of structure fragments and their failure. And this happens despite equalizing of temperature field (provided with the construction of heat-exchange apparatus) at the hot side of thermoelectric modules [6]. Obviously, failure of electric contact in a thermoelectric module because of overheating will lead to failure of the whole system, thus considerably reducing the efficiency of thermoelectric generator.
During operation of such devices, a direct electric current consumed by the resistive load is flowing through each module. At overheating and beginning of fusion, the current flows through the liquid phase-crystal contact. This makes it necessary to study the electromigration processes at the semiconductor surface and in the bulk involving melt regions that are proceeding under the action of direct and pulse currents. In those cases, migration of the produced liquid phase in electric field is possible in the system studied. The field of crystal structural nonuniformity (gradient of dislocation density) also can promote migration of the melt regions [7, 8]. These are just the above factors that cause the interest of researchers in the electromigration processes at the semiconductor surface and in the bulk involving melt regions [9].
As a rule, migration of liquid inclusions in semiconductors is related to transfer of matrix atoms from one inclusion boundary to another through the inclusion itself. An inclusion migrates because the matrix atoms are dissolving at the forward inclusion wall, then they are diffusing through the inclusion and at last become deposited onto the matrix at the back wall, with formation of new atomic layers. In the case of liquid inclusions, solubility of matrix atoms in the inclusion and the coefficient of diffusion of these atoms in the inclusion bulk are sufficiently high, so such a migration mechanism is crucial [10, 11].
With such a mechanism, flowing of electric current through the liquid phase-crystal contact is accompanied by Peltier heat release at the one interphase boundary and absorption at the other interphase boundary:
When determining the predominant role of the above mechanisms, one should note that for inclusions of sizes
(
A qualitative experimental confirmation of this statement was made for elementary semiconductors of
To determine the nature of mass transfer, let us assess the path velocity in accordance with the known mechanisms [12].
In the case of a vacancion mechanism of inclusion transfer, a vacancy current in the matrix creates a counter current and an equal current of matrix atoms. In this case, the speed of inclusion migration,
Here,
The effective charge of the atoms in a semiconductor matrix is known to be negative. This makes the activated atoms of the semiconductors move toward the anode, while vacancies move toward the cathode. By occupying vacancies at the leading edge, atoms of inclusions ensure that the edge is pushed toward the positive electrode. Therefore, inclusions should be displaced against the electric field lines, a prediction that is inconsistent with the experimental results. In addition, the assessed velocity,
As the molten zones are displaced, surface diffusion [12] is visible only for low-conductivity inclusions. Its importance obviously increases at low temperatures, when the surface/bulk diffusion ratio is high. The velocity,
where
The movement of inclusions in the electric field associated with the current of matrix atoms in bulk inclusions can be rather fast if the melted material is a conductor. A theoretical estimate of
When
From this point onward,
The theoretical estimates,
Therefore, by analyzing the movement of secondary phases in the bulk semiconductor (Figure 1), we take into account the fact that movement is performed not only by means of electric transport but also under the influence of thermoelectric phenomena (the Peltier effect) at the interface between the liquid inclusion and solid phase [14–16].
Dimensional dependence of migration of Al-Si inclusions in the bulk of single crystalline silicon at
If targeted migration is determined via dissolution-crystallization at the phase interfaces (kinetic control
In the case of diffusion control (
where
The experiments were performed in a vacuum chamber for silicon (
(a) Visual appearance of samples and (b) annealing configuration: 1—electrodes; 2—graphite interlayers; 3—samples; 4—thermocouple; 5—quartz-based resistive furnace; 6—metal film.
At migration in the bulk, an aluminum plate (mass of 0.6–0.9 mg) was put between the {111} planes of two specimens. Then they were heated up to a temperature close to the experiment one (
In the course of experiment performance, the temperature of the specimen was determined either using the thermocouple method or from the specimen luminosity. In the latter case, the temperature regimes in the experiments were registered with a pregraduated photocell located on one of the eyepieces of a high temperature microscope. The temperature measurement error was not more than ±10%. The distribution of temperature
Schematic of migration of melt region: 1—semiconductor matrix; 2—melt inclusion. Distribution of temperature
An occurrence of melt regions in the silicon matrix bulk at stationary electric annealing is related to formation of an alloy between an Al film and Si single crystal. This mechanism obeys the reaction-diffusion law: a new phase is formed that was not found before interaction between components. Its growing is given by the following expression [15]:
Here
An analysis of numerous experimental data obtained for the Al-Si system showed that, in the course of migration, melt inclusions are faceted by specific crystallographic planes that shape inclusions into a distinguishing feature (Figure 4). In this case, the electric current flowing through the inclusion does not distort the form of drifting regions.
