Different lands used by Pakistan
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9517",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Type 2 Diabetes - From Pathophysiology to Cyber Systems",title:"Type 2 Diabetes",subtitle:"From Pathophysiology to Cyber Systems",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease characterized by chronic high blood glucose levels. Of the various types of diabetes, type 2 diabetes is increasing in prevalence due to obesity, aging, sedentarism, and other factors. This book presents a novel approach to preventing and treating type 2 diabetes. Chapters cover such topics as diagnosis, pathogenesis, management, lifestyle and nutritional intervention, and systems to support early diagnosis and prevention of prediabetes.",isbn:"978-1-83881-904-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-903-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-905-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87312",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"type-2-diabetes-from-pathophysiology-to-cyber-systems",numberOfPages:440,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8c1eb0e29f87477ff2bc926cc3b695ea",bookSignature:"Anca Pantea Stoian",publishedDate:"September 22nd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9517.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6631,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:11,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 1st 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"178",title:"Endocrinology",slug:"medicine-endocrinology"}],chapters:[{id:"75377",title:"Pathophysiologic Approach to Type 2 Diabetes Management: One Centre Experience 1980–2020",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96237",slug:"pathophysiologic-approach-to-type-2-diabetes-management-one-centre-experience-1980-2020",totalDownloads:818,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This overview summarizes the evolution of pathophysiologic treatment of diabetes type 2 (T2D) in the period of the last 40 years. Randomized Controlled Trials (RCT) and Real World Evidence (RWE) studies resulted in recent Statements of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) in the year 2020. Case reports and studies of a single-centre in Czech Republic are reported. The authors demonstrate the impact of (1) multiple doses of rapid insulin, (2) multiple doses of rapid or ultrarapid insulin analogs (3) continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion (CSII) (4) incretin receptor agonists, (5) fixed combination of insulin degludec with liraglutide (IDegLira) and (6) SGLT2 inhibitor dapagliflozin, on plasma glucose concentration, HbA1c, body mass and patient satisfaction. The importance of therapeutic patients’ education and technology (personal glucometers, continuous/flash glucose monitors, insulin pens/pumps) is emphasized. Most of the observations were already published. Hence, individually adopted education, lifstyle, technical equipment, incretin receptor agonists and/or metformin and/or gliflozins and/or insulin analogs appear to be the core of an effective pathophysiologic approach. Scientific conclusions from RCTs, RWE trials and own clinical case reports may prevail over clinical inertia and induce early implementation of effective methods into routine T2D treatment.",signatures:"Rudolf Chlup, Richard Kaňa, Lada Hanáčková, Hana Zálešáková and Blanka Doubravová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75377",authors:[{id:"278357",title:"Prof.",name:"Rudolf",surname:"Chlup",slug:"rudolf-chlup",fullName:"Rudolf Chlup"},{id:"346119",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Kaňa",slug:"richard-kana",fullName:"Richard Kaňa"},{id:"346120",title:"BSc.",name:"Lada",surname:"Hanáčková",slug:"lada-hanackova",fullName:"Lada Hanáčková"},{id:"346121",title:"BSc.",name:"Hana",surname:"Zálešáková",slug:"hana-zalesakova",fullName:"Hana Zálešáková"},{id:"346122",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanka",surname:"Doubravová",slug:"blanka-doubravova",fullName:"Blanka Doubravová"}],corrections:null},{id:"73867",title:"Redox Signaling is Essential for Insulin Secretion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94312",slug:"redox-signaling-is-essential-for-insulin-secretion",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this review, we place redox signaling in pancreatic β-cells to the context with signaling pathways leading to insulin secretion, acting for example upon the action of incretins (GLP-1, GIP) and the metabotropic receptor GPR40. Besides a brief description of ion channel participation in depolarization/repolarization of the plasma membrane, we emphasize a prominent role of the elevated glucose level in pancreatic β-cells during glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). We focus on our recent findings, which revealed that for GSIS, not only elevated ATP synthesis is required, but also fundamental redox signaling originating from the NADPH oxidase 4- (NOX4-) mediated H2O2 production. We hypothesized that the closing of the ATP-sensitive K+ channel (KATP) is only possible when both ATP plus H2O2 are elevated in INS-1E cells. KATP alone or with synergic channels provides an element of logical sum, integrating both metabolic plus redox homeostasis. This is also valid for other secretagogues, such as branched chain ketoacids (BCKAs); and partly for fatty acids (FAs). Branched chain aminoacids, leucine, valine and isoleucine, after being converted to BCKAs are metabolized by a series of reactions resembling β-oxidation of FAs. This increases superoxide formation in mitochondria, including its portion elevated due to the function of electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase (ETF:QOR). After superoxide conversion to H2O2 the oxidation of BCKAs provides the mitochondrial redox signaling extending up to the plasma membrane to induce its depolarization together with the elevated ATP. In contrast, experimental FA-stimulated insulin secretion in the presence of non-stimulating glucose concentrations is predominantly mediated by GPR40, for which intramitochondrial redox signaling activates phospholipase iPLA2γ, cleaving free FAs from mitochondrial membranes, which diffuse to the plasma membrane and largely amplify the GPR40 response. These events are concomitant to the insulin release due to the metabolic component. Hypothetically, redox signaling may proceed by simple H2O2 diffusion or via an SH-relay enabled by peroxiredoxins to target proteins. However, these aspects have yet to be elucidated.",signatures:"Petr Ježek, Blanka Holendová, Martin Jabůrek, Jan Tauber, Andrea Dlasková and Lydie Plecitá-Hlavatá",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73867",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73867",authors:[{id:"325015",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",surname:"Ježek",slug:"petr-jezek",fullName:"Petr Ježek"},{id:"326194",title:"Dr.",name:"Lydie",surname:"Plecitá - Hlavatá",slug:"lydie-plecita-hlavata",fullName:"Lydie Plecitá - Hlavatá"},{id:"326195",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanka",surname:"Holendová",slug:"blanka-holendova",fullName:"Blanka Holendová"},{id:"326196",title:"Dr.",name:"Martin",surname:"Jabůrek",slug:"martin-jaburek",fullName:"Martin Jabůrek"},{id:"336621",title:"Dr.",name:"Jan",surname:"Tauber",slug:"jan-tauber",fullName:"Jan Tauber"},{id:"336622",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Dlasková",slug:"andrea-dlaskova",fullName:"Andrea Dlasková"}],corrections:null},{id:"74868",title:"Individual Glycation Sites as Biomarkers of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95532",slug:"individual-glycation-sites-as-biomarkers-of-type-2-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a widely spread metabolic disease, the initial stages of which are asymptomatic and have no clinically recognizable manifestation. At the molecular level, T2DM is manifested with essential non-enzymatic structural changes of intra- and extracellular proteins, mostly represented with oxidation and glycation of multiple residues. Protein glycation is one of the most universal markers of T2DM, and is recognized as an indirect, but adequate indicator of plasma glucose levels over prolonged periods of time. Unfortunately, glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) – the universally accepted T2DM marker, is insensitive for short-term excursions of blood glucose, which are known to precede the onset of disease. Therefore, new generation biomarkers, giving access to the time dimension of Maillard reaction in blood, are desired. In this context, establishment of individual glycation sites of plasma proteins as new T2DM biomarkers might be a promising approach. Indeed, involvement of proteins with different half-life times in such analysis will make the time dimension of protein glycation in blood available and will allow early recognition of blood sugar fluctuations, occurring within few weeks or even days.",signatures:"Alena Soboleva, Natalia Vashurina and Andrej Frolov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74868",authors:[{id:"309526",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrej",surname:"Frolov",slug:"andrej-frolov",fullName:"Andrej Frolov"},{id:"323684",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Alena",surname:"Soboleva",slug:"alena-soboleva",fullName:"Alena Soboleva"},{id:"324307",title:"BSc.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Vashurina",slug:"natalia-vashurina",fullName:"Natalia Vashurina"}],corrections:null},{id:"75259",title:"The Mechanistic and Pathophysiological Role of Adiponectin and Resistin towards Regulation of Food Intake and Appetite in Cardiovascular Associated Risk Factor of Metabolic Syndrome",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96171",slug:"the-mechanistic-and-pathophysiological-role-of-adiponectin-and-resistin-towards-regulation-of-food-i",totalDownloads:246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Insulin resistance syndrome or syndrome X is also known as metabolic syndrome (MetS). It is an emerging problem globally with the surge of increasing prevalence among urban population of developing countries. The etiology of pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome includes the inflammatory pathways of insulin resistance, deregulated appetite, diet-induced, inflammation-induced obesity, and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Adipose tissue is an endocrine organ that secrets adipokines like adiponectin and resistin during physiological and pathological states. Moreover, the adipokines associated with diet-induced and inflammation-induced obesity have secondary deteriorating effects on cardiovascular system. Although, the adiponectin and resistin were potentially found in regulating food intake and appetite but their mediating effect on pathophysiology of CVD still needs future investigations. However, the prior studies reported the association of adiponectin and resistin levels with CVD complications related to food intake but still there is need to understand its multifactorial heterogeneity. Therefore, literature suggests figuring out potential target mechanistic and therapeutic approaches of adiponectin and resistin hormone towards food intake and appetite involvement in metabolic syndrome and CVD.",signatures:"Mimie Noratiqah Jumli and Muhammad Ilyas Nadeem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75259",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75259",authors:[{id:"320490",title:"Ms.",name:"Mimie Noratiqah",surname:"Jumli",slug:"mimie-noratiqah-jumli",fullName:"Mimie Noratiqah Jumli"},{id:"320491",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Ilyas",surname:"Nadeem",slug:"muhammad-ilyas-nadeem",fullName:"Muhammad Ilyas Nadeem"}],corrections:null},{id:"76474",title:"Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Undeniably the First Choice Investigation of Dysglycaemia, Reproducibility can be Improved",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96549",slug:"oral-glucose-tolerance-test-ogtt-undeniably-the-first-choice-investigation-of-dysglycaemia-reproduci",totalDownloads:169,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Type 2 diabetes mellitus accounts for ≈90–95% of those with diabetes, about 50% of those with type 2 diabetes are unaware and it can remain undiagnosed for up to 12 years, ≥25% of people have evidence of microvascular complications at diagnosis. The consequences of diabetes can be reduced by screening and early interventions. Urinalysis as a screening test is limited by its low sensitivity ranging from 21% and 64%, though has high specificity (>98%), it has a place where no other procedure is available. Fasting plasma glucose though recommended as a universal screening and diagnostic test for diabetes mellitus, a changed in the diagnostic criteria was made when this did not give corresponding hyperglycaemic impact compared to the OGTT results, bringing a complex and variable effect on the prevalence of diabetes and on subjects diagnosed. To date the searching to finding the corresponding FPG to what is normal or IGT is still ongoing. FPG testing poorly identify early signs of dysglycaemia. This is due to the difficulty ensuring compliance with instructions about fasting, FPG represents glucose handling during the moment of fasting period only and is affected easily by short-term lifestyle changes, FPG has diurnal variation, higher in the morning than in the afternoon, these may cause serious misclassifications. OGTT do indicates the pathophysiology responsible for diabetes better as it provides information on what happens in the postprandial state when the functional capacity of pancreatic β-cell is crucial. It accurately detects changes in post-prandial glycaemia that tend to precede changes in fasting glucose. OGTT is the gold standard for the diagnosis of GDM and the only means of identifying people with IGT and WHO placed emphasis on the OGTT as the “gold standard”, in diagnosis of dysglycaemia. Reproducibility can be improved remarkably when patient preparation, a forvarable atmosphere during the procedure, standardized sampling protocol, sample handling, and analysis are given high attention. Measurement of A1c equals the assessment of hundreds of FPG levels and also captures postprandial glucose peaks. Regrettably, it has been shown that 44% of people with newly diagnosed diabetes with OGTT had A1c <6.0% and that a stronger correlations with plasma glucose is better in subjects with known diabetes, but not in the general population. A1C values just above the upper limits of normal require OGTT to be correctly interpreted; it is not available in many part of the world. Finally, A1c can not diagnose IFG and IGT to disclose high-risk subjects for diabetes. In conclusion an OGTT is undeniably the best test in investigation of dysglycaemia, either with the intention of testing for pre-diabetes, type 2 diabetes, or for gestational diabetes mellitus.",signatures:"Dahiru Saleh Mshelia, Sani Adamu and Rebecca Mtaku Gali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76474",authors:[{id:"139104",title:"Dr.",name:"Dahiru",surname:"Saleh Mshelia",slug:"dahiru-saleh-mshelia",fullName:"Dahiru Saleh Mshelia"},{id:"334516",title:"Dr.",name:"Sani",surname:"Adamu",slug:"sani-adamu",fullName:"Sani Adamu"},{id:"334517",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebecca Mtaku",surname:"Gali",slug:"rebecca-mtaku-gali",fullName:"Rebecca Mtaku Gali"}],corrections:null},{id:"74535",title:"Organic Volatile Compounds Used in Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94752",slug:"organic-volatile-compounds-used-in-type-2-diabetes",totalDownloads:304,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath is non-invasive method and appears as a promising tool for metabolic monitoring. Diabetes is a complex syndrome, metabolic diseases that is characterized by hyperglycemia associated with major changes in lipids and proteins. The pathophysiology of the link between diabetes, hypertension, inflammatory syndrome and oxidative stress is complex. We conducted a study and applied quantitative analysis of exhaled ethylene and ammonia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and a healthy control group. For breath gas analysis, a very sensitive CO2 laser photoacoustic spectroscopy (CO2LPAS) was applied. The concentration of exhaled VOCs differed between T2DM patients and healthy group, in particular, T2DM patients exhaled significantly higher amounts of ethylene and ammonia compared to healthy control group. The data obtained by the CO2LPAS system revealing that the increased breath VOCs has a close relationship with high glucose levels and with healthy complications.",signatures:"Mioara Petrus, Cristina Popa and Ana-Maria Bratu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74535",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74535",authors:[{id:"167918",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana-Maria",surname:"Bratu",slug:"ana-maria-bratu",fullName:"Ana-Maria Bratu"},{id:"244485",title:"Dr.",name:"Mioara",surname:"Petrus",slug:"mioara-petrus",fullName:"Mioara Petrus"},{id:"324617",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Popa",slug:"cristina-popa",fullName:"Cristina Popa"}],corrections:null},{id:"74470",title:"Diabetes Microvascular Complications: An Overview of Epigenetic Modifications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94642",slug:"diabetes-microvascular-complications-an-overview-of-epigenetic-modifications",totalDownloads:528,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetic nephropathy (DN) and diabetic retinopathy (DR) are two serious and long-standing microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) whose burden is increasing worldwide due to increasing burden of T2DM. Several factors which may predispose to the development of DN and DR are persistent hyperglycemia and its consequences such as formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), activation of hexosamine pathway, polyol pathway, uncontrolled blood pressure, increased oxidative stress, age, family history of kidney disease or hypertension, ethnic background etc. