System measured vs. theoretical supply air temperature.
\r\n\tThe objective of this book is to provide a state-of-the-art review of the use of timber in building construction from various perspectives, including manufacturing, fabrication, modeling, design, and construction of residential and other types of buildings. Of special interest will be contributions related to new developments in timber technologies, design, construction, testing, sustainability, LCA, building envelope, and the performance of timber buildings in natural and man-made hazard conditions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-263-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-262-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-264-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"356565153fc7e43f1bf0cb7ba5e7b28a",bookSignature:"Prof. Ali M. Memari",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12057.jpg",keywords:"Wood, Lumber, Timber Industry, Home Building, Glue-Laminated Wood, Cross-Laminated Timber, Plywood, Fire Resistance, Sustainability, Fabrication, Panelized/Modular, Material Properties",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 14th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Memari is a Professor and Bernard and Henrietta Hankin Chair in Residential Building Construction in the Departments of Architectural Engineering and Civil and Environmental Engineering. During his 30 years of teaching in structural engineering, his research focused on the behavior of structural, architectural, and enclosure components of residential and commercial buildings under natural hazard loading and environmental conditions. He has published over 300 publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"252670",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"M. Memari",slug:"ali-m.-memari",fullName:"Ali M. Memari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252670/images/system/252670.jpg",biography:"Dr. Memari is a Professor and Bernard and Henrietta Hankin Chair in Residential Building Construction in the Departments of Architectural Engineering and Civil and Environmental Engineering at Penn State, and Director of The Pennsylvania Housing Research Center. During his 30 years of teaching and research experience, he has taught various courses related to structural\r\nengineering. He has focused his research on full-scale laboratory testing characterization and evaluation of residential and commercial buildings with respect to structural, architectural, and envelope components under gravity and lateral loads that simulate natural hazards (earthquakes/wind-storms), as well as environmental effects involving building science aspects (heat transfer, air leakage and moisture transport) through building enclosure. He has over 300 publications, including papers in journals and conference proceedings, book chapters, edited books, magazine articles, and research reports.",institutionString:"Pennsylvania State University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Pennsylvania State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10198",title:"Response Surface Methodology in Engineering Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1942bec30d40572f519327ca7a6d7aae",slug:"response-surface-methodology-in-engineering-science",bookSignature:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10198.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"321730",title:"Prof.",name:"Palanikumar",surname:"Kayaroganam",slug:"palanikumar-kayaroganam",fullName:"Palanikumar Kayaroganam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54181",title:"Reduced Graphene Oxide–Based Microsupercapacitors",doi:"10.5772/67433",slug:"reduced-graphene-oxide-based-microsupercapacitors",body:'The recent boom in portable electronic devices has raised great demand for miniaturized, flexible/bendable, and even tailorable energy storage devices, which can be directly integrated with a series of electronic devices, to provide unprecedented high-performance functionalities [1, 2]. Currently, the thickness of commercial miniaturized supercapacitors is still faced with great challenges to be further shrunk with the size to the level of surface mountable resistors and ceramic capacitors, which has hindered their application in integrated electronic devices. Microsupercapacitors (MSCs) with a thickness of 10–100 μm can fulfill the above-mentioned requirements because of their excellent rate capability, high power density, and long lifetime [3–5]. Also, ultrathin MSCs with polymer substrates showed great flexibility, which can make full use of interstitial spaces among components in an integrated system [2, 6].
This chapter reviews the recent progress of fabrication strategies for reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) and exemplifies some very promising r-GO–based MSC technologies; besides, it shows the breakthroughs in packaging techniques for these novel devices. It will provide insights to the development of novel miniaturized energy storage technologies.
Graphite oxide consists of layered graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets that contain many oxygen functional groups, such as hydroxyl, epoxide, carbonyl, and carboxyl groups, which promote the formation of few-layer GO nanosheets [7]. However, these functional groups also destroy the planar sp2 carbons of graphite by converting them into sp3 carbons and alter van der Waals interactions between these layers. The structural changes bring about two problems of GO nanosheets for supercapacitors: one is that the electrical conductivity of GO is much lower than that of graphene and the other is the strong hydrophilicity of GO nanosheets. Therefore, GO cannot be used as an electrode material for supercapacitors without further treatments. Notably, the electrical conductivity of r-GO can be increased close to the level of graphene, and the specific capacitance of r-GO has been found to be significantly higher than that of GO. Herein, the reduction routines of GO to r-GO are systematically introduced.