A pattern of Al-Si inclusion in single crystalline silicon. The section plane: ⊥(111). Magnification: ×200.
To determine crystallographic indices of the faceting planes at migration of the Al-Si system, the equation of structural crystallography for a cubic lattice [12] was used:
Here φ is the angle between the planes;
The inclusion size and depth of inclusion penetration in the matrix from the starting position were determined by sequential removal of
The typical results of investigations are presented in Figure 4. As before [10, 11, 14], the dimensional dependence of migration velocity is linear. To identify the origin of driving forces that determine inclusion migration in electric field in the case of predominance of transfer processes in inclusion bulk, let us use Eq. (7).
For a stationary electric annealing (1, Figure 4), Eq. (7) agrees fully with experiment if
Indeed, at
So, migration of inclusions at stationary electric annealing of Si crystals is determined by heat release at the interphase boundaries that ensures migration of inclusions toward the negative electrode. Electromigration produces the opposite gradient, which decreases the resulting inclusion velocity. The smaller the length of electric current pulses is, the weaker is their effect on reduction of the contribution from electromigration to the resulting inclusion velocity. This shows itself most clearly at pulse duration
The crystallization of molten inclusions in a semiconductor is accompanied by active formation of defects, namely dislocations. The results of independent research (Figure 5) and our studies (Figure 6) both indicate the formation of dislocations during the crystallization of the molten zone near the crystallization front.
Diagram showing liquid-drop transformation into a dislocation [
(a) photo of the surface of the polished section containing the Al-Si inclusion in silicon and (b) distribution of dislocation etch pits around the inclusion after four hours of annealing at
During the crystallization of single silicon crystals, the area occupied by the drop will contain approximately 10% of the extrinsic stacking (interstitial) atoms because of the higher (approximately ~10%) density of liquid silicon compared with a single crystal [19]. At a certain drop size, extrinsic stacking atoms may transform into a dislocation loop (Figure 6).
The shape of second-phase inclusions depends not only on the crystallographic properties of the matrix but also on the reactivity of the melt. If there is an impurity near the drop, it will diffuse into the liquid and dissolve within it because of the higher solubility of impurities in a liquid phase. In this case, the infrared light-absorption coefficient will increase and the molten zone will be stabilized.
In this context, the present investigation was aimed at an experimental study difference of the electromigration of melted Al-Si inclusions in silicon and aluminum crystals.
The experiments were performed in a setup that is schematically depicted in Figure 7. The samples had the form of silicon bars (4 × 4 × 15 mm;
Micrographs showing Al-Si inclusions observed after electroannealing (
For the formation of melted Al-Si inclusions in aluminum, particles of highohmic silicon with diameters of ~300–500 μm were placed into preliminarily made depressions on the edge surface of one aluminum cylinder. Then, the aluminum cylinders were matched with their edges, placed inside the quartz furnace tube (with a diameter of 5 mm), and pressed between the current carrying electrodes with graphite spacers. At temperatures above the eutectic, the components exhibited contact melting and formed melted film zones, which rapidly separated into separate drops (inclusions) with dimensions of 20–350 μm. These inclusions were always driven by the current (
It was established that the formation of inclusions from a liquid film in silicon is accomplished during a 5–10 μm penetration of the melt into the crystal matrix volume, while in aluminum this process was accomplished within a 30–50μm thick layer. Figure 8 shows micrographs of drifting Al-Si inclusions as observed after the electroannealing and crystallization.
Plots of the specific migration velocity
Figure 8 shows the typical results as represented by the empirical plot of
where
No | Parameter | Units | Temperature, K | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1043 | 893 | |||
1. | Matrix material | – | Silicon | Aluminum |
2. | Melt composition | CSi\\CAl, at% | 76\\24 | 10\\90 |
3. | m3/(A⋅s) | 27.4 | 1.7 | |
4. | m2/(A⋅s) | −2.4 × 10−9 | 2.2 × 10−12 | |
5. | Ω⋅m | 36 | 4.5 | |
6. | кg/mol | 27 | 27 | |
7. | m3/mol | 10.9 | 11.2 | |
8. | J/m3 | 3.9 | 1.0 | |
9. | λ | W/(m⋅К) | 7.1 | 48 |
10. | μm | 200 | 200 | |
11. | 1/m3 | 5.5 | 5.4 | |
12. | m2/s | 6.1 | 2.8 | |
13. | – | −1.1 | −1.0 | |
14. | V | 230 | −8.7 |
Calculated and experimental data on the migration of melted Al-Si inclusions in polycrystalline aluminum and single crystalline silicon.