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms of these complications are complicated and not completely understood yet. Hence it is the demand to discover newer approaches to treat these devastating complications completely. Recently, various epigenetic modifications, which are the transmissible alterations in the expressions of a gene, are being studied to understand the pathophysiology of diabetic vascular complications. Metabolic and environmental factors may lead to dysregulated epigenetic mechanisms which might further affect the chromatin structure and related expressions of a gene, which may lead to diabetes-associated complications. Therefore, it is the need to explore its role in vascular complications in the current scenario. In this chapter, various epigenetic studies with regard to DN and DR, epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) approach, and starting clinical material for such studies have been discussed. We have also summarized the better understanding of epigenetic alterations and their role in microvascular complications of diabetes through this chapter. The better understanding of epigenetic mechanisms and their role in diabetic microvascular complications could be used in clinical management of DN as well as DR or could be helpful to improve the available therapies for these complications.",signatures:"Neerja Aggarwal and Pawan Kumar Kare",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74470",authors:[{id:"215119",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawan Kumar",surname:"Kare",slug:"pawan-kumar-kare",fullName:"Pawan Kumar Kare"},{id:"336295",title:"Dr.",name:"Neerja",surname:"Aggarwal",slug:"neerja-aggarwal",fullName:"Neerja Aggarwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"74501",title:"Predicting Type 2 Diabetes Complications and Personalising Patient Using Artificial Intelligence Methodology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94228",slug:"predicting-type-2-diabetes-complications-and-personalising-patient-using-artificial-intelligence-met",totalDownloads:496,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The prediction of the onset of different complications of disease, in general, is challenging due to the existence of unmeasured risk factors, imbalanced data, time-varying data due to dynamics, and various interventions to the disease over time. Scholars share a common argument that many Artificial Intelligence techniques that successfully model disease are often in the form of a “black box” where the internal workings and complexities are extremely difficult to understand, both from practitioners’ and patients’ perspective. There is a need for appropriate Artificial Intelligence techniques to build predictive models that not only capture unmeasured effects to improve prediction, but are also transparent in how they model data so that knowledge about disease processes can be extracted and trust in the model can be maintained by clinicians. The proposed strategy builds probabilistic graphical models for prediction with the inclusion of informative hidden variables. These are added in a stepwise manner to improve predictive performance whilst maintaining as simple a model as possible, which is regarded as crucial for the interpretation of the prediction results. This chapter explores this key issue with a specific focus on diabetes data. According to the literature on disease modelling, especially on major diseases such as diabetes, a patient’s mortality often occurs due to the associated complications caused by the disease over time and not the disease itself. This is often patient-specific and will depend on what type of cohort a patient belongs to. Another main focus of this study is patient personalisation via precision medicine by discovering meaningful subgroups of patients which are characterised as phenotypes. These phenotypes are explained further using Bayesian network analysis methods and temporal association rules. Overall, this chapter discussed the earlier research of the chapter’s author. It explores Artificial Intelligence (IDA) techniques for modelling the progression of disease whilst simultaneously stratifying patients and doing so in a transparent manner as possible. To this end, it reviews the current literature on some of the most common Artificial Intelligent (AI) methodologies, including probabilistic modelling, association rule mining, phenotype discovery and latent variable discovery by using diabetes as a case study.",signatures:"Leila Yousefi and Allan Tucker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74501",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74501",authors:[{id:"322882",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",surname:"Yousefi",slug:"leila-yousefi",fullName:"Leila Yousefi"},{id:"334276",title:"Dr.",name:"Allan",surname:"Tucker",slug:"allan-tucker",fullName:"Allan Tucker"}],corrections:null},{id:"73848",title:"The Role of Gender in the Onset, Development and Impact of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Its Co-Morbidities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94271",slug:"the-role-of-gender-in-the-onset-development-and-impact-of-type-2-diabetes-mellitus-and-its-co-morbid",totalDownloads:305,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Almost half a billion people worldwide are living with diabetes mellitus (DM). Complications associated with DM are common and approximately half of those people with DM suffer from at least one comorbidity. There is high mortality, morbidity and cost associated with these comorbidities which include cardiovascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy and osteopathy. Gender influences the relative risk of developing complications from DM via differing mechanisms – both directly and indirectly. Generally, an increased relative risk of cardiovascular disease and kidney disease is noticed in women with DM compared to the non-DM context, where rates of both are much higher in men. Men appear to be at greater risk of diabetic retinopathy and also of insensate diabetic neuropathy, whereas women suffer from an increased rate of painful diabetic neuropathy compared to men. These differences are not clear cut and vary regionally and temporally, indicating that the field would benefit from further research on both the epidemiology and physiological mechanism of the observed patterns. These differences should be taken into account in treatment programmes for DM and its comorbidities.",signatures:"Féaron C. Cassidy, Sinead Lafferty and Cynthia M. Coleman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73848",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73848",authors:[{id:"325140",title:"Dr.",name:"Féaron C.",surname:"Cassidy",slug:"fearon-c.-cassidy",fullName:"Féaron C. Cassidy"},{id:"328878",title:"Dr.",name:"Cynthia M.",surname:"Coleman",slug:"cynthia-m.-coleman",fullName:"Cynthia M. Coleman"},{id:"329599",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinead",surname:"Lafferty",slug:"sinead-lafferty",fullName:"Sinead Lafferty"}],corrections:null},{id:"75635",title:"Microvascular Complications of Diabetes Mellitus: Focus on Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) and Diabetic Foot Ulcer (DFU)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96548",slug:"microvascular-complications-of-diabetes-mellitus-focus-on-diabetic-retinopathy-dr-and-diabetic-foot-",totalDownloads:380,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic foot ulcer are the most frequent, but also the most disabling complications of diabetes mellitus, with a sinister impact on patients’ quality of life. Microvascular changes related to the deleterious effect of chronic hyperglycemia play an important role in the pathophysiology of both clinical entities by multiple molecular pathways. Vision-threating diabetic retinopathy may be treated by laser photocoagulation, anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) agents and vitreoretinal surgery. Diabetic foot lesions are best treated by revascularization if needed, off-loading, infection control and therapeutic adjuncts (e.g. special dressings). Treatment should ideally be offered by a multidisciplinary expert team. Prevention and early detection, along with adequate control of glucose, lipids and arterial hypertension are of paramount importance to avoid and mitigate these fearful complications.",signatures:"Ana Maria Dascalu, Dragos Serban, Nikolaos Papanas, Peter Kempler, Manfredi Rizzo, Daniela Stana, Gabriela Roman and Anca Pantea Stoian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75635",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75635",authors:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian"},{id:"37582",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Papanas",slug:"nikolaos-papanas",fullName:"Nikolaos Papanas"},{id:"303184",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfredi",surname:"Rizzo",slug:"manfredi-rizzo",fullName:"Manfredi Rizzo"},{id:"323765",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Roman",slug:"gabriela-roman",fullName:"Gabriela Roman"},{id:"333677",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Dascalu",slug:"ana-maria-dascalu",fullName:"Ana Maria Dascalu"},{id:"349820",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragos",surname:"Serban",slug:"dragos-serban",fullName:"Dragos Serban"},{id:"349821",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Stana",slug:"daniela-stana",fullName:"Daniela Stana"},{id:"352506",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Kempler",slug:"peter-kempler",fullName:"Peter Kempler"}],corrections:null},{id:"76360",title:"Cardiovascular Risk/Disease in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97422",slug:"cardiovascular-risk-disease-in-type-2-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:373,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"People with Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) have a 2–3 times higher cardiovascular risk (CVR) than people without diabetes. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in T2DM. Over 30% of those with T2DM have CVD (cardiovascular disease), and over half die from it, mainly from coronary heart disease. The presence of T2DM reduces life expectancy by 10–14 years. The European Society of Cardiology stratifies the CVR into moderate (young patients, with a short duration of diabetes, no risk factors), high (duration of diabetes >10 years, no target organ damage, plus any additional risk factor) and very high (patients with established CVD, target organ injury three CVD risk factors: age, hypertension, dyslipidemia, obesity, or Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) over 20 years duration). The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) considers that diabetes per se involves high risk. Heart failure (HF) is the second most common complication after obstructive peripheral arterial disease. T2DM associates a 75% higher risk of CV mortality or hospitalization for HF. A multifactorial approach is required to reduce CV morbidity and mortality.",signatures:"Gabriela Roman and Anca Pantea Stoian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76360",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76360",authors:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian"},{id:"323765",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Roman",slug:"gabriela-roman",fullName:"Gabriela Roman"}],corrections:null},{id:"74740",title:"Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy and Heart Rate Variability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95515",slug:"type-2-diabetes-mellitus-cardiovascular-autonomic-neuropathy-and-heart-rate-variability",totalDownloads:271,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus is associated with both macro- and microvascular complications. One among the latter, is cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN). CAN is attributed to cardiac arrhythmias and sudden death. Underlying pathogenesis of cardiac autonomic neuropathy is chronic hyperglycemia induced oxidative stress causing neuronal necrosis, apoptosis and death, leading to the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve dysfunction. The balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system is reflected by heart rate variability (HRV). HRV describes “the variations of both instantaneous heart rate and R-R intervals which in turn reflects the cardiac autonomic nervous control”. HRV measured at rest is a marker of autonomic nerve function status. Thus, HRV test is recommended to diagnose diabetic CAN. Time domain parameters predominantly reflect overall autonomic activity and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) modulations. Frequency domain parameters either reflect, sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, PNS activity, or the balance between the two activities. Nonlinear HRV indices marks PNS influences, SNS influences and sympatho-vagal balance. Almost all these HRV parameters are remarkably reduced in T2DM due to cardiac autonomic dysfunction. HRV is an important simple and noninvasive diagnostic tool to detect CAN.",signatures:"Sultana Ferdousi and Phurpa Gyeltshen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74740",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74740",authors:[{id:"326397",title:"Dr.",name:"Phurpa",surname:"Gyeltshen",slug:"phurpa-gyeltshen",fullName:"Phurpa Gyeltshen"},{id:"327738",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Sultana",surname:"Ferdousi",slug:"sultana-ferdousi",fullName:"Sultana Ferdousi"}],corrections:null},{id:"78160",title:"The Role of Lifestyle Medicine in the Management of Diabetes Mellitus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99555",slug:"the-role-of-lifestyle-medicine-in-the-management-of-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:300,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lifestyle medicine is a medical specialty that involves the use of lifestyle in the prevention and management of non-communicable diseases like diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. Recent studies have shown that diabetes mellitus can be prevented following lifestyle modifications. Lifestyle medicine is a branch of medicine that promotes lifestyle modifications as a way of life. This includes promoting healthy eating which includes a whole plant-based diet, low fat, low sugar and low salt. It also includes exercises, sleeping healthy and reducing stress. This is involved in the management of diabetes mellitus. Diabetic management is expensive especially in low and middle-income countries where health insurance is not available for the entire populace and diabetics have to pay out of pocket for their medications.",signatures:"Dabota Yvonne Buowari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78160",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78160",authors:[{id:"151696",title:"Dr.",name:"Dabota Yvonne",surname:"Buowari",slug:"dabota-yvonne-buowari",fullName:"Dabota Yvonne Buowari"}],corrections:null},{id:"74150",title:"Nutritional Interventions: Diet Modifications, Nutritional Supplements, Complementary and Alternative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94645",slug:"nutritional-interventions-diet-modifications-nutritional-supplements-complementary-and-alternative-m",totalDownloads:435,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is characterized by increased circulating blood glucose levels. Several therapies are available to control glucose levels. However, nutritional choices play a major role in managing diabetes. Nutritional supplements can help in reducing the side effects of medicines on the individual so, this chapter will not only discuss several nutritional choices but also available nutritional supplements to control T2DM. Keeping in mind the traditional belief that food is medicine and as therapies are often associated with deleterious side effects, this chapter will discuss alternative and herbal medicines. In addition, life style alterations with proper nutritional choices is also important and will be touched upon in this chapter.",signatures:"Jameela Banu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74150",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74150",authors:[{id:"323560",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jameela",surname:"Banu",slug:"jameela-banu",fullName:"Jameela Banu"}],corrections:null},{id:"74657",title:"Role of Nutrient and Energy Sensors in the Development of Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95454",slug:"role-of-nutrient-and-energy-sensors-in-the-development-of-type-2-diabetes",totalDownloads:395,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cell survival depends on the constant challenge to match energy demands with nutrient availability. This process is mediated through a highly conserved network of metabolic fuel sensors that orchestrate both a cellular and whole-body energy balance. A mismatch between cellular energy demand and nutrient availability is a key factor in the development of type 2 diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and other associated pathologies; thus, understanding the fundamental mechanisms by which cells detect nutrient availability and energy demand may lead to the development of new treatments. This chapter reviews the role of the sensor PASK (protein kinase with PAS domain), analyzing its role in the mechanisms of adaptation to nutrient availability and the metabolic response in different organs (liver, hypothalamus) actively cooperating to control