The chemical reduction of GO route involves reducing agents to eliminate most of oxygen-containing functional groups of GO nanosheets and partially restore the π-electron conjugation within the aromatic system of graphite [8]. The reducing agents can be categorized into toxic ones and environment-friendly ones. Though toxic reducing agents, such as hydrazine, hydrazine monohydrate, dimethylhydrazine, sodium borohydride, hydroquinone, and hydroxylamine, have been shown to efficiently reduce GO into r-GO [9–13], they are not suitable for the future large-scale fabrication of electrode materials due to their damages to the environment. Therefore, environmental friendly reducing agents, such as amino acids and ammonia, have attracted more attention. Pham et al. developed a green and facile approach to produce r-GO by using an environmental friendly reagent, namely l-glutathione as a reducing agent, under mild condition in aqueous solution [14]. The l-glutathione-r-GO could be dispersed in both distilled water and some polar aprotic solvents, including Dimethylformamide (DMF), Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and Tetrahydrofuran (THF) with simple ultrasonication, because the oxidized product of l-glutathione could play an important role as a capping agent in the stabilization of r-GO. As this chemical reduction process of GO could produce r-GO in a bulk quantity in a relatively short time and mild experimental conditions without any environmentally hazardous chemicals, it offers excellent flexibility for various potential applications not only in electronic devices but also in biocompatible materials. Chen et al. prepared r-GO through the reduction of GO employing l-cysteine as the reductant under a mild reaction condition [15]. During this chemical reduction process, the thiol group of l-cysteine released protons, commonly owning high-binding affinity to the oxygen-containing groups of GO, such as hydroxyl and epoxide groups, to form water molecules, which was similar to l-glutathione. Furthermore, the electrical conductivity of r-GO produced in this way increased by about 106 times in comparison to that of GO.
Jiang et al. reported an ammonia-assisted hydrothermal method to obtain N-doped r-GO by simultaneous N-doping and reduction of GO [16]. The effects of hydrothermal temperature on the surface chemistry and the structure of N-doped rGO were investigated. Their results showed that N doping was accompanied by the reduction of GO with a decrease in oxygen levels from 34.8% in GO down to 8.5% in N-doped r-GO. Meanwhile, electrochemical measurements demonstrated that the N-doped product showed a higher capacitive performance than that of pure graphene, and a maximum specific capacitance of 144.6 F/g could be obtained by the pseudocapacitive effect from the N-doping. Li et al. obtained bulk quantities of N-doped r-GO through thermal annealing of GO in ammonia [17]. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) study of GO annealed at various reaction temperatures revealed that N-doping occurred at a temperature as low as 300°C while the highest doping level of about 5% N was achieved at 500°C. Oxygen groups in GO were found responsible for reactions with NH3 and C-N bond formation, and r-GO obtained by the annealing of GO in NH3 exhibited higher electrical conductivity than that of r-GO by the annealing GO in H2.
R-GO obtained by the chemical reduction method showed good electrical conductivity, high specific capacitance value, and excellent dispersibility in different organic solvents. However, the totally removal of oxygen functionalities from the surface of GO nanosheets is impossible by using chemical reducing agents. Therefore, other reduction methods of GO for the large-scale production of high-quality r-GO have been proposed.
Thermal reduction of GO is one of the most well-known methods for the removal of oxygen-containing functional groups [18]. In this type of reduction process, most of oxygen functionalities were transformed into water, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Usually, the GO sample is placed in a specific furnace filled with inert gas environment and then heated to a relatively high temperature. During the reduction process, reductive gases are generated to reduce GO and to expand their layers at the same time.
Schniepp et al. obtained r-GO by annealing GO nanosheets in a closed quartz tube at 1050°C under the protection of argon atmosphere for 10 min, and the carbon content in the final r-GO product increased with the rise of the annealing temperature [19]. They fabricated polymer nanocomposites with stacks of these r-GO nanosheets as the filler, and the as-fabricated polymer showed outstanding thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties. Such functionalized r-GO nanosheets can provide even further benefits, not only for structural property enhancements at lower filler contents, but also for the development of new materials such as electrically conducting polymers, conductive inks, and supercapacitors. Vallés et al. reported a considerable recovery of the sp2 network structure of r-GO by a relatively simple thermal treatment at 700°C under argon or hydrogen atmosphere [20]. The as-fabricated r-GO paper exhibited an excellent electrical conductivity as high as 8100 S/m, which was five orders of magnitude higher than that of initial GO paper, and also much higher than that of r-GO paper by a chemical reduction method. Moreover, this gentle and direct thermal reduction method allowed r-GO paper to remain the good structural integrity and mechanical flexibility of the initial GO paper, overcoming problems of brittleness typically encountered in the annealing process. Mattevi et al. reported that the effect of annealing GO at 700°C or above was equivalent to the chemical reduction of GO via hydrazine monohydrate at 80°C followed by heating at 200°C [21]. For fully reduced GO nanosheets, they found the oxygen content was about 8% with the ratio of C to O equaling to 12.5:1 and the sp2 concentration being 80%, and they demonstrated that the presence of residual oxygen with only 8% content significantly hampered the carrier transport among the graphitic domains.
The thermal reduction of GO is a direct, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly route for the fabrication of high-quality r-GO. However, it usually needs a high temperature to obtain r-GO with a high electrical conductivity, and the experimental set-up is very complicated, all of which have hindered its further application.