It was previously demonstrated that the transport of liquid inclusions in these systems is driven by two competitive mechanisms: thermoelectric phenomena (Peltier heat evolution) at interphase boundaries and electric field induced redistribution of components dependent on their effective atomic charges in the melt. The specific migration velocity
We have described the migration of melted Al-Si inclusions in silicon and aluminum taking into account the condition βδ >
An analysis of the obtained results allows us to ascertain that the electromigration of melted Al-Si zones in silicon, similar to the analogous processes in other semiconductors [8–11, 17, 18], is determined by the electromigration of melt components in the volume of inclusion and by the thermoelectric phenomena at interphase boundaries. The negative value of the effective charge on semiconductor atoms in the melt is indicative of their directed transport to the anode. This migration results in silicon depletion of the melt in the diffusion layer of the front part of the inclusion and silicon enrichment of the boundary layer in the trailing part of the melted zone. Accordingly, the electromigration favors the displacement of inclusions toward the negative electrode. An important feature of the obtained results (Figure 8, curve 1) is a clear manifestation of the mutually compensating contributions due to the
As for aluminum, the size dependence of the specific migration velocity in this system is much less pronounced as compared to silicon, since the
Thus, the electromigration of extrinsic zones in Si has been established to be determined by the dissolution-crystallization process at the interface between the solid and liquid phases. This happens under the influence of Peltier heat localized at the phase interfaces and the forces of electric transport in the bulk inclusion. The size dependence of the inclusion displacement velocity,
The contribution of electric transport and Peltier heat to the resulting velocity of zone displacement by the current is determined. It varies for inclusions of different sizes; all other conditions being constant, the contribution of electric transport decreases with the increase of inclusion thickness.
The author is grateful to Professor Anatoliy M. Orlov for the interest and support of this research area. This study was partially supported by the Ministry of education and science of the Russian Federation (project 8.5171.2017).
Secondary metabolites are natural products synthesized mainly by plants, fungi and bacteria. Secondary metabolites are molecules with low molecular weight and various biological activities and chemical structures [1]. Secondary metabolites are also called specialized metabolites; they generally mediate ecological interactions by increasing their ability to survive [2]. Secondary metabolites function as a defense against herbivores and other interspecies in plants; and it was first established by A. kossel in 1910, and was discovered 20 years later as an end product of nitrogen metabolism by Friedrich Czapek a Botanist [3].
Plants are capable of manufacturing diverse types of organic compounds which are grouped into primary and secondary metabolites [3]. Some secondary metabolites are phenylpropanoids or cinnamic acids, which protect plants from UV damage [4]. Since ancient times, the plant secondary metabolite’s biological effects in humans have been known. The herb
Plants are natural products and the oldest source of alkaloids, examples of the most widely recognized alkaloids are morphine, quinine, strychnine, and cocaine [7]. Alkaloids are present as water-soluble salts of organic acids, esters, tannins (Cinchona bark) or in plant tissues [7, 8].
Most alkaloids are isolated in the form of crystalline, non-odorous, nonvolatile and amorphous compounds, low molecular weight alkaloids, such as arecoline and pilocarpine, non-oxygen atom alkaloids such as sparteine and nicotine occur in the liquid form, these are all from plant matrices. Majority of alkaloids are colorless with a bitter taste, apart from colchicine and berberine. Alkaloids are derived from plant sources and a diverse group of nitrogen-containing basic compounds, which contain one or more nitrogen atoms. Chemically they are heterogeneous. Based on chemical structures, they are classified into two broad categories [9]:
Examples of plants with alkaloids include,
Alkaloids (about 20,000) are isolated from plants, but it have also been found in microorganisms, marine organisms such as algae, dinoflagellates, and pufferfish, and terrestrial animals such as insects, salamanders, and toads [10].
Classification based on the botanical origin of the alkaloids, their Sources and pharmacological properties are listed below (Table 1). For example.,
Alkaloid | Source | Properties |
---|---|---|
Ajmaline | Antiarrhythmic, antihypertensive | |
Caffeine | Stimulant, insecticide | |
Camptothecin | Antineoplastic | |
Cocaine | Analgesic, narcotic, local anesthetic | |
Codeine | Analgesic, antitussive | |
Emetine | Antiamoebic, expectorant, emetic | |
Hyoscyamine | Anticholinergic | |
Morphine | Analgesic, narcotic | |
Nicotine | Stimulant | |
Pilocarpine | Cholinergic | |
Quinidine | Antiarrhythmic | |
Quinine | Antimalarial | |
Reserpine | Tranquilizer | |
Scopolamine | Sedative, anticholinergic | |
Strychnine | Stimulant, poison | |
Taxol | Antineoplastic | |
Vinblastine and vincristine | Antineoplastic |
Spurces and pharmacological uses of selected plant-derived alkaloids.