food intake, maintain glycaemia homeostasis, and prevent insulin resistance and weight gain.",signatures:"Verónica Hurtado-Carneiro, Ana Pérez-García, Elvira Álvarez and Carmen Sanz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74657",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74657",authors:[{id:"40639",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Sanz",slug:"carmen-sanz",fullName:"Carmen Sanz"},{id:"40672",title:"Dr.",name:"Elvira",surname:"Álvarez",slug:"elvira-alvarez",fullName:"Elvira Álvarez"},{id:"40673",title:"Dr.",name:"Verónica",surname:"Hurtado-Carneiro",slug:"veronica-hurtado-carneiro",fullName:"Verónica Hurtado-Carneiro"},{id:"343489",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Pérez-García",slug:"ana-perez-garcia",fullName:"Ana Pérez-García"}],corrections:null},{id:"75411",title:"Therapeutic Effect of Folate and Cobalamin in Diabetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96447",slug:"therapeutic-effect-of-folate-and-cobalamin-in-diabetics",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetes Mellitus type 2 is a metabolic ailment. It is a condition when insulin is produced by our body but, it is not used properly by us. The number of diabetic patients is increasing in the whole world. The problem of obesity is also very closely related to it, which itself is expanding. The individuals diagnosed with type 2 Diabetes Mellitus have high chance of microvascular problems (like nephropathy, retinopathy and neuropathy). They are also at the verge of facing macrovascular ailments (like cardiovascular comorbidities). This indicates that many antidiabetic agents should be administered in combination, to maintain normal sugar level in blood. The management for the patients suffering from diabetes should be effective and harmless for them. It should also improve the general well-being of the patients. So many remedies have been developed for the management of diabetes. Several of them are being developed. We should enhance insulin sensitivity to let our body use insulin effectively. We also must stop the increasing pancreatic β-cell failure which is a specific characteristic of Diabetes Mellitus type 2. The microvascular complications must also be avoided or revoked. Our direst need is to develop agents which may help us in achieving goals mentioned earlier. Many micronutrients are involved in combating the Diabetes Mellitus and complication associated to the malady. These micronutrients are vitamins. Our main focus in this chapter are Vitamins B9 (Folate) and B12 (Cobalamin). Many researches have shown that the said parameters were decreased in patients suffering from Diabetes Mellitus. The level of these two vitamins should be maintained to the normal level and not toward the border line. The maintained level of these vitamins will help in controlling the main problems in patients suffering from Diabetes Mellitus like neuropathy, anemia and many others. By taking these vitamins along with other preventive measures, Diabetes Mellitus can be controlled and can be less dangerous.",signatures:"Farah Qudsia and Samreen Riaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75411",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75411",authors:[{id:"172958",title:"Dr.",name:"Samreen",surname:"Riaz",slug:"samreen-riaz",fullName:"Samreen Riaz"},{id:"325719",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Farah",surname:"Qudsia",slug:"farah-qudsia",fullName:"Farah Qudsia"}],corrections:null},{id:"74586",title:"Selecting Intermittent Fasting Type to Improve Health in Type 2 Diabetes: A Machine Learning Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95336",slug:"selecting-intermittent-fasting-type-to-improve-health-in-type-2-diabetes-a-machine-learning-approach",totalDownloads:431,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Intermittent fasting (IF) is the cycling between periods of eating and fasting. The two most popular forms of IER are: the 5: 2 diet characterized by two consecutive or non-consecutive “fast” days and the alternate-day energy restriction, commonly called alternate-day fasting (ADF). The second form is time-restricted feeding (TRF), eating within specific time frames such as the most prevalent 16: 8 diet, with 16 hours of fasting and 8 hours for eating. It is already known that IF can bring about changes in metabolic parameters related with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Furthermore, IF can be effective in improving health by reducing metabolic disorders and age-related diseases. However, it is not clear yet whether the age at which fasting begins, gender and severity of T2D influence on the effectiveness of the different types of IF in reducing metabolic disorders. In this chapter I will present the risk factors of T2D, the different types of IF interventions and the research-based knowledge regarding the effect of IF on T2D. Furthermore, I will describe several machine learning approaches to provide a recommendation system which reveals a set of rules that can assist selecting a successful IF intervention for a personal case. Finally, I will discuss the question: Can we predict the optimal IF intervention for a prediabetes patient?",signatures:"Shula Shazman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74586",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74586",authors:[{id:"322808",title:"Dr.",name:"Shula",surname:"Shazman",slug:"shula-shazman",fullName:"Shula Shazman"}],corrections:null},{id:"73678",title:"Integrated Cyber-Physical System to Support Early Diagnosis and Prevention of Prediabetes and Complications of Type 2 Diabetes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94232",slug:"integrated-cyber-physical-system-to-support-early-diagnosis-and-prevention-of-prediabetes-and-compli",totalDownloads:373,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dietary and exercise interventions are the mainstay of prevention, and they constitute important part in the treatment of type 2 diabetes (DM2) and its complications. Automated, continuous, individualized non-invasive measurement of pathological processes leading to DM2 and complications are needed in terms of self-explaining metrics for improved individualized lifestyle management. Our company, the Ori Diagnostic Instruments, LLC is using tools of Medical Cybernetics (MC) to monitor non-invasive indicators of insulin resistance, exercise capacity, and autonomic dysfunction. The MC approach utilizes mathematical process and measurement models which are connected to a wearable sensor system. This chapter has the purpose to show how already widely available information technologies like smart phones, cloud computing, and sensor devices of the fitness industry could be put together into an integrated cyber-physical system (ICPS) to support fitness goals like fighting cardiometabolic conditions including high insulin resistance and low level of cardiorespiratory fitness and help building resilience with improved physiological reserve capacity. We want to demonstrate also how ICPS can be not only used for fitness self-management but can be extended to become a platform of noninvasive monitoring devices and become a medical software to support person-centered, outcome driven treatments for DM2 and complications in primary care.",signatures:"Zsolt P. Ori",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73678",authors:[{id:"273754",title:"M.D.",name:"Zsolt P.",surname:"Ori",slug:"zsolt-p.-ori",fullName:"Zsolt P. Ori"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7994",title:"Metformin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4763270256096f776a58d75658fe1d9b",slug:"metformin",bookSignature:"Anca Mihaela Pantea Stoian and Manfredi Rizzo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7994.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6581",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"85899eab2d8b01653e1297b168c470d7",slug:"adipose-tissue",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6581.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"34880b7b450ef96fa5063c867c028b02",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6246",title:"Salivary Glands",subtitle:"New Approaches in Diagnostics and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"de375ecbd9ac673d6464107a0c416763",slug:"salivary-glands-new-approaches-in-diagnostics-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Işıl Adadan Güvenç",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6246.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36790",title:"M.D.",name:"Işıl",surname:"Adadan Güvenç",slug:"isil-adadan-guvenc",fullName:"Işıl Adadan Güvenç"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7848",title:"Selected Chapters from the Renin-Angiotensin System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"38e89685aa86d8cbff0718f3813ae625",slug:"selected-chapters-from-the-renin-angiotensin-system",bookSignature:"Aleksandar Kibel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"183303",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandar",surname:"Kibel",slug:"aleksandar-kibel",fullName:"Aleksandar Kibel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7269",title:"Endocrine Disruptors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"571f5c496c8b0e8db9043204fa58be2a",slug:"endocrine-disruptors",bookSignature:"Ahmed R. G.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7269.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138555",title:"Prof.",name:"R.G.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"r.g.-ahmed",fullName:"R.G. 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The use of renewable energy resources (biodiesel) to generate power is receiving attention around the world, and for Pakistan, it can address the current and upcoming energy stresses of the country. Pakistan is facing a severe economic crisis owed to an unceasingly rising gap between energy demand and energy supply. The scarcity in power and gas supply has already frozen a number of industrial sectors such as textile, small and medium enterprises,and local transport. It is common anxiety in today’s world that fossil fuels will be exhausted soon. The price of energy is rising unceasingly and is predicted to be at its peak by 2050. The fossil fuel sources are decreasing in Pakistan, the result of which is the import of about 8.1 million tons at approximately US$ 9.4 billion per annum. Thus, renewable and sustainable energy resources, such as biodiesel needs to be maintained so that a sustainable energy mix could be achieved to confirm energy security. In the ambit of this justification, augmenting the scarce energy resources in Pakistan through intense coupling of the various biodiesel sources can effectively address the shortage and can confirm energy security. Towards this end, the advancement achieved in biodiesel-associated researches in Pakistan are assessed and presented, highlighting ways of attaining the objective set forth by the Government. To this effort, biodiesel as a renewable energy source has been deliberated, to overcome energy crisis, achieve pollution-free environment, economic growth and more importantly,significantly increase the income of our farmers. This study has also identified areas in Pakistan where there are substantial possibility to renovate bio-energy production distribution systems to deliver diverse energy carriers like electricity, industrial and domestic fuel, and gases. Fences are observed over the entire bio-energy range and policy issue and institutional roles and odd jobs are discoursed. Now the responsibility is upon the officialdoms such as of the Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) and Pakistan State Oil (PSO) to connect the research results from several native universities and to develop a full-scale biodiesel economy in Pakistan.
In the past, mankind has investigated a number of energy resources from wood, coal, oil and fossil fuel to nuclear energy. Recently, the public and governmental sensitivities to pollution and energy security have led to the elevation of renewable energy assets. Biofuel is one such reserve that could play a significant role in a more diverse and sustainable energy mixture [1].Biofuel is that source of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Biofuels comprise fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass, liquid fuels,and various biogases[1]. The fabrication of liquid biofuels has augmented five-fold in the previous two decades due to policy interferences and changing relative energy prices [2]. The increasing production of biofuels is mainly for energy security by lessening reliance on import of fast-depleting fossil fuels and saving considerable amounts of foreign exchange; to mitigate the global warming emissions by reducing the use of fossil fuels; and to improve agricultural development by offering better prices and new jobs [1].
Energy plays a basal role in the socio-economic advancement of a country by providing for daily life needs. For thousands of years,biofuel has been used as an energy source by men. The statistical data documented by the International Energy Agencyclarify that conventional energy resource, such as fossil fuel are still the main sources of energy tailed by coal and gas, contributing about 80% of Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) [1].Energy sources diversification is vital for energy security, climate change, and sustainable development issues. Additionally, too much dependence on non-renewable energy sources for power generation in the long-term is unfeasible. Consequently, extensive consumption of renewable energy sources such as biofuel, geothermal energy, solar energy and wind energy, is indispensable to overcome the energy crisis [2]. The biofuel potential is impressive and its capability to address the world’s energy demand has been extensively recognized. Presently, renewable energy globally is still ruled by the “old” renewable such as hydropower and traditional biofuel that supplies 6% and 9%, respectively, of the world’s key energy demand. While the “new” renewable sources such as mini- and micro-hydro, photovoltaic and windenergies afford only 2% of the world’s primary energy. In South Asia, households are likely to follow the energy ladder including power sources like dung, crop residue, firewood, kerosene, gobar gas, LPG, and electricity for cooking purposes. Evidence suggests that while it is possible to observe such transition in urban and semi-urban areas, the change is very slow in rural areas. In developing countries, improving power services for poor households is one of the most tenacious challenges to them.
Pakistan is also located in the south Asian region with a total land area of 888,000 km2. The approximate population of Pakistan is about 173.51 million with an annual growth rate of 2.05%; it is estimated that Pakistan will become the fourth largest nation on earth in terms of population by 2050 (Economic Survey of Pakistan 2010). The draft population policy 2009–2010 foresees a reductionin fertility level from 3.56 (2009) to 3.1 births per woman by the year 2015. With a median age of around 20 years, Pakistan is also a “young” country. It is assessed that there are currently about 104 million Pakistanis under the age of 30 years [1].Pakistan is basically an agriculture-dependent country. About 62% of the country’s inhabitants live in rural areas, and is directly or indirectly reliant on agriculture for their income. Pakistan has about 5.17% of land covered by forest out of which 5% is protected. To lessen dependence on natural forests, national forest policy calls for the promotion of alternate energy resources including energy plantations, micro-hydropower generation, bio-gas, solar and wind energies, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and natural gas for use in critical mountain ecosystems [1].
The key objective for power sector reforms in Pakistan is rural electrification. However, there is no secure government policy for the growth of devolved power supply. Pakistan, for nearly two decades, has been one of the fastest growing power markets in the world though it has a young and growing population, low per capita electricity consumption, rapid urbanization, and strong economic growth. Its economic growth has been significantly hindered by acute energy dearth for five years (Economic Survey of Pakistan 2009).Among the power sectors, the electricity sector in Pakistan consumed 15 million tons of oil in 2008 equaling to 28% of petro-fuels consumed by the country. As our oil reserves were not enough, therefore 71% of the country’s oil requirements were imported in2008 [3]. The high consumption of oil in the energy sector not only tightens the economic pressure, but also increases CO2 emission from the power generation sector. Moreover, high oil prices condensed the quantity of oil purchased, and therefore, electricity could not be supplied as per demand of the economy, which led to demand-supply gap of electricity. Because of this reason, the total supply of electricity altered from a surplus of 1230MW at the end of financial year 2005 to a shortfall of 5885MW at the end of financial year 2010 [4].
This inability of the electricity supply to address increasing demand is mainly attributed to the lower utilization of existing installed generation capacity which is mainly due to increasing oil prices in international markets [4]. The average annual rise of electricity need from 2005–2010 was 8%, and is predicted to continue till 2035. If the growth continues at the same rate, the total need of the country will be 474 GW up to 2050. The power generation plan till 2030 indicates that electricity supply will be growing at an average annual growth rate of 11% till 2030, and 65% of the increase in installed generation capacity will be thermal-based electricity (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2009).