Structures of some alkaloids. Note that the structures of morphine and codeine are based on the same skeleton, but are decorated with different functional groups in the position represented by ‘R’. In morphine, this group is −OH, while in codeine it is CH2O. Similarly, vinblastine and vincristine are based on the same skeleton, but differ in the nature of the R-group, which for vinblastine is −CH3 and for vincristine is −CHO.
Plant secondary metabolism produces phenolic compounds with chemical structures of one hydroxyl aromatic ring. These phenolic compounds are classified based on their carbon chain. [11]. Phenolic compounds are found in plant tissues, fruits and vegetables and are also ubiquitously distributed phytochemicals. Phenolic compounds are synthesized through phenylpropanoid and shikimic acid pathways [12]. Phenolic compounds possess numerous bioactive properties and health-protective effects, although they are not nutrients, therefore postharvest treatments have been used to enhance or preserve the phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables [12]. Phenolic compounds possess an aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl substituents that can be divided into several classes, which are common chemical structures essential for health benefits [13].
Plant materials like (Tropical Root and Crops) contain two classes of phenolic compounds as hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids. Phenolic compounds are present in Nigerian
The phenolic compounds found in plants are represented in Table 2, while the categories of phenolic compounds and their representative compounds are shown in Figure 2. Phenolic compounds survive in plant material, in either a soluble or a bound form [15, 16].
Polyphenolic Compounds | Example | Fruit Source |
---|---|---|
Phenolic acids | Caffeic acid Chlorogenic acid Ferulic acid Sinapic acid Caftaric acids Neochlorogenic acid | Blackberry, raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant, blueberry, cranberry, pear, sweet cherry, apple, orange, grapefruit, lemon, and peach |
Ellagic acid Gallic acid | Strawberry, raspberry, grapes, longan seed, and pomegranate | |
Flavonoids | Myricetin Quercetin Kaempferol Isorhamnetin | Apples, apricots, grapes, plums, bilberries, cranberries, olive, elderberries, currants, cherries, blackberries, and blueberries |
Naringenin Hesperetin | Lemon, orange, grapefruit, and tangerine | |
Apigenin Luteolin Tangeretin Nobiletin | Citrus fruits and pear | |
(+)-Catechin (−)-Epicatechin (−)-Epicatechin 3-gallate (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (+)-Gallocatechin (−)-Epigallocatechin Procyanidins Prodelphinidins | Apples, apricots, grapes, peaches, nectarines, raspberries, cherries, blackberries, blueberries, cranberries, pears, plums, and raisins | |
Cyanidin 3-galactoside Cyanidin 3-glucoside Cyanidin 3-arabinoside Cyanidin 3-xyloside Malvidin Delphinidin Pelargonidin | Blackberries, blackcurrant, blueberries, black grape, elderberries, strawberries, cherries, plums, cranberry, pomegranate, and raspberry | |
Phloretin Phloridzin | Apple | |
Stilbenes | Resveratrol | Grapes |
Tannins | Catechin polymers Epicatechin polymers Ellagitannins Proanthocyanidins Tannic acids | Grape seed/skin, apple juice, strawberries, raspberries, pomegranate, walnuts, peach, blackberry, and plum |
Lignans | Secoisolariciresinol Matairesinol | Pear |
Selected phenolic compounds found in plants.
Categories of phenolic compounds.
Terpenes are a unique group of hydrocarbon-based natural products whose structures are derived from isoprene. Terpenoid secondary metabolites occur in plant tissue types often secured in secretory structures [17]. Over 30,000 members of terpenes are in an enormous class of natural products, they have been used for a broad variety of purposes including medicine, flavoring and perfume [18]. Terpenes as a broad group with ecological roles, that exhibit a range of deadly to entirely edible toxicity, which include antimicrobial properties and other properties [19, 20].
Plants and flowering plants (angiosperms) subdivisions have colonized the majority of the terrestrial surface, courtesy of rich levels of specialization and the relationships with other organisms [21].
Terpenes are important plant metabolites that include substances like floral fragrances that serve as plant hormones (gibberellic and abscisic acid), growth inhibitors, insect attractants, pine oil, and insecticides [22].
Terpenoids or isoprenoids are high in plants where many can be considered secondary metabolites and have fundamental roles in the metabolism of all organisms [23]. Terpenoid secondary metabolism in plants began with the recruitment of genes from primary metabolism [24] and accelerated due to the proliferation of cytochrome P450 and terpene synthase gene families in the genomes of plants [25].
Terpenoids play various physiological and ecological functions in plant life and human through direct and indirect plant defenses, because of their enormous applications in the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries [26]. Examples of terpenoids from plant species are 1). Artemisinin, present in
The pungent smell of plants (mustard, cabbage, and horseradish) is due to mustard oils produced from glucosinolates [29]. Glucosinolates are biosynthesized from amino acids, which consists of three glucosinolate subtypes (aliphatic, indole and aromatic glucosinolates) that have their corresponding precursors. Aliphatic glucosinolates are derived from isoleucine, alanine, valine, methionine, and leucine. Indole and aromatic glucosinolates are obtained from phenylalanine or tyrosine and tryptophan. Examples of the three classes of glucosinolates represented by 3methylsulfinylpropyl glucosinolate; indol3ylmethyl glucosinolate; and benzyl glucosinolate in Figure 3.
Glucosinolates.
Glucosinolates are responsible for the pungent properties present in mustard, rucola, horseradish, cruciferous vegetables, and nasturtium and they are sulfur and nitrogen-containing glycosides, which protect against carcinogenesis [30].
The glucosinolates of sulforaphane (Glucoraphanin) present in broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower (cruciferous vegetables) are responsible for protection against carcinogenesis. The Brown (
Secondary metabolites in plants (glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, S-methyl cysteine, allyl sulfurs, phytates, phytoestrogens) likely to protect against cancers, and antioxidant properties (phenolic compounds, flavonoids) [32].
Isothiocyanates are present in cruciferous vegetables, which is the product of the degradation of glucosinolates.
Glucosinolates contain metabolites found in the plant
Over 130 glucosinolate compounds have been identified in plants, and one way that they vary is by the amino acid precursor that is incorporated during glucosinolates biosynthesis [37].
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can utilize various solid substrates of their biochemical and biological evolution and are also known to inhabit almost all ecological niches of the Earth. Some of the solid substrates utilized by fungi are decaying and dead material, such as live plants (endophytic, parasitic, and mycorrhizal fungi), lichens (lichenicolous and endolichenic fungi), insects (entomopathogenic fungi) and herbivore dung (saprophytic and coprophilous fungi). A characteristic feature of many of these fungi (filamentous growth and complex morphology), is their ability to produce secondary metabolites which are useful in pharmaceutical, agrochemical industries and food with different biological activities [38, 39].
In the production of secondary metabolites which occurs after fungal growth has stopped because of nutrient limitations but an abundant carbon source available, it is then possible to manipulate their formation. Some endophytic fungi can produce secondary metabolites known from plants. Examples include production paclitaxel (Taxol®) and camptothecin, by
The several classes of fungal secondary metabolites are polyketides (aflatoxin and fumonisins), nonribosomal peptides (sirodesmin, peramine, siderophores) and terpenes (T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON)), indole terpenes (paxiline and lolitrems) as represented in Figure 4. Polyketides are building blocks of natural products and are the largest group of metabolites occurring in their greatest number. They are the most sought-after molecules because of their wide spectrum of activities (clinical, industrial and economical activities). Non-ribosomal peptides are catalyzed without mRNA template by a complex enzyme called Nonribosomal peptide-synthetase (
Several classes of fungal secondary metabolites; a) Polyketides b) non-ribosomal peptides c) Terpenes and d) Indole terpenes.
The first FDA-approved secondary metabolite was Lovastatin, to lower cholesterol levels. In oyster mushrooms [42], red yeast rice [43], and Pu-erh [44], Lovastatin occurs naturally in low concentrations. Their mode of action is inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, and it is the enzyme responsible for converting HMG-CoA to mevalonate.