Under such circumstances, much of our dependence on petro-fuel will not only cause an increment in environmental pollutants but will also result in high electricity prices due to the increasing prices of fossil fuels, and could make the power sector vulnerable to international price vacillations of fossil fuels. In these circumstances, the share of renewable energy in the power sector in Pakistan was less than 1% till 2010 [3]. Therefore, for this reason, it is imperative that Pakistan exploits domestically existing alternative energy sources for power generation. However, to tap renewable energy resources in Pakistan, details on the potential of these energy sources considering commercially available and most promising technologies need to be evaluated and quantified.
It is stated by a careful evaluation that the energy requirements of the country will increase to three times up to 2050 and the capacity to deliver this needis not very encouraging. Consequently, it becomes necessary to tap the substitute and renewable resources for energy [5].Biofuel experts recognize the land of Pakistan as rich in natural species of plants that can be used for biodiesel feedstock like
Biodiesel is a renewable form of fuel used in automobiles and is generally extracted from plant seeds or from its other parts (e.g. flowers).Basically, Pakistan is an agricultural country and there are enough resources to be utilized for the production of biodiesel. Unfortunately, no systematic investigations have been done on biodiesel technology due to lack of education, confidence, and interaction between our industries and research institutions [6].The Government of Pakistan has laid down various schemes to harness indigenous renewable sources of energy (biodiesel). In Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, a lot of work has also been done on the production of biodiesel from plants.
Meanwhile energy plays an important role in the daily lives of humans, and poverty deprives people of chances for a better existence; and it is not surprising that there are manifold links between energy and poverty. Poverty means starvation, absence of medical treatment, and deprived access to rudimentary facilities such as electricity and water supply. It means being unable to send children to school, and often needing them to work instead. Eradicating poverty, being the most unrelenting priority, is the realization of man’s elementary desires, which include nutriment, housing, water supply and hygiene, and other amenities that will advance their standards of living, such as adequate health care, education, and better transport [7].
Even though energy is not in itself a rudimentary necessity, it is essential as a critical input for providing indispensable human desires. The availability of modern energy facilities can contribute to poverty mitigation by (1) improving living standards through better lighting, access to cleaner cooking fuels, and safe drinking water, and (2) improving effective transfer of services such as reliable space- and water-heating, lighting, refrigeration of vaccines and other medicines, and sterilization of equipment in health centers. The provision of economical and good-quality lighting also allows students to extend study hours and to improve their employment prospects [7].
Synthesis involves three reactions, whereby triglyceride is converted successively to diglyceride, monoglyceride, and glycerol, consuming one mole of alcohol in each step and liberating one mole of ester [8]. The final biodiesel composition depends on the initial feedstock, as well as on the reaction conversions and process separation efficiencies. The thermo-physical properties depend on factors such as chain length, branching, and degree of saturation [9]. The reaction of transesterification proceeds in the presence of a suitable catalyst. When raw materials (oils or fats) have a high percentage of free fatty acids or water, the alkali catalyst will react with the free fatty acids to form soaps. The water can hydrolyze the triglycerides into diglycerides and form more free fatty acids. Both of the above reactions are undesirable and reduce the yield of the biodiesel product. In this situation, the acidic materials should be pre-treated to inhibit the saponification reaction [10].
In 2003, Jeffrey Dukes, a biologist, estimated that the fossil fuels we use in a calendar year were the result of decay of organic matter "containing 44 × 1018 grams of carbon, which is more than 400 times the net primary productivity of the planet\'s current biota". In simple English, this means that each, year we routinely use four centuries\' worth of assets of natural biota (plants and animals) [11]. Currently, Pakistan is in the clutch of a serious energy crisis that is distressing all zones of the economy and the different parts of the society. The way circumstances are currently positioned, explanations or solutions for the problem are scarce. It is time to alter attitudes and life styles at the national level, which should be initiated by those in authority and then followed by all sectors of the society, all of whom have the right to electricity. At best, there could be some short, medium, and long-term solutions to the crisis but they want instant planning and implementation with a massive investment. Former leaders of the republic have not succeeded in resolving the energy crisis, and the problem continued to persist.
To grow the economy of the country, energy is the key source. Pakistan has to face a major energy crisis in
Unremitting and economy supply of energy is essential for sustainable economic progression. Currently, the role of renewable and sustainable sources of energy in Pakistan is inadequate, to say the least, and key actions are needed to make it a noteworthy player in the country’s energy supply mix [5]. It is highlighted that the fabrication of biodiesel is a prerequisite to sustainable growth and will lessen reliance on imported fuel. The core deduction that was derived from the study was that if indigenous vegetation yielding inedible oil is cultivated on massive unproductive areas of the country, the feedstock cost could be reduced and biodiesel could become a solution to Pakistan’s ailing energy crisis. About 70% of Pakistan’s overall geographical area lay coarse, thus providing an opportunity to cultivate inedible oil-yielding vegetation that in turn is converted to biodiesel. Thus, it is necessary to develop plant-based biodiesel productions in Pakistan, which will be valuable for the improving socio-economic settings of the country [12].
To use biodiesel as substitute energy source in Pakistan, the AEDB has verbalized policy recommendations, the primary aims of which are to minimize the bill of imported fuel of the country, address the demand of raw material for biodiesel which will be the prime goods for biodiesel fabrication, and promote a pollution-free environment. Also on 14th Feb. 2008, the Economic Coordination Committee (ECC) of the National Cabinet has permitted the strategy for the use of biodiesel as an alternate energy source in its conference. Striking points of the dogma are as follows:
AEDB shall be the primary coordinating and facilitating body for the National Biodiesel Program.
Gradual introduction of biodiesel fuel blends with petroleum diesel so as to achieve a minimum share of 5% by volume of the total diesel consumption in the country by the year 2015 and 10%by 2025.
The Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources shall come up with the fuel quality standards for B‐100 and blends up to B‐20.
Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) are to purchase biodiesel (B‐100) from biodiesel manufactures; and sell this biodiesel blended with petroleum diesel (starting with B‐5) at their points of sale [13].
In general, vegetable oil is treated with either methanol or ethanol to synthesize biodiesel. The main reason for the use of methanol worldwide is its low price. The main source of methanol is coal, and in Pakistan, the coal reserve value is about 180 billion tons and is the 5th largest in world. At present, ethanol production in Pakistan is also high (300,000 tons of cane per day) because currently, 76 sugar mills are operational [14]. The main source of ethanol is the molasses from sugar cane which is actually the by-product. There are 21 distillery units in Pakistan with a capacity to process 2 million tons of molasses to produce 400,000 tons of ethanol; therefore, it means that excess ethanol can be either for gasohol purpose or for biodiesel production [15]. The production capacity of these 21 units is about 400,000 tons and the country’s need plus export is up to 80,200 tons and yet, there is still leftover ethanol, which is about 318,000 tons [15]. Thus, in terms of ethanol requirements for synthesis of biodiesel, the stock is sufficient to increase production.
Conventionally, NaOH is used as a catalyst during biodiesel synthesis which is produced in enough quantity to cover the country’s requirements, and production can be easily augmented because of massive reserves of NaCl [14].As it is well known, Pakistan is an agricultural country with70% of its population working in the farm fields, and so the Soil Survey of Pakistan surveyed and classified its soil types into 79 major classes, the details of which are given in Table 1 (Soil Survey of Pakistan).In the figure, land use for agriculture which is spread throughout the country is shown by yellow color (Soil Survey of Pakistan). In the country, 28 million hectares of land is unused and this is due to water scarcity, high temperature, and soil salinity (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, despite the rich land, Pakistan, which is known as an agriculture-based country, has to rely on imports for edible oil, wheat, and milk [14].
Land use for agriculture in Pakistan
From Jatropha seed, India successfully produces biodiesel. In Pakistan, Jatropha plants can also be cultured very easily and grow well, especially in saline soil with less quantity of water and can also withstand high temperature [14]. A one-hectare field of Jatropha can yield up to two tons of biodiesel fuel per year. If Pakistan makes use of all uncultured land for biodiesel manufacturing, then Pakistan will be able to yield 56 million tons of biodiesel in a calendar year, while the current necessity of fuel is about 8.5 million tons [14]. In short, land is available for cultivation of energy crops. Pakistan’s energy requirement is rising and a 10% increase (including for power and transport sectors) is perceived per annum. Consequently, biodiesel assignment is feasible and has a very promising future in Pakistan; raw materials for biodiesel fabrication are accessible, and more importantly, the Government of Pakistan is very serious in energy-generation programs [14].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\tAgriculture | \n\t\t\t21,733 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\tRange Land | \n\t\t\t25,475 | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\tConiferous Forest | \n\t\t\t1,353 | \n\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\tIrrigated Land | \n\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\tScrub Forest | \n\t\t\t196 | \n\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\tRiverains Forest | \n\t\t\t239 | \n\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\tWaste Lands | \n\t\t\t28,501 | \n\t\t
8 | \n\t\t\twater bodies | \n\t\t\t1,274 | \n\t\t
9 | \n\t\t\tOthers | \n\t\t\t159 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Total | \n\t\t\t79,610 | \n\t\t
Different lands used by Pakistan
The organic material resulting from biological organisms (plants and animals) is called biomass. Bio-energy can be defined as energy obtained from biological and renewable sources (biodiesel); it may be processed or converted in the form of heat or transformed into electricity for distribution. Biomass is a portable feedstock that can be easily transmuted into biofuels for the production of bio-energy, manufactured straight or indirectly from biomass. Biofuels are either solid (fuel wood, charcoal, wood pellets, briquettes, etc.) or liquid (bioethanol, biodiesel). Now with the evolving advancement in bio-energy using more recent technology, biomass energy can be divided into traditional biomass and modern bio-energy. Traditional biomass is the chief font of energy used in evolving countries mainly for food preparation and warming at the home level, typically using three-stone stoves, or in some areas improved cooking stoves. The energy source of this type is present in the form of wood-fuel (including fuel wood and charcoal), crop residues, and animal dung and is often processed and used by women and children on everyday basis. On the other hand, modern bio-energy is used generally for the generation of electrical energy or transport power. Liquescent biofuels for transport such as ethanol and biodiesel are examples of emerging energy substitutes [1].
About 62% of Pakistan’s residents have restricted access to commercial energy; only the traditional methods of using wood, animal waste and crop waste for home fuel needs are available to them because they are located in the rural areas. Effectiveness of use is very squat and most of the latent is lost because of non-scientific conventional technologies. Therefore, it is essential to develop modern bio-energy technologies so that renewable capitals of energy may serve to supplement the long-term energy requirements of Pakistan to a momentous level [1].
To use biodiesel as substitute energy source in Pakistan, Alternative Energy Developed Board has verbalized Policy Recommendations, the primary aims of which are to minimize the bill of imported fuel of the country, the demand of raw factual of biodiesel which will be the prime goods for biodiesel fabrication and a pollution free environment. Also on 14th Feb 2008 the Economic Coordination Committee (ECC) of the National Cabinet has permitted the Strategy for usage of biodiesel as an alternate energy source in its conference. Striking points of the dogma are as follows:
AEDB shall be apex coordinating and facilitating body for the National Biodiesel Program.
Gradual introduction of Biodiesel fuel blends with petroleum diesel so as to achieve as minimum share of 5% by volume of the total diesel consumption in the country by the year 2015 and 10%by 2025.
Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Resources shall come with the fuel quality standards for B‐100 and blends up to B‐20.
Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) to purchase Biodiesel (B‐100) from Biodiesel manufactures; and sell this Biodiesel blended with Petroleum diesel (starting with B‐5) at their points of sale [16].
On biodiesel technology, numerous projects have been initiated at different universities and industries in Pakistan. Unfortunately, all efforts have been conducted individually, and apparently, there was minimal knowledge sharing between and among institutions. This work is an effort at assembling all the figures produced by numerous national organizations and to present it in an articulate form for the assistance of the future [7].
The efforts done by Pakistan in rearing and harnessing Jatropha and pongame plants for biodiesel production is nothing short of praiseworthy. Research and progress reporting are also ongoing and findings are continually studied and evaluated [7].
In Sindh, the presence of Jatropha has long been reported [17]. It is locally identified as Karanga, RatanJothor or Jamal Ghota and was used to treat several diseases in villages and towns [18]. Through imported seeds from a number of countries, Jatropha has been mostly cultured on small scale by private tycoons [17]. Their plantations have increased from about 2 acres in 2005 to more than 400 acres in 2008 as shown in Fig. 2. This increase in Jatropha farming was primarily due to an aggressive campaign started by the AEDB [17]. In the private sector, numerous organizations are interested in cultivating Jatropha nurseries at several locations in Sindh, Punjab, and Baluchistan. These nurseries have become the root for a quantity of Jatropha ranches in the same areas. In these ranches, the normal age of a plant may range from several weeks to about 18 months [17].
Growth of cultivation of Jatropha in Pakistan
In 2005, roughly 2 acres were cultivated for Jatropha farming [17]. However, after that, the private sector started mounting nurseries for further cultivation. In 2006, more than 10,000 saplings were provided by nursery proprietors to several growers in Sindh and Punjab for transplantation into the farms. Similarly in 2007, these nurseries presented about 50,000 saplings for transplantation to various growers in Sindh and in Baluchistan [17]. However, because of glorified interest, cognizance, and conceivable economic gains in cultivating Jatropha, agrarians in Sindh presented more concentration, and because of the large-scale accessibility of saplings in the nurseries, during 2008, more than 200,000 saplings were provided by several nurseries in Sindh for transplantation [7].
Seeing this interest, in 2008, Pakistan State Oil (PSO) also brought seeds for developing nurseries and for cultivating about 20,000 Jatropha plants in their own farmhouse [17]. Currently, the PSO has about 10,000–20,000 saplings for such transplantation [19]. Upon calculation, within the quarter of 2009, their nurseries located adjacent to Karachi already had more than 200,000 saplings and were prepared to offer additional saplings if requested. The growth projections of Jatropha cultivation, up to the last of calendar year 2014, are shown in Fig. 3 [17].