Fungal secondary metabolites are dangerous to humans. The fungi
Fungi are organisms that produce a wide range of natural products often called secondary metabolites; many natural products are of agricultural, medical, and industrial importance. Examples of natural products causing harm (mycotoxins), while others are advantageous (antibiotics) to humans [46, 47]. The biosynthesis of natural products is usually associated with cell differentiation or development, the establishment of a G-protein-mediated growth pathway in
Secondary metabolism is connected with sporulation processes in microorganisms [49, 50], including fungi [51, 52]. Secondary metabolites connected with sporulation can be classified into three groups: (i) Sporulation activated by metabolites (
Secondary metabolite | Producing fungus | Association with development | References |
---|---|---|---|
Linoleic-acid derived psi factor | Induces sporulation; affects ratio of asexual to sexual spore development | [54, 55, 56, 57] | |
Zearalenone | Induces sporulation; enhances perithecial formation | [60] | |
Butyrolactone I | Induces sporulation and lovastatin production | [61] | |
Melanin | Associated with appressorial formation | [62] | |
Melanin | UV protection of spore | [62] | |
Melanin | Required for spore survival | [63] | |
Spore pigment | Required for virulence | [64] | |
Mycotoxins | Produced after sporulation | [65, 66] | |
Patulin | Antibiotic; produced after sporulation | [53] |
Fungal secondary metabolites.
Natural products are essential for sporulation, examples of fungal strains that are sporulated and deficient in secondary metabolite production are
Secondary metabolites have easily visible effects on morphological differentiation in fungi, mycelium excretes compounds that can prompt sexual and asexual sporulation in other fungi [63, 64, 65], these compounds have not been identified but are assumed to be natural products produced as the mycelia ages. Other natural product such as
Butyrolactone I, produced by the fungus
The bacterial secondary metabolites are natural products source of anticholesterol agents, immune suppressants, antibiotics, antitumor agents, and other medicines; secondary metabolite-producing microorganisms synthesize these bioactive and complex molecules at the late phase and stationary phase of their growth [70, 71, 72] as shown in Figure 5a. In bacteria, the actinomycetes (streptomycetes) produce a significant number of chemically distinct secondary metabolites [73, 74, 75, 76]. Other major sources include soil pseudomonas, bacilli, and myxococci [77, 78, 79, 80]. An example of a bacterial secondary metabolite is botulinum toxin synthesized by
a) the secondary metabolite-producing microorganisms synthesize these bioactive and complex molecules at the late phase and stationary phase of their growth. b) Secondary metabolic pathway reactions are conducted by an individual enzyme or multienzyme complexes. Intermediate or end-products of primary metabolic pathways are channeled from their systematic metabolic pathways that lead to the synthesis of secondary metabolites.
Bacterial production of secondary metabolites starts in the stationary phase in response to environmental stress and lack of nutrients. Secondary metabolite synthesis in bacteria, allow them to better interact with their ecological niche and it is not essential for their growth. The b-lactam, shikimate, polyketide and non-ribosomal are the synthetic pathways for secondary metabolite production [82] as shown in Figure 5b. B-lactam family of cephalosporins antibiotics have been used to treat bacterial infections for 40 years and above. Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and fungi are the major sources of b-lactam antibiotics. The shikimate pathway contributes to the basic building blocks for aromatic metabolites and amino acids, which can serve as antibacterial agents. In the bacterial secondary metabolite, two enzymes can transfer a complete enolpyruvoyl moiety to a metabolic pathway, 5-enolpyruvoyl shikimate 3-phosphate synthase and chorismate synthase that require a reduced cofactor, flavin mononucleotide, for its activation. When secreted those found in the prokaryotic cell wall are endotoxins, while those poisonous compounds are known as exotoxins. Other examples of bacterial secondary metabolites are phenazine, polyketides, nonribosomal peptides, ribosomal peptides, glucosides, and alkaloids.
Bacteria are natural phenazines, phenazines are heterocyclic, nitrogenous compounds that differ in their physical and chemical properties. Phenazines are significant for their potential impact on bacterial interactions and biotechnological processes. It exhibits a wide range of biological activities, Pyocyanin, from
Phenazines produced by various bacteria species and excrete them in high quantities in the environment in a visible form to the naked eye, they are nitrogen-containing colored aromatic secondary metabolites. The main use of phenazines is to protect plants (biocontrol field), because of their antimicrobial properties. Examples of bacteria species able to produce phenazines are
Polyketides from plants, bacteria, fungi, and animals, are a large group of secondary metabolites known to possess remarkable properties [85, 86]. Polyketides possess some bioactivities such as antibacterial (e.g., tetracycline), antifungal (e.g., amphotericin B), immune-suppressing (e.g., rapamycin), anti-cholesterol (e.g., lovastatin), anti-inflammatory activity (e.g., flavonoids), antiviral (e.g., balticolid), and anticancer (e.g., doxorubicin) [87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93]. Some organisms that can produce polyketides are plants (e.g., emodin from
Polyketides are a family of natural products which are synthesized by polyketide synthase (PKS) enzymes with different biological activities and pharmacological properties. They are divided into three types: type I polyketides (macrolides produced by multimodular megasynthases), type II polyketides (aromatic molecules produced by the iterative action of dissociated enzymes), and type III polyketides (small aromatic molecules produced by fungal species) [100]. Polyketides are also found in bacteria, fungi, plants, mollusks, protists, sponges, and insects. They have notable variety in their structure and function. Some examples of polyketides antibiotics are Erythromycin, Avermectin, Nystatin, and Rifamycin [100].
Nonribosomal peptides (NRPs) are peptide secondary metabolites that are synthesized by nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) (multidomain mega-enzymes), without messenger RNAs and cell ribosomal machinery [101]. Nonribosomal peptides are naturally synthesized by bacteria, fungi, and higher eukaryotes [101]. Nonribosomal peptides are also synthesized by indigoidine (pigment). Some examples of nonribosomal peptide antibiotics are; Vancomycin, bacterium, Ramoplanin, Teicoplanins, Gramicidin, Bacitracin, Polymyxin [102].
Natural products originate as secondary metabolites Plants possess different indigenous defensive mechanisms to cope with certain environmental stresses. Secondary metabolites are natural tools used by plants to combat biotic and abiotic stresses. Microorganisms can produce several antibiotics and other pharmaceutically important drugs to treat bacterial and fungal infections. The secondary metabolites from natural products help us to understand their classes, sources, pharmacological importance and examples associated with the secondary metabolites derived from plants, fungi, and bacteria.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Therefore, more studies are needed to assess the benefit of antibiotic prescription and whether it is safe to refrain from its use.",book:{id:"5185",slug:"dental-implantology-and-biomaterial",title:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial",fullTitle:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial"},signatures:"Dalia Khalil, Bodil Lund and Margareta Hultin",authors:[{id:"179031",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Khalil",slug:"dalia-khalil",fullName:"Dalia Khalil"},{id:"185113",title:"Dr.",name:"Bodil",middleName:null,surname:"Lund",slug:"bodil-lund",fullName:"Bodil Lund"},{id:"185114",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareta",middleName:null,surname:"Hultin",slug:"margareta-hultin",fullName:"Margareta Hultin"}]},{id:"47915",title:"Rationale for Dental Implants",slug:"rationale-for-dental-implants",totalDownloads:3076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4548",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Ilser Turkyilmaz and Gokce Soganci",authors:[{id:"171984",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ilser",middleName:null,surname:"Turkyilmaz",slug:"ilser-turkyilmaz",fullName:"Ilser Turkyilmaz"}]},{id:"18430",title:"An Important Dilemma in Treatment Planning: Implant or Endodontic Therapy?",slug:"an-important-dilemma-in-treatment-planning-implant-or-endodontic-therapy-",totalDownloads:6264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Funda Kont Cobankara and Sema Belli",authors:[{id:"28846",title:"Dr.",name:"Funda",middleName:null,surname:"Kont Çobankara",slug:"funda-kont-cobankara",fullName:"Funda Kont Çobankara"},{id:"75862",title:"Prof.",name:"Sema",middleName:null,surname:"Belli",slug:"sema-belli",fullName:"Sema Belli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"998",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",abstract:"This chapter will address evidence-based prosthetic concepts in dental implantology as well as clinical evidence with focus on appropriate logic and technical skills. Those prosthetic factors are as just important as surgical factors, and long-term success can only be achieved if both of those factors are considered, respected, and strictly followed from planning to prosthetic phase of treatment. This chapter will deal with materials selection for prosthetic part, shape, size, and design of supracrestal parts of abutments and their influence on soft tissue and bone stability around dental implants. Furthermore, one of most important decisions is about choosing the proper way of retention: screw- vs. cement-retained restorations, and it will be discussed in detail. Additionally, emergence profile and its function in soft tissues adaptation and adhesion to different prosthetic materials also have important role in long-term success of dental implant restorations.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Ivica Pelivan"},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",abstract:"Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition faced by a common man. A tooth decay, periodontitis, mechanical trauma, or any systemic complications lead to such a complication. These bone defects when left untreated lead to severe resorption of the alveolar bone. A proper dental filling with an appropriate bone substitute material could prevent such resorption and paves a way for subsequent implant placement. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth or prevent bone resorption. A variety of bone substitutes are available differ in origin, consistency, particle size, porosity, and resorption characteristics. Herbal composites in dentistry fabricated using biphospho-calcium phosphate, casein, chitosan, and certain herbal extracts of Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna bark, Myristica fragans also were reported to possess a higher ossification property, osteogenic property and were able to repair bone defects. C. occidentalis was reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice. This implant proved better osteoconductivity and bioactivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. Terminalia Arjuna was also worked in the incorporation in the graft to enhance the osteogenic property of the implant and gave good results. Another implant bone graft was synthesized containing BCP, biocompatible casein, and the extracts of Myristica fragans and subjected to in vitro investigations and the