Projected growth of Jatropha cultivation by PSO
PSO spearheaded an experimental project centered on harnessing
Six million plants will be cultivated for a greener environment.
Five hundred planters will be rented to accomplish the cultivation of plants on a 5,000- acre land.
Twenty-four million kilograms of seeds will be produced per year from this plantation.
A total of 7.2 million liters of biodiesel (costing roughly PKR 345 million @ PKR 48/liter of fossil diesel) will be manufactured/year which is equal to 17 MT of biodiesel/day.
Similarly, other interested investors such as Karachi’s Forest Department together with the Pakistan Army have efficaciously planted Jatropha plants in several areas of Sindh [16]. So far, the Forest Department succeeded to nurture 3000 samplings on a trial basis in Malir Cantonment in 2010 for the cultivation of the Jatropha seeds which were supplied by PS [17]. Likewise, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) and a Canadian company, KijaniEnergy, are also interested in developing large-scale cultivation of Jatropha for biodiesel production on marginal lands [21]. In 2009, Kijani Energy capitalized approximately US$ 150 million, which has resulted in the use of 200,000 acres of land in Cholistan, Umerkot, Tharparker, Khairpur, and Sanghar for the purpose of Jatropha cultivation [22].
The advantages and benefits of such deeds can be multifarious. The culturing of Jatropha is likely to produce at least one vacancy for each acre of planted samples; thus, the overall influence on agricultural employment alone can be gigantic [17]. The charge of earning of seeds, cost of synthesis, tax policies made by government, consumption of by-products, oil cake, and other Jatropha surplus continue to influence the cost of biodiesel production. While considering the aspect of expenses, it is indispensable to recognize the rural occupation generation, energy sanctuary, carbon swapping issues, and savings of external exchange. Overall, job opportunities will be created from plantation, seed gathering, extraction of oil, biodiesel manufacturing, and local scattering. Job opportunities generated from plantation and seed collection alone are appraised to be 40 men days/ha/year [7].
The
For biodiesel fabrication, expenses to be incurred may vary because of variation in location and labor duties, land procurement, and policies in place. However, Silitonga et al. [23] presented a solid case for biodiesel manufacturing from Jatropha. According to them, if 500 hands work on a farmland of 1,500,000 ha, an estimated amount of 2,250,000 liters of oil can be produced. Taking into account the labor charges related to the area of attention, the estimated proceeds can be calculated. For Jatropha cultivation, the cost is negligible because it does not require crop rotation or expensive fertilizers. This partly explains the growing number of organizations in Pakistan that have been involved in the manufacture and testing of biodiesel from
The universities that testified results for the synthesis of biodiesel through transesterification of
Biodiesel fuel properties for Jatropha oil assessed by PSO and unconnectedly at Faisalabad are shown in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Density at 20 C/cm3 (lb/in3) | \n\t\t\t0.83(0.03) | \n\t\t\t0.8522 | \n\t\t\t0.8816 | \n\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t\tASTM D 1298 | \n\t\t
Kinematic viscosity mm2/s (in2/s) | \n\t\t\t2.73 (0.0042) | \n\t\t\t4.19 | \n\t\t\t4.38 | \n\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\tASTM D 445 | \n\t\t
Cetane index | \n\t\t\t46 | \n\t\t\t53 | \n\t\t\t47 | \n\t\t\tNE | \n\t\t\tASTM D 976 | \n\t\t
Flash point C | \n\t\t\t37 (310) | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t140 | \n\t\t\t188 | \n\t\t\tASTM D 93 | \n\t\t
Calorifis value Btu/lb | \n\t\t\t19528 | \n\t\t\t19233 | \n\t\t\t17162 | \n\t\t\tNE | \n\t\t\tASTM D 420 | \n\t\t
Please send caption
NED University succeeded in experimenting on PSO’s biodiesel in a single cylinder four-stroke compression ignition engine (Rotronics) and established that its discharge profile was better than that of diesel, canola oil biodiesel, and castor oil biodiesel [24]. The researchers at NED University also determined that biodiesel from
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\tJatropha | \n\t\t\t94.549 | \n\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\tCastor | \n\t\t\t162.708 | \n\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\tTaramira | \n\t\t\t277.004 | \n\t\t
Cost of biodiesel synthesis/L in PKR from different non-edible feedstock
By using the state-of-the-art trans-esterification unit, PSO has effectively transformed Jatropha oil obtained from its own farms into biodiesel [20]. Engine performance and discharge analysis of PSO’s B10 were recently spearheaded by NED University [7]. There results plainly illustrate that Jatropha biodiesel has minimum influence on the environment in contrast to other indigenous biodiesel oils as well as fossil diesel, but its engine efficiency is slightly inferior to its mineral complements. This is because of its lesser greasy value than fossil diesel. This concern can be solved if further investigation is led by Pakistani institutions to create an upsurge in the calorific value of Jatropha oil biodiesel [7].
The Pongame plant grows well in humid and subtropical habitats and is planted in those zones with an annual rainfall of between 500 and 2500 mm. Pongame is a possible raw material for biodiesel manufacturing in Pakistan. The oil-yielding capacity of its seeds is about 35%. They can flourish in saline soil, in water logged area, and in slightly icy ground; it can also grow on diverse sorts of soil, thus, it is not a problem for highly uncultivated land in Pakistan to be finally used for biodiesel production [7].
In Quaid-e-Azam University (QAU), pongame oil has been effectively transesterified into biodiesel through catalytic transesterification using NaOH as catalyst. As a result, a maximum 90% of crude oil was converted to biodiesel. A comparable, but much effective effort was also made by other researchers in the NED University in Karachi (unreported). The fuel properties of the biodiesel samples produced at both institutions are given in Table 4. The biodiesel synthesis at NED had improved properties compared with the one manufactured at QAU. In addition, its flash point was higher, signifying that it was safer to stock. However, its ignitibility was less than the biodiesel manufactured at QAU [7].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Density | \n\t\t\tASTM D 1298 | \n\t\t\t0.875-0.900 | \n\t\t\t0.85 | \n\t\t\t0.88 | \n\t\t\t0.92 | \n\t\t
Viscosity | \n\t\t\tAASTM D 445 | \n\t\t\t1.9-6.0 | \n\t\t\t2.8 | \n\t\t\t3.9 | \n\t\t\t7.53 | \n\t\t
Flash point | \n\t\t\tASTM D 93 | \n\t\t\t93 C Min | \n\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t152 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t
Sulphur contents % | \n\t\t\tASTM D 5453 | \n\t\t\t0.0015 Max | \n\t\t\t2.4 | \n\t\t\t0.001 | \n\t\t\t0.0084 | \n\t\t
Cetane index | \n\t\t\tASTM D 613 | \n\t\t\t47 Min | \n\t\t\t46.2 | \n\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t53 | \n\t\t
Total acid value | \n\t\t\tASTM D 974 | \n\t\t\t0.50 Max | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\tNA | \n\t\t
A comparison of the fuel properties of biodiesel from Pongame at QAU and at NED University
The efficiency experiment of biodiesel was taken at the test ground for internal combustion engines in the engines laboratory of QAU and a road test run of a Toyota car (2D) belonging to the AEDB, Islamabad was completed with positive results [25]. The advantage of Pongame biodiesel is that it has slighter discharge of pollutants than Jatropha and had comparable brake power and torque with Jatropha at the same engine speeds.
The Government of Pakistan created the AEDB in 2003, with the purpose of endorsing and facilitating the harnessing of renewable energy capitals in the country [26]. The policy for the development of renewable energy was made and issued in 2006. Thus far, AEDB has been able to stimulate different organizations and universities to initiate research work on biodiesel technology and other renewable energy resources. The government also took the task of promoting biodiesel technology through a National Awareness Program via AEDB. The organization has also been successfully nurturing Jatropha in Karachi with the assistance of various stakeholders [27].
In 2009, the AEDB has effectively completed their first research work of biodiesel resources. The potential oil resources which were recognized for use in biodiesel synthesis were composed of
The commercial level fabrication of biodiesel was started by Clean Power (Pvt.) Ltd. along with AEDB by setting up a 400 liters/day refinery. This project has diverse goals that include plantation of crops in waste areas, cultivation of Pongamia and Jatropha plants, and the use of waste vegetable oil. The company also worked with Pakistan Railways to cultivate Pongame seeds in several areas of the country [7].
In 2008, the AEDB also verbalized a policy for biodiesel which encompassed the succeeding major proposals [29]:
Introduction of 5% biodiesel blended fuel by 2015 and 10% by 2025 in Pakistan.
Oil marketing companies were to buy B (100) biodiesel from biodiesel fabrications and market the biodiesel blended fuel (B-5) at their points of sale.
Oil gas regulatory authority was to regulate the pricing mechanism of various blends of biodiesel.
All imprinted plants machinery, equipment, and specific items used in the production of biodiesel were to be exempted from customs duty, income tax, and sales tax.
After the endorsement of Policy Recommendations for the use of biodiesel as a substitute fuel, SRO474(I)/2008, for the exemption of taxes and duties on biodiesel-associated paraphernalia, machines, and other specific items was issued by the Federal Board of Revenue (FBR), Government of Pakistan. In answer to that, the AEDB received endorsement for setting up a 10,000 t/annum biodiesel fabrication capability as part of the Government’s viability study for starting a B5-use countrywide program by 2015. The additional advantage of the above-mentioned policy was the inauguration of Pakistan’s principal commercial biodiesel fabrication ability (amounting to 18,000 t/annum of fuel) under the sponsorships of M/s Eco-Friendly Fuels Private Ltd. and AEDB [27].
The production of biodiesel from algal cell lipase is not a new concept or technology. It has been carefully studied by numerous investigative groups that have deliberated its potential for the energy market worldwide [7]. A number of officialdoms in Pakistan have used this idea to do primary research biodiesel synthesis from algae based upon preliminary screening studies of numerous indigenous species. Two of them are in Karachi, one being the Pakistan Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and the other being the Department of Biochemistry, University of Karachi [7]. Unfortunately, the oil yield of the algae grown in the laboratories of both institutes was not sufficient to meet the standard defined by Chisti [30].
A Pakistani researcher at Mie University of Japan has recently claimed that the nation could benefit by harnessing its 27–28 million acre saline lands for algal farming [31]. This has also been confirmed by researchers in Malaysia [32]. Considering that about 40% of algal biomass consists of lipids from which oil can be extracted for producing biodiesel, the researcher mentioned that Pakistan should follow the example of other countries that are running similar projects of reclaiming saline lands and producing sustainable biofuels. He also remarked that the Pakistan Technology Board, an organization of Ministry of Science and Technology responsible for identifying and promoting key technologies in Pakistan, had already taken some initiatives to promote innovative research approaches towards biofuel production [31]. Other researchers have identified four strains of algae suitable for cultivation in Pakistan’s deserts [33]:
So far, there has been quite a clamor on commencing a large-scale algal biodiesel project in Pakistan, but very little has been done to date. No commercial reports are available in the scanty literature either. One of the main reasons may be due to the high costs associated with farming algae on a large scale as reported in a recent article in Dawn [34]. If a cost-effective method of producing algae on both saline lands and sewage networks is developed, algal biodiesel could become a major success in Pakistan [7].
Biodiesel as fuel can compete with the existing fossil-diesel fuel. Biodiesel is compared with fossil-diesel in a number of categories such as energy content, hazardous material rating, health and social impacts, and engine performance rating.
The main users of diesel and petrol are vehicles and are the main cause of environmental degradation. Old models of diesel engine are main contributors to air pollution. In Pakistan, many cities have high air pollution as compared with World Health Organization (WHO) standards, and in the past 20 years, the amount of SO2 increased to approximately 23 folds. The losses due to air pollution in terms of health care are approximately about 500 million dollars per year while the diseases due to air pollution are increasing (Khwaja and Khan 2004). Asthma and lung diseases are caused by SO2 and it also causes acid rain. Pollutants like CO, CO2, Ozone, NOx, and many volatile organic matters are upsetting air quality to dangerous levels in major cities of Pakistan.
Diesel engines are the high pollutant-emission sources (79%) (AEDB, Government of Pakistan). Its pollutants consist of many of organic and inorganic compounds. These particles have hundreds of poisonous chemicals on their surfaces, such as mutagens and carcinogens. Using biodiesel can greatly reduce the emission of pollutants such as SOx, PM, but not NOx.