results revealed the deposition of apatite on the graft after immersing in SBF and also the ALP activity was high when treated with MG-63 cells, NIH-3 T3, and Saos 2 cell lines. This study indicates that the inclusion of plant extract enhances the osteogenic property of the graft. Thus, these novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites evaluated by researchers revealed an enhanced bone healing, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. This application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implants and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya"},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",abstract:"The main goal of modern removable prosthodontics is to restore the normal appearance, function, esthetics and speech in each completely edentulous patient. However, if all teeth are missing in a patient, it becomes very complicated to achieve it using traditional protocols. Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. Different indications, types of the overdentures and the attachment systems will be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo"},{id:"79724",title:"Implant Stability Quotient (ISQ): A Reliable Guide for Implant Treatment",slug:"implant-stability-quotient-isq-a-reliable-guide-for-implant-treatment",totalDownloads:60,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101359",abstract:"Implant stability is a prerequisite for successful dental implants and osseointegration. To determine the status of implant stability, continuous monitoring in an objective and qualitative manner is important. To measure implant stability two different stages are there: Primary and secondary. Primary implant stability at placement is a mechanical phenomenon that is related to the local bone quality and quantity, the type of implant and placement technique used. Primary stability is checked from mechanical engagement with cortical bone. Secondary stability is developed from regeneration and remodeling of the bone and tissue around the implant after insertion and affected by the primary stability, bone formation and remodeling. Implant stability is essential for the time of functional loading. Classical benchmark methods to measure implant stability were radiographs or microscopic analysis, removal torque, push-through and pull-through but due to lack of feasibility, time consumption and ethical reasons other methods have been propounded over period of time like measurement of implant torque, model analysis and most important ISQ which has the ability to monitor osseointegration and the life expectancy of an implant. ISQ is a valuable diagnostic and clinical tool that has far-reaching consequences on implant dentistry and this article throws light on advanced and reliable methods of assessing ISQ.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gaurav Gupta"},{id:"79817",title:"Peri-Implant Soft Tissue Augmentation",slug:"peri-implant-soft-tissue-augmentation",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101336",abstract:"The peri-implant soft tissue (PIS) augmentation procedure has become an integral part of implant-prosthetic rehabilitation. Minimal width of keratinized mucosa (KM) of 2 mm is deemed necessary to facilitate oral hygiene maintenance around the implant and provide hard and soft peri-implant tissue stability. PIS thickness of at least 2 mm is recommended to achieve the esthetic appearance and prevent recessions around implant prosthetic rehabilitation. The autogenous soft tissue grafts can be divided into two groups based on their histological composition—free gingival graft (FGG) and connective tissue graft (CTG). FGG graft is used mainly to increase the width of keratinized mucosa while CTG augment the thickness of PIS. Both grafts are harvested from the same anatomical region—the palate. Alternatively, they can be harvested from the maxillary tuberosity. Soft tissue grafts can be also harvested as pedicle grafts, in case when the soft tissue graft remains attached to the donor site by one side preserving the blood supply from the donor region. Clinically this will result in less shrinkage of the graft postoperatively, improving the outcome of the augmentation procedure. To bypass the drawback connected with FGG or CTG harvesting, substitutional soft tissue grafts have been developed.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Marko Blašković and Dorotea Blašković"},{id:"79611",title:"Growth Factors and Dental Implantology",slug:"growth-factors-and-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101082",abstract:"Normal healing procedure of bone involves various sequential events to develop bone and bridge the bone -to- bone gap. When this healing occurs with a metal (titanium) fixture on one side, it is called as osseointegration. After extensive studies on this topic, it is found that this procedure occurs in presence of various biologic constituents that are spontaneously released at the site. Thus, to accelerate normal healing after implant placement and make results more predictable, it has been proposed to use these autologous factors in the osteotomy site. Since it is the beginning of a new revolution in dental implantology, right now it is essential to analyze all possible combinations of host conditions, bone quality and quantity and bio factors being used. This can definitely be a boon for the patients with compromised systemic or local conditions.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Deeksha Gupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). 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