Biodiesel as fuel can also be helpful in decreasing the rate of global warming by reducing the discharge of greenhouse gases. A significant decline has been observed in smog-forming pollutants. It emits much less noxious pollutants compared with petro-diesel as shown in Table 5. The data of B20 and B100 are provided for overall view.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Unburned hydrocarbons (HC) | \n\t\t\t67% Reduction | \n\t\t\t14% Reduction | \n\t\t
Carbon monoxide (CO) | \n\t\t\t48% Reduction | \n\t\t\t10% Reduction | \n\t\t
Particle matter (PM) | \n\t\t\t47% Reduction | \n\t\t\t10% Reduction | \n\t\t
Sulphur (SOx) | \n\t\t\t100% Reduction | \n\t\t\t20% Reduction | \n\t\t
Nitrogen oxide (NOx) | \n\t\t\t10% Reduction | \n\t\t\t2% Reduction | \n\t\t
Reduction rate of smog-forming pollutants
Other noxious pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and NPAH (nitrated PAH), also show a great reduction (Table 6).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) | \n\t\t\t80% Reduction W/B100 | \n\t\t\t13% Reduction w/B20 | \n\t\t
NPAH (nitrated PAH) | \n\t\t\t90% Reduction w/B100 | \n\t\t\t50% Reduction w/B20 | \n\t\t
Other toxic-emission reduction
(Feasibility paper 4)
Biodiesel in nature is non-hazardous when compared with fossil-diesel. Its flash point is high, therefore, it is safe to use. Biodiesel is biodegradable and 95% of it can be degraded in 28 days. Biodiesel in blended form, for example, as B20 can degrade faster than normal petro-diesel. Hazardous rating comparison between petro-diesel and biodiesel is shown in Table 7 [14].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Biodegradability | \n\t\t\tReadily biodegradable, about 3 times faster than fossil fuel | \n\t\t\tSlow biodegradability | \n\t\t
Flash point | \n\t\t\t150 C | \n\t\t\t51.7 C | \n\t\t
Toxicity | \n\t\t\tEssentially non-toxic | \n\t\t\tHighly toxic | \n\t\t
Spill hazard | \n\t\t\tBiodiesel is safe with no dangerous chemicals | \n\t\t\tDangerous and toxic | \n\t\t
Hazardous rating comparison of biodiesel vs. fossil fuel (diesel)
Pakistan is an agriculture country with 70% of its population relying on agriculture for their livelihood. They can uplift their standards of living by producing oil seed generating crops in their field. Small-scale biodiesel production facility can be designed with a small investment and will be helpful in providing biodiesel fuel for their agriculture machinery. Those areas of land which are not being used due to water shortage or soil salinity can now be used for oil crops. The Government pays a huge bill for its crude oil import, thus, giving no benefit to its local economy. If farmers are able to generate energy crops then this will be beneficial not only to themselves but also to the country’s overall economy. In Europe, biodiesel plants are being developed by large conglomerate entities. The produced fuel is then transported back to widely dispersed distribution depots. Germany is a successful example and is increasing its production capacities [14].
The diesel-engine industry has the right to decide whether biodiesel is good or not. After going through a number of experimental tests, scientists agreed upon the better or comparable performance of biodiesel fuel [14].
Based on the above analyses, the government of Pakistan may wish to:
Create a national mission or a central government organization that is dedicated to biodiesel development: It would encourage entrepreneurs to adopt this new technology by working with the small enterprise development authority, to create business models and pre-feasibility studies for biodiesel production facilities and feedstock farms. This organization would also develop an industrial standard for biodiesel specifications.
Create and empower environmental groups to solicit support in favor of widespread adoption of alternative fuels.
Work in conjunction with other states to create a more uniform distribution of biodiesel feedstock production.
To grow plants producing biodiesel in long roadsides to yield raw material for biodiesel and also to benefit the environment.
Extend the project of biodiesel: There is need to establish pilot projects to commercialize biodiesel and set up its supply chain. The project may be extended step wise like conversion vehicle fleets of designated departments to run on biodiesel.
From the reviewed articles and publications, it is clear that the energy need of Pakistan can be attained and that the present energy crisis can be stopped. To achieve this, the practice of indigenous renewable energy sources of Pakistan is highly significant. However, further research and development on renewable energies are needed to create an upturn in their effective consumption. With effective usage of biodiesel in manufacturing energy, Pakistan can encounter a variability of energy requirements, counting producing electricity, providing energy for kitchen proposes to homes, fueling vehicles and providing energy to industries, but there is still a necessity for more thoughtful and broad research to encourage the renewable energy technologies coherent biodiesel policies by the Government essential to been involuntary with more emphasis devoted to supporting the initial local research efforts. In addition, the AEDB and PSO’s initiatives to involve various universities all over the country should be harnessed so that effective solutions can be found in meeting the requirement of blending 10% of biodiesel with mineral diesel by 2025.
It was estimated that the global population would touch 9 billion individuals, and the annual growth rate will be 0.75 percent by 2050. To feed this burgeoning human population only, it is required to produce a surplus of one billion tons of cereals by the end of 2050 [1]. It is well known that to achieve these targets new integrated approaches must be practiced with the conventional breeding programmes to accelerate the breeding cycle by reducing net time and cost per unit production [2, 3].
The primary objective of plant breeding is to increase crop yield [4], and the secondary objectives are quality improvement, development of photo & thermo-insensitive cultivars, tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, synchronous maturity, water and nutrient use efficiency, elimination of toxic substances, and different crop maturity groups [5, 6] for high agricultural output and sustainable development. The advanced understanding and developments in molecular genetics have significantly enhanced the efficiency of plant breeding to achieve the desired objectives in crop plants [7]. The efficient and effective application of molecular markers in crop improvement programmes improves the selection efficiency, degree of precision, and accelerates the breeding cycle to develop a new cultivar with a trait of interest [5].
Marker-assisted selection (MAS) can be defined as the manipulation of genomic regions that are involved in the desirable trait of interest through DNA markers [7], and their potential use in crop improvement begins a new era of molecular breeding [8]. The MAS has an edge over the visual phenotypic selection because the trait of interest is linked with a molecular marker which increases the selection efficiency of the targeted trait [9].
The fundamental aim of any crop improvement programme is the selection of effective plants with a trait of interest. In conventional plant breeding, there are more chances to skip the trait of interest and delays the time to develop new cultivars with desirable traits. Whereas, MAS has shown its utility in crop plants for improvement of various traits by reducing the environmental effect and by increasing selection efficiency for a trait of interest [10]. However, the efficacy of MAS on selection may be impeded by genetic background [11], reliability and accuracy of QTLs [12], the insufficient linkage between the gene of interest (QTLs) and marker [13], relative high input cost, [14, 15] limited molecular markers and their narrow range of polymorphism and knowledge gap between plant breeders and molecular biologist [5].
Various markers such as morphological (trait-specific), proteinaceous (isoenzyme), cytological (chromosome-specific), and DNA markers have been utilized in plant breeding: however, DNA based markers are used extensively in MAS for various traits and crops by the plant breeders [16]. The basic requirements for effective MAS in plant breeding are- reliability of DNA marker, qualitative and quantitative assurance of genetic material (DNA), marker analysis procedures, genomic coverage of marker, level of polymorphism, genetic nature of marker such as co-dominance [5, 17, 18, 19].
Recent advances in molecular breeding such as the use of PCR based techniques [simple sequence repeats (SSRs), and insertion/deletion mutations (Indels)]; single nucleotide repeats (SNPs); Genomic sequencing (GS) and genotype by sequencing (GBS), etc. have extensively been used in crop improvement programme throughout the world [3, 19].
Any fixed property of an individual showing the heritable variations is termed as a character or trait, whereas marker can be defined as any mark which inherits together with the trait of interest throughout generation [20, 21]. Markers are categorized into four main groups- morphological, biochemical, cytological and molecular (DNA based) markers [22].
Morphological markers are also known as naked eye marker or phenotypic marker, used for quality traits such as flower shape, size, color, seed structure, growth habit, and other agronomic traits in plants. These markers are eco-friendly; easy to use, and need not require any specific instrument; however, their number is limited in crop species and highly influenced by prevailing environmental conditions [22, 23, 24].
Biochemical markers, mostly isozymes, are the results of variation in enzymes (protein and amino acid sequences) encoded by various genes, but functionally they are the same [25]. They are the result end product of allelic variation of enzymes. They are co-dominance in inheritance, cost-effective, and easy to use. They have been widely used in plant breeding for the study of gene flow, population structure, and genetic diversity [26]. However, they are limited in number, show less polymorphism, and predominantly affected by plant tissue being used, growth stage, and method of their extraction [27].
Cytological markers are based on prevailing variation in number, shape, size, the position of chromosomes, and their banding pattern. Cytological analysis reveals the unique characteristics of chromosomes such as knob and satellite, and the number of nucleoli in the nucleus, etc. This variation shows a different pattern of euchromatin and heterochromatin in the chromosome [22], such as Giemsa stain recognizes G bands. They have been extensively utilized in plant breeding for the identification of linkage groups and physical mapping [9]. In contrast, molecular markers are defined as nucleotides polymorphism present between individuals as a result of deletion, duplication, insertion, substitution, point mutation and translocation, etc. [27] but do not affect the function of the gene.
Molecular markers do not inevitably target genes, instead, inherit as a ‘flag’ with the gene of interest during transmission of a trait from one generation to the next generation [28]. Molecular markers associated with the close proximity of genes of interest are known as gene tags
DNA bands are captured where labeled probe
The idea of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was conceived by Kary Mullis in 1983, and invented the process in 1985 which is based on denaturation, annealing, and extension [30]. The PCR based markers use primer dependent PCR amplification and/or DNA hybridization followed by electrophoresis. Polymorphism is detected based on the presence or absence of an amplicon or based on the band size and mobility. The most commonly used PCR based markers are Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) [31], Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) [32], microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSRs) [33], sequence-related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) [34], inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) [35], cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences [36], sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) [37].
Sequencing technique is characterized by the identification of nucleotide sequences and their order along with the DNA strand [38]. Sequence-based markers are designed as per a specific sequence of DNA in a pool of unknown DNA. The modern sequencing techniques are genotyping by sequencing (GBS) and next-generation sequencing (NGS), which help to develop a large array of polymorphism at the nucleotide level; however, the most commonly used marker are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) [39] and diversity array technology (DArT Seq), which are known to be more accurate and reliable [22, 40].
The historical development of molecular markers is also represented in the Table 1, which is adapted and modified from: Singh and Singh [41].
Year | Events |
---|---|
1923 | Sax reported a linkage map between quantitative (seed size) and qualitative trait (seed coat color) in common bean for the first time. |
1961 | Thodey described QTLs mapping in |
1980 | Linkage mapping in humans using RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) was described for the first time by Botstein |
1985 | Kary Mullis discovered the Polymerized Chain Reaction (PCR) which led to the designing of PCR based markers |
1989 | Olson et al. reported Sequence-tagged site (STS) markers |
1990 | Williams JGK |
1991 | Williams MNV |
1993 | Development of Marker-assisted techniques: Paran and Michelmore developed ‘SCAR’ (Sequence Characterized Amplified Regions) and Zabeau and Vos developed ‘AFLP’ (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) technique |
2001 | Li and Quiros developed ‘SRAP’ (Sequence Related Amplified Polymorphism) technique |
2009 | Collard and Mackill reported ‘SCoT’ (Start Codon Targeted Polymorphism) |
2014 | Singh AK |
A chronology of the historical steps in molecular breeding.
We have discussed several molecular marker systems; however, the most commonly used markers in plant breeding are RFLP, SSR, RAPD, AFLP, SCAR, and SNP [42]. The single-locus markers are RFLP, VNTR, SSLP, STMS, SSR, STS, SNP, CAPS, and SCAR whereas; multi-locus markers are RAPD, AP-PCR, ISSR, AFLP, M-AFLP, and S-SAP marker [43]. All these markers are used in plant breeding for germplasm characterization and protection, gene tagging, genome mapping, linkage map construction and analysis, evolution studies, parental selection, F1 hybrid testing, genetic purity test of seeds, genes or QTLs mapping etc. [44, 45].
The direct phenotypic selection in plant breeding for crop improvement is labor-intensive, costly, and time-taking. This selection is also affected by target gene expression, their specific biological or environmental condition, and heritability of a trait. Phenotypic selection is less efficient for the quantitative traits that are frequently under the selection [46].
In MAS, the phenotypic selection is made with the help of genotypic markers. This technique helps to avoid difficulties and challenges that are occurred during the conventional crop breeding [47]. It is mostly used by plant breeders in their breeding programmes for the identification of desired dominant or recessive alleles throughout generations, also it helps to identify best genotypes from segregating generations [48]. The prerequisite for an efficient MAS program is reliable markers, quality of DNA extraction method, genetic maps, knowledge of marker-trait association, quick and efficient data processing, and availability of high throughput marker detection system [49]. Marker development pipeline adapted from [5] Collard and Mackill, 2008, in Figure 1 explain that how marker assisted selection imposed from development of population through various steps.
Marker development flow chart.
There are different molecular approaches used under the umbrella of MAS, such as marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC), gene pyramiding, marker-assisted recurrent selection (MARS) and genomic selection (GS). These approaches have been utilized in plant breeding for the characterization of genetic material and selection of individuals in the early segregating generation, which fastens the breeding cycle with more accuracy [22].
Convention backcrossing is an age-old practice and is a very useful technique for the transfer of oligogenic traits from donor parents to recipient parents by recovering the whole genome of recipient parents except trait of interest after 6–7 generations of backcrossing. The MABC is a backcrossing technique and is assisted by molecular markers [50] to speed up the selection process and genome recovery of recipient parents. The MABC technique has been extensively used to remove the undesirable traits such as insect and disease susceptibility, and anti-nutritional factors etc. from high yielding popular varieties by introducing gene of interest or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) from donor parent [51].
The fundamental basis of MABC is the close association of marker with gene/s or QTLs. Recovery of recurrent parent genome is specified by using formula- 1-(1/2)m+1 (m is the number of generation of selfing or backcrossing). This technique has been used in different crops such as rice [52], wheat [53], barley [54], soybean [55], cotton [56], tomato [57], and pea [58], etc. There are three basic steps in the MABC technique
Foreground selection is the first step of MABC, where the gene of interest from the donor parent is the primary target which is linked with the marker. The efficiency of foreground selection depends on marker-trait association, the physical distance between marker and gene of interest, genetic load or linkage drag, number of genes/QTLs/loci targeted to selection, etc. [59]. Linkage drag is undesirable for selection due to the negative effect of associated genes on targeted traits.
Recombinant selection is the second step of MABC, where selection is made for target gene in backcross progeny, and the recombination process is done between the gene of interest and linked flanking marker for reducing the effect of linkage drag [22].
Background selection is the third step of MABC, where the major target is the recovery of a large amount of recipient parental genome from backcross progeny by using molecular markers that are unlinked with the gene of interest [5]. The efficiency of background selection is determined by various factors such as the size of the population, the number of markers and targeted genes, and linkage drag, etc. It helps to speed up the recovery of the recipient parent genome with the trait of interest and also termed as ‘complete line conversion’ [60].
Current breeding programs mainly focus on the development of lines governing complex traits such as biotic and abiotic stress. Modern MAS methods involve pyramiding of different genes to accomplish such goals referred to as MAGP. In MAGP, two or more than two genes at a time are selected for pyramiding. Different approaches have been utilized for pyramiding multiple genes/QTLs from donor parent to recipient parent. Some of them are recurrent selection, backcrossing, and multiple-parent crossing or complex crossing. The 3-4 desirable genes from other lines would be incorporated by convergent or stepwise backcrossing. The incorporation of more genes is usually carried through multiple crossing or recurrent selection. If we want to pyramid multiple genes/QTLs, marker-assisted convergent crossing (MACC) can be used [8, 61].
Recurrent selection is an efficient technique used in plant breeding for the improvement of quantitative traits by continuous crossing and selection process. However, its efficiency of selection is adversely affected by environmental fluctuations which leads to delays breeding cycle. In MARS, molecular markers are used at each generation level for the targeted traits. Here, the selective crossing is done in selected individual plants at every crossing and selection cycle. The selection is made based on phenotypic data with marker scores. Thus, it increases the efficiency of recurrent selection and accelerates the breeding or selection cycle. The MARS has been extensively used for polygenic traits such as crop yield, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, and considered as a forward breeding tool for augmenting multiple genes or QTLs [62].
The genomic selection was developed by Hayes and Goddard [63] and is known as an advanced version of MAS. It can predict the genetic values of selected individuals which depend on genome estimated breeding values (GEBVs) by using high-density markers that are distributed throughout the genome. The GEBV prediction model combines genotypic data with phenotypic data with their pedigree and increases the prediction accuracy. The GS is mostly dependent on all the molecular markers which have both major and minor marker effect. Molecular markers are selected based on their whole genome coverage and all the QTLs should be in linkage disequilibrium with at least a single marker [23, 62, 63]. Two different types of populations are used in GS, such as training and testing population. The training population is related to the breeding population, and used to estimate the genomic selection model parameter. A testing population is a group of individuals in which genomic selection is carried out. The GEBV value is calculated by using molecular markers. Selection is based on GEBVs values, and no direct phenotypic selection is required [22, 64, 65, 66].
Utilizing molecular markers, MAS has a broad spectrum application in plant breeding. Molecular markers can genotype all the accession present in germplasm. This potentiality permits the categorization of germplasm as well as reducing duplication. Here some of the innovative applications of MAS have been presented.
The MAS, along with phenotypic selection, increases genetic gain to unravel unidentified QTLs through QTL mapping compared to phenotypic screening or MAS alone [67]. The term ‘combined MAS’ was coined by Moreau et al., 2004 [68]. This approach not only reduces the population size but also increase selection efficiency. The combination of phenotypic selection and MAS also helps select traits where markers genotyping is economical compared to phenotypic screening [69]. With this view, this scheme explain that always a confirmation of MAS is necessary through phenotypic screening like in the case of QTL identified for Fusarium head blight resistance [70].
In most cases, there is a low level of recombination between QTL and marker is observed [13] which means we cannot believe 100% on markers for selecting desirable phenotypes. However, it will reduce the number of plants that are about to evaluate. This approach is mainly used for quality traits [71]; where phenotypic screening is costlier than marker genotyping [72]. The method is also known as tandem selection [71] and stepwise selection by [73]. One of the successful examples to explain this scheme is that rice primary QTL
This approach\'s main features are constructing the introgression library, evaluating the line for QTL detection, mapping, and further superior line used in the breeding program [41]. This scheme starts with hybridizing the two inbred line. One is the recurrent parent (agronomically superior having defects for one trait), and the other is the donor parent (have the desirable target gene). Further, the F1 obtained from this cross is backcrossed again to the recurrent parent, and genome-wide markers have been utilized to select the genetic segment from the donor parent. To generate a set of NILs, F1 is repeatedly backcrossed to the recurrent parent, and this set of NILs is known as the introgression line library. Therefore, this scheme seeks to introduce QTL from a suitable donor parent and simultaneously maps the QTL [75].
It is designed to facilitate QTL introgression from unadapted germplasm like landraces and wild species into elite lines, simultaneously mapped for introgressed QTL [76]. This scheme is somewhat similar to the introgression line library, as discussed in section 5.3. However, the differences in the incorporation of phenotypic selection are in contrast to the introgression line library. Apart from this, several advantages like simplicity of mapping population in phenotype to the recurrent parent and reducing deleterious allele from donor parent, possibility of epistasis, andlinkage drag. After QTL mapping, only one or two generationsare needed for identifying QTL-NILs. In several crops like maize, tomato, soybean, cotton, rice, barley, and wheat, this approach is effectively used [9].
Single large scale MASwas proposed by Ribaut and Betran, 1999 [77], where marker-assisted selection is utilized at first segregating generation (F2 or F3). As the name describes, a single means one; large scale means up to three QTLs, explaining the most considerable phenotypic variance. The shortening of crop duration by reducing the breeding cycle prompted the idea of early generation MAS. Further plants having targeted gene/QTLs are selected whereas undesirable gene combination was discarded. Further, selected alleles were fixed in homozygous condition, and individual plants with undesirable genes would be discarded in early segregating generations. Thus, emphasis can be given on a few selected lines in the later stage, which reduces the wastage of resources and increases the selection efficiency [78].
MAS\'s most ambitious objective is to improve plant type having the anticipated alleles at each locus participating in the control of all the traits [79]. Plant breeders will exploit known allelic variation to frame elite lines by accumulating multiple favorable alleles through this approach [80]. Therefore, the breeder can pre-plan the combination of genes he is looking for, and consequently, he can select the plant with the desired characteristics that will save expensive field testing.
This method revised assessments of QTL allele effects for remapping new elite germplasm produced continuously over the selection cycle. In this approach, initial breeding crosses are utilized to estimate the QTL location and its impact. The information revealed from this estimation will be used in the mapping. This updated QTL information will be used in a new set of breeding cycles as the name suggest, mapping as you go, which means that the breeding cycle can be continued as long as desired. Overall an enhanced response has been achieved with frequent re-estimation of QTL compared to single QTL estimation at the initial level of this approach [41]. Hence, this method\'s advantage is that it ensures that the QTL estimate remains significant for the germplasm currently used in the breeding program [81].
Well-documented and characterized breeding material is a prerequisite for improving crop yield in plant breeding programs. The MAS could help to select desirable traits and have been exploited to identify cultivars/purity assessment, evaluate genetic diversity and selection of suitable donor parent, heterotic grouping, and identification of genomic regions for effective utilization in breeding programs [82, 83, 84].
Several examples illustrate the achievement, made through marker-assisted selection; however, in Table 2, few paradigm crop-wise and trait wise have been presented.
Maize | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Traits | Gene/QTL | Marker | Particulars | References |
Yield | Six QTL | SNP | Cross between CLM495 and LPSC7F64 | [85] |
Maize earliness and yield | QTL | RFLP | QTLs on chromosomes number 5, 8 and 10 | [86] |
Sugarcane mosaic virus(SMV) | Scm1 and scm2 | SCAR and CAPS | Fine mapping show present on chromosome number 6 (scm1) and 3 (scm2) in maize | [87] |
Maize rough dwarf disease (MRDD) | SSR | Conventional method coupled with MAS is used to introgress | [88] | |
Nothern corn leaf blight(NCLB) | Ht1,Ht2,Ht3, Ht4, HtM, HtP,HtNB, Htn1 | RFLP | Ht 1 located on chromosome 2 and Ht2 located on chromosome 8. | [89] |
European corn borer, sugarcane borer and southwestern corn borer | LIR4, 17, and 22 MQTL | SNP | LIR MQTL present on chromosome number 1 and contain QTL for cell wall acidic constituents, fiber components and diferulates. | [90] |
European corn borer and Mediterranean corn borer | 42 SIR MQTL | SNP | Highest SIR MQTL present on chromosome number 2 and 5. cross-linking between fiber and hydroxycinnamate against mechanical damage by insects. | [90] |
maize weevil and the Mediterranean corn borer | KIR MQTL, KIR3, 15, and 16 | SNP | Highest KIR MQTL presents on chromosome 4 and 10. Provide resistance to kernel damage and associated post-harvest loss and contaminations. | [90] |
Drought resistance | Major QTL | — | Major QTLs on chromosome number 1, 2, 8 and 10 | [91] |
QPM | o2 allele | SSR | QPM hybrids accumulate essential amino acids (lysine, tryptophan) in the endosperm. | [92] |
Yield | SSR | Feasibility of SSR marker associated genes ( | [93] | |
Bacterial blight | Xa21 | RFLP | Seedling and adult stage resistance against blight | [94] |
Bacterial blight, Rice Blast | Pi9, Xa23 | PCR based primer | Rice blast and bacterial blight resistance. | [95] |
Rice Blast | Pi9, Pi2 | PCR based primer | Hybrid of Hui 316 (restorer line) and | [96] |
Brown plant hopper (BPH) | Bph3, bph4, Bph13(t), bph19(t), and Qbph-9 | SSR | Phenotypic variations associated with BPH infestation varies from 17 to 20% concerning BPH biotypes. | [97] |
Submergence tolerance beyond SUB1 | 5 QTL | SSR | 5 QTL were found on Chromosome 1, 4, 8, 9, and 10 | [98] |
Yield | QTL | PCR based marker | QTL present on Baronesse chromosome 2HL and 3HL fragments | [99] |
Malting quality in barley | QTL1, QTl2 | PCR based marker | QTL1 is located on chromosome number 1 and QTL2 located on chromosome number 4. | [71] |
Fusarium head blight (FHB) along with agronomic traits | Additive and Epistatic QTLs | SSR and DArT markers | Multi-QTL analysis for the improvement of FHB resistance and agronomic traits using recombinant inbred population. | [100] |
Drought tolerance | Yield and biomass associated QTLs | SSR | QTL alleles introgression ensured yield potential and biomass stability under multiple environments. | [101] |
Drought tolerance | QTLs for photosynthesis, water content, cell membrane stability) | SSR | QTL present on 2A chromosome | [102] |
Bacterial blight resistance (Common bean) | QTL | STS, RAPD, SCAR, AFLP | Multi-QTL loci analysis based on linkage maps can predict the phenotypic variation up to a large extent. | [103] |
Resistance to Fusarium wilt (Chickpea) | QTLFoc02, QTLFoc5 | SSR | Genetic distance is 10 cM | [104] |
Ascochyta blight resistance | QTLAR3 | SSR | Genetic distance is 24 cM | [105] |
Powdery mildew resistance (Mungbean) | QTLs | RAPD, CAP, AFLP | Genetic distance is 1.3 | [106] |
Common bean (Drought resistant) | QTLs (yield components, pod harvest index) | SNP | QTL present on chromosome 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9 | [107] |
Chickpea (salinity) | 48 QTLs (days to 50% flowering and maturity and days after sowing) | SSR and SNP | QTL present on CaLG05 and CaLG07 Chromosome loci | [108] |
Drought (Chickpea) | 93 QTLs (plant height, days to flowering and days to maturity | SSR | QTL present on LG3 and LG4 Chromosome loci | [109] |
Salinity (Cowpea) | 1 QTL (pod length and seed size) | SSR | QTL present on LG1 Chromosome loci | [110] |
Al tolerance (Soybean) | 2 QTLs (root extension) | RFLP and SSR | QTL present on Gm08 and Gm16 Chromosome loci | [111] |
Salinity (Soybean) | 1 QTL (salt-tolerant) | SSR and SNP | QTL present on 3 Chromosome | [112] |
Drought (Soybean) | 7 QTLs (canopy wilting trait) | SSR | QTL present on Gm12 Chromosome loci | [113] |
Pea (Frost) | 161 QTLs | SSR and SNP | QTL present on 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 Chromosome | [114] |
Pea (Drought) | 10 QTLs | SSR | QTL present on LGI, LGIII, and LGIV Chromosome loci | [115] |
The paradigm of MAS in crops.
Apart from the improvement in specific traits through an indirect selection via MAS, there are varieties that are released through MAS also presented in Table 3.
Varieties | Gene | Remark |
---|---|---|
Pusa Basmati 1 (IPB1) variety | QTL ( | Bacterial leaf blight resistance from IRBB55 |
Improved Sambha Mahsuri (Improved BPT 5204) | Bacterial leaf blight resistance | |
Vivek QPM9 | opaque-2 from Vivek Hybrid Maize | High tryptophan, lysine and iron content |
Improved Pusa RH10 | Bacterial leaf blight resistance and blast resistance |
Varieties developed through Marker Assisted Selection [41].
Molecular marker technology has traveled more than 30 years since the identification of the first marker
AFLP | Amplified fragment length polymorphism |
AP-PCR | Arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction |
CAPS | Cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence |
DArT | Diversity array technology |
DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid |
GBS | Genotyping by sequencing |
GS | Genomic selection |
InDels | Insertions and Deletions |
ISSR | Inter-simple sequence repeat |
MABC | Marker-assisted backcrossing |
MAS | Marker assisted selection |
NGS | Next generation sequencing |
NILs | Near isogenic line(s) |
PCR | Polymerase chain reaction |
QTL | Quantitative trait locus |
RAPD | Random amplified polymorphic DNA |
RFLP | Restriction fragment length polymorphism |
SCAR | Sequence characterized amplified region |
SCoT | Start codon-targeted |
SNP | Single nucleotide polymorphism |
SRAP | Sequence related amplified polymorphism |
SSAP | Sequence-specific amplification polymorphism |
S-SAP | Sequence-specific amplification polymorphism |
SSLP | Simple sequence length polymorphism |
SSR | Simple sequence repeats |
STMS | Sequence-tagged microsatellite site |
STS | Sequence-tagged site |
VNTR | Variable number of tandem repeats |
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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It is a leading cause of disability in children. Congenitally infected neonates often appear asymptomatic at birth or have nonspecific symptoms. An early diagnosis and subsequent early antiviral therapy associated to nonpharmacological therapy (e.g., hearing rehabilitation, speech-language therapy, and cochlear implants) can reduce long-term disability. Much research has been done in this field, but further studies are still necessary. Looking back at the most recent papers, we will draw a review on this topic trying to answer to the question: could universal CMV screening be a useful and cost-effective diagnostic tool?",book:{id:"8728",slug:"update-on-critical-issues-on-infant-and-neonatal-care",title:"Update on Critical Issues on Infant and Neonatal Care",fullTitle:"Update on Critical Issues on Infant and Neonatal Care"},signatures:"Sara Lunardi, Francesca Lorenzoni and Paolo Ghirri",authors:null},{id:"44446",doi:"10.5772/54310",title:"Neonatal Pneumonia",slug:"neonatal-pneumonia",totalDownloads:14797,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2990",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-infection",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection",fullTitle:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection"},signatures:"Friedrich Reiterer",authors:[{id:"152025",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Reiterer",slug:"friedrich-reiterer",fullName:"Friedrich Reiterer"}]},{id:"68113",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86715",title:"Platelets in the Newborn",slug:"platelets-in-the-newborn",totalDownloads:957,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Platelets were first described in the mid-nineteenth century. Since then, their roles were identified in hemostasis and thrombosis, inflammation, leukocyte interactions, angiogenesis, and cancer growth. But there is little information about such platelet functions in the newborn. Several studies highlighted some platelet differences between newborns and adults. Yet, in spite of these differences, healthy newborns appear to be adequately protected. A number of factors, however, were reported to negatively affect neonatal platelets. These include maternal hypertensive disorders or infections, neonatal asphyxia or respiratory distress, therapies such as ampicillin or indomethacin, and treatment modalities such as ventilators, nitric oxide, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Their effects on newborn platelets are usually transitory, lasting from several hours to a few days or weeks. If these effects are well characterized, they could serve as reporters for diagnosis and monitoring during therapy. Careful studies of neonatal platelets are needed to improve the understanding of basic physiology and pathophysiology in this cohort and to identify possible targets for intervention and therapy.",book:{id:"7527",slug:"neonatal-medicine",title:"Neonatal Medicine",fullTitle:"Neonatal Medicine"},signatures:"Ijeoma Esiaba, Iman Mousselli, Giulia M. Faison, Danilyn M. Angeles and Danilo S. Boskovic",authors:[{id:"255308",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Danilo",middleName:null,surname:"Boskovic",slug:"danilo-boskovic",fullName:"Danilo Boskovic"},{id:"274914",title:"Prof.",name:"Ijeoma",middleName:null,surname:"Esiaba",slug:"ijeoma-esiaba",fullName:"Ijeoma Esiaba"},{id:"274915",title:"Prof.",name:"Danilyn",middleName:null,surname:"Angeles",slug:"danilyn-angeles",fullName:"Danilyn Angeles"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"44446",title:"Neonatal Pneumonia",slug:"neonatal-pneumonia",totalDownloads:14796,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"2990",slug:"neonatal-bacterial-infection",title:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection",fullTitle:"Neonatal Bacterial Infection"},signatures:"Friedrich Reiterer",authors:[{id:"152025",title:"Prof.",name:"Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Reiterer",slug:"friedrich-reiterer",fullName:"Friedrich Reiterer"}]},{id:"53683",title:"Pre and Postoperative Management of Pediatric Patients with Congenital Heart Diseases",slug:"pre-and-postoperative-management-of-pediatric-patients-with-congenital-heart-diseases",totalDownloads:4931,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Stabilization during preoperative cardiac surgery especially in neonates has an important role to predict outcome for pediatric congenital heart surgery. We tried to elaborate general guidelines on how to diagnose and some anticipations for emergency treatments tailored by the type of congenital heart disease in neonates. Stabilization consists of medical treatment including emergent prostaglandin institution in some types of duct dependent lesion. The role of interventional catheterization such as patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) stent, balloon pulmonary valvotomy, etc. as modalities for stabilization before surgery was also elaborated. Some general and specific guidelines based on the type of surgeries for postoperative management were also discussed.",book:{id:"5473",slug:"pediatric-and-neonatal-surgery",title:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery",fullTitle:"Pediatric and Neonatal Surgery"},signatures:"Eva Miranda Marwali, Beatrice Heineking and Nikolaus A. 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It is more common during the neonatal period than at any other age with the estimated incidence of 0.25 per 1000 live births. The absence of specific clinical presentation makes diagnosis of meningitis more difficult in neonates than in older children. Culture of cerebrospinal fluid is the traditional gold standard for diagnosis of bacterial meningitis, so all newborn infants with proven or suspected sepsis should undergo lumbar puncture. However, deciding when to perform lumbar puncture and interpretation of the results are challenging. Although the pathophysiology of neonatal meningitis is complex and not fully understood, researches on diagnostic and prognostic tools are ongoing. Prevention of neonatal sepsis, early recognition of infants at risk, development of novel, rapid diagnostics and adjunctive therapies, and appropriate and aggressive antimicrobial treatment to sterilize cerebrospinal fluid as soon as possible may prevent the lifelong squeal of bacterial meningitis in newborn infants.",book:{id:"7527",slug:"neonatal-medicine",title:"Neonatal Medicine",fullTitle:"Neonatal Medicine"},signatures:"Mehmet Şah İpek",authors:[{id:"267903",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mehmet Şah",middleName:null,surname:"İpek",slug:"mehmet-sah-ipek",fullName:"Mehmet Şah İpek"}]},{id:"71427",title:"Factors Influencing Maternal Decision-Making on Infant Feeding Practices",slug:"factors-influencing-maternal-decision-making-on-infant-feeding-practices",totalDownloads:1014,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The decision to formula feed or breastfeed a child typically begins with an established prenatal intention. This chapter will examine the multiple dimensions influencing maternal decision-making in regards to the feeding practices of infants including 1) individual maternal characteristics, 2) organizational factors, 3) hospital/provider recommendations, and 4) systematic/policy factors. The chapter will also examine the impact of infant feeding practices on early infant and childhood health outcomes. Research has demonstrated the benefits of breastfeeding on infants and early childhood which includes but is not limited to protection against common illnesses and infections, improved IQ , and even increased school attendance. Moreover, the World Health Assembly global nutrition objectives focus on encouraging breastfeeding support across all sectors in addition to implementing tailored community-based approaches, limiting the excessive marketing of infant formula, and enforcing supportive breastfeeding legislation. The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the dynamic interplay between individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors, such as policies that impact breastfeeding rates and more specifically the health of infants.",book:{id:"9805",slug:"infant-feeding-breast-versus-formula",title:"Infant Feeding",fullTitle:"Infant Feeding - Breast versus Formula"},signatures:"Whitney N. Hamilton",authors:[{id:"313554",title:"Dr.",name:"Whitney",middleName:null,surname:"Hamilton",slug:"whitney-hamilton",fullName:"Whitney Hamilton"}]},{id:"73181",title:"Introductory Chapter: Impact of First 1000 Days Nutrition on Child Development and General Health",slug:"introductory-chapter-impact-of-first-1000-days-nutrition-on-child-development-and-general-health",totalDownloads:830,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"9805",slug:"infant-feeding-breast-versus-formula",title:"Infant Feeding",fullTitle:"Infant Feeding - Breast versus Formula"},signatures:"Isam Jaber AL-Zwaini, Zaid Rasheed AL-Ani and Walter Hurley",authors:[{id:"30993",title:"Prof.",name:"Isam Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zwaini",slug:"isam-jaber-al-zwaini",fullName:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini"},{id:"136109",title:"Dr.",name:"Walter",middleName:null,surname:"Hurley",slug:"walter-hurley",fullName:"Walter Hurley"},{id:"317690",title:"Dr.",name:"Zaid Rasheed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Ani",slug:"zaid-rasheed-al-ani",fullName:"Zaid Rasheed Al-Ani"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1108",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81682",title:"‘Complete Coverage & Covering Completely’ for Breastfeeding with Able, Bold, & Confident Mothers, for Sustainable Development, & Medical Education Excellence",slug:"-complete-coverage-covering-completely-for-breastfeeding-with-able-bold-confident-mothers-for-sustai",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104297",abstract:"Complete coverage of all infants, everywhere with wonderful evidence, and covering completely with first six months of exclusive breastfeeding and thereafter proper weaning while continuing breastfeeding up to 2 years of age or beyond is desirable. Reaching all rightly and robustly is required. All this will contribute greatly towards the growth & development of infants and grandly towards the Sustainable Development Goals. We propose the “ABC mothers” plan. Progress for required practices for results possible with making mothers—“Able for practices advantageous, bold with pertinent awareness, and confident with propitious attitude”. Strong efforts on sound footing are necessary for health of all our infants and happiness all around with sustainable development. Scientific infant feeding will contribute to advance the attainment of this. Medical education teaching best beneficial practices is for excellence. One promoting breastfeeding is the best. The US Surgeon General’s Implementation Strategies elaborate “Education content”, “Enabling competency”, & “Education continuing”. Competency-based curriculum for Indian Medical Graduates includes “to promote and support optimal breast feeding”. Need for inclusion in teaching curriculum across US, UK, & internationally has been documented. Given all the evidence for breastfeeding benefits, it should be a consistent essential component of training in all medical schools worldwide.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Sunil Jain, Arvind Singh Kushwaha and Vishal Marwaha"},{id:"81544",title:"Infant and Young Child Feeding in the Developed and Developing Countries",slug:"infant-and-young-child-feeding-in-the-developed-and-developing-countries",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103012",abstract:"Infant feeding challenges continue to manifest in developed and developing countries. Worldwide, more than 80% of babies are breastfed in the first few weeks of birth. However, about 37%, 25%, and less than 1% are exclusively breastfed at 6 months of age in Africa, the United States of America, and the United Kingdom, respectively. These statistics are far below the World Health Organization targets of 50% and 70% by 2025 and 2030, respectively. Complementary feeding practices are varied as well due to nonadherence to Infant and Young Child Feeding (IYCF) guidelines among parents. This accounts for the current trends in malnutrition in children under−5 years of age, adolescents, and the youth, and leads to intergeneration malnutrition. In this chapter we have included sections on appropriate infant feeding; including how to initiate breastfeeding in the first hour of birth, how to exclusively breastfeed infants until 6 months of age, how to complement breastfeeding after 6 months of infant’s age as well as continuing to breastfeed until 24 months of age and even beyond. Furthermore, we have included a description of how mothers who are unable to breastfeed can feed their infants on expressed breastmilk or replace breastmilk with appropriate homemade or commercial formula. This chapter as well covers infant feeding in prematurity.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Enos Mirembe Masereka, Clement Munguiko, Alex Tumusiime and Linda Grace Alanyo"},{id:"81207",title:"Breastfeeding during COVID Pandemic",slug:"breastfeeding-during-covid-pandemic",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104604",abstract:"As new mothers are understandably concerned about COVID-19 and its high rate of infection, they are often unsure if they should breastfeed their infants. In general, hospitals do not allow direct breastfeeding by mothers with an active infection of SARS-CoV-2. Some neonatal units in Hong Kong maintain safe practices by isolating infants and mothers for at least 7 to 14 days, even if the infant remains SARS-CoV-2 negative. During isolation, mothers encourage the expression of milk to maintain milk duct patency and to prepare for lactation when they and their infants are discharged. Infants are fed formula milk by cup feeding with added supplements based on the recommended daily feeding volume for neonates and their appetite during hospitalization. At present, data that indicates COVID-19 could be transmitted from mother to infant postnatally through breastfeeding are insufficient. Major organizations recommend that mothers should breastfeed exclusively for the first 6 months, and thereafter continue to provide their infants with breast milk up until the age of two or beyond. With new findings arising from research, updated information is important to reassure mothers that breastfeeding at home during the COVID-19 pandemic is safe and recommended for both the mother and the infant.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Ka-Huen Yip, Mei-Kuen Chow, Yuk-Chiu Yip and Wai-King Tsui"},{id:"81129",title:"Research of Fat Component Safety and Pre-Clinical Evaluation of Infant Adapted Dry Milk Mixtures Physiological Effect",slug:"research-of-fat-component-safety-and-pre-clinical-evaluation-of-infant-adapted-dry-milk-mixtures-phy",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103069",abstract:"The aim of the study deals with determination of fat component safety and quality key indicators of adapted infant dry milk formulas provided by various manufacturers. The most popular in Russia adapted infant dry milk formulas were selected as study objects. It was found that the qualitative composition of the fat component of dry milk mixtures corresponds to the information placed on the package. However none of the samples under study in terms of the average composition of the prevailing fatty acids fully corresponds to human breast milk. The regulation documents of the Customs Union (TR CU 021/2011, TR CU 024/2011, TR CU 033/2013) establish only the organoleptic evaluation of the adapted breast milk formulas quality indicators. Among the fat component safety indicators only the determination of the peroxide value characterizing the accumulation of primary fat oxidation products. It was also found that the peroxide values of the studied mixtures do not exceed the regulated values. Meanwhile the samples of infant milk food made from dry milk mixtures almost all have unsatisfactory organoleptic characteristics. Defects of taste and smell are associated with the accumulation in the original adapted milk mixtures of a significant amount of secondary products of fat oxidation, which in a biological experiment on animals lead to a decrease in the content of leukocytes and a change of its blood count.",book:{id:"11308",title:"Selected Topics on Infant Feeding",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11308.jpg"},signatures:"Ekaterina Yurievna Volf, Inna Vladimirovna Simakova, Andrey Anatolyevich Terentyev, Aleksandr Sergeevich Fedonnikov, Nina Viktorovna Bolotova, Gloria Vladimirovna Guzeeva and Viktor Veniaminovich Zakrevsky"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:4},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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A dynamic career research platform which is based on the thematic areas of comparative vertebrate physiology, stress endocrinology, reproductive endocrinology, animal health and welfare, and conservation biology. \nEdward has supervised 40 research students and published over 60 peer reviewed research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. 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He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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