The routine of electrochemical reduction of GO nanosheets was newly proposed for the fabrication of high-quality r-GO whose defect concentration is almost negligible. Electrochemically reduced GO (Er-GO) nanosheets are contaminant-free and of high electrical conductivity, which makes them suitable for applications in the areas of supercapacitor devices, touch screens, and flexible electronics.
Li et al. firstly reported a fiber-shaped solid electrochemical capacitor based on Er-GO [22]. The typical fiber-shaped electrode can be prepared by electrochemically reducing GO on an Au wire with a diameter of 100 mm in 3-mg/mL GO aqueous suspension containing 0.1-M lithium perchlorate (LiClO4) at an applied potential of about 1.2 V (vs. saturated calomel electrode, SCE) for 10 s, and it exhibited high specific capacitance and rate capability, long cycling life, and also attractive mechanical flexibility. Yang et al. demonstrated the application of Er-GO as supercapacitor electrodes by reducing GO in a convenient, cost-effective, and eco-friendly electrochemical way [23]. During the electrochemical reduction process, p-conjugated structure in graphene was almost completely repaired by removing electrochemically unstable oxygen groups, yielding improved electron transfer kinetics and capacitive properties of Er-GO. At the same time, residual oxygen groups on Er-GO nanosheets were very stable and reversible in capacitive performance providing additional faradic pseudocapacitance without damaging their electronic properties. As a result, the Er-GO exhibited a specific capacitance of as high as 223.6 F/g at 5 mV/s, showing a promising potential as an electrode material for supercapacitors.
Chen et al. reported a general method for the fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) porous Er-GO–based composite materials [24]. First, 3D porous Er-GO was prepared electrochemically by reducing a concentrated GO aqueous solution containing 0.15-M LiClO4 as shown in Figure 1a. The cyclic voltammogram of a copper foil electrode in the GO and LiClO4 electrolyte at the scan rate of 50 mV/s was shown in Figure 1b, and the redox peak appeared at about −1.15 V. The X-Ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of Er-GO film obtained by reducing 3-mg/mL GO solution at a potential of 1.15 V for 300 s, confirmed that most of electrochemically unstable oxygen groups were removed from initial GO film. The as-fabricated Er-GO–based paper electrode, prepared by electrochemically reducing 3-mg/mL GO at a potential of 1.15 V for 600 s, was shown in Figure 1d, and the Er-GO–based paper electrode exhibited a 3D porous structure, which was good for ion and electron transportation during the charge/discharge process. Furthermore, by the growth of polyaniline layer on 3D Er-GO paper electrodes, a high specific capacitance of 716 F/g at 0.47 A/g was achieved. Sheng et al. reported an electrochemical double-layer capacitor based on 3D interpenetrating r-GO electrodes fabricated by the electrochemical reduction of GO [25]. At 120 Hz, the Er-GO–based MSCs exhibited a phase angle of −84°, a specific capacitance of 283 mF/cm2, and a resistor-capacitor (RC) time constant of 1.35 ms, making it capable of replacing activated carbon-based MSCs for AC-line filtering.
(a) Schematic illustration of the preparation method for Er-GO–based composite materials, (b) cyclic voltammogram of a copper foil electrode in 3-mg/mL GO aqueous solution containing 0.15-M LiClO4 at a scanning rate of 50 mV/s, (c) XRD patterns of GO film and as-prepared wet Er-GO porous material by reducing 3-mg/mL GO solution at a potential of 1.15 V for 300 s, (d) optical image of Er-GO paper electrode prepared by electrochemically reducing 3 mg/mL GO at a potential of 1.15 V for 600 s. (e) SEM image of lyophilized Er-GO paper (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [
The electrochemical reduction of GO process is very fast and avoids the use of any harmful chemical reducing agents, which means that there is no need for further purification of Er-GO [26].
Laser reduction of GO routine uses laser as the major energy source to obtain porous r-GO nanosheets without the need for any additional chemical agents; and it leaves abundant defects in r-GO nanosheets, which can highly improve the electrochemical characteristic of r-GO [27–29]. Except from the reduction function, laser with a higher energy level can selectively remove GO/r-GO nanosheets without any damage to substrates due to the instant heating and cooling feature, which can make it possible for graphical electrodes [27, 30].
Abdelsayed et al. reported a facile laser reduction method for the preparation of r-GO from GO [31]. They obtained few-layer r-GO nanosheets in water under ambient conditions without the use of any chemical reducing agent indicated by changes in the color of GO solutions, as shown in Figure 2a. Furthermore, XRD results of the products after different irradiation time confirmed that only 10-min irradiation of the 532-nm laser could totally reduce GO into r-GO. By this mild reduction treatment in water, the few-layer character of GO nanosheets was perfectly preserved in the final products with a thickness of 0.99 nm as shown in Figure 2b and c.
(a) Digital photographs displaying the changes in the color of the original GO solution (0 min) after irradiated with the 532-nm laser for 1, 5, and 10 min and the corresponding XRD results, (b) TEM images of r-GO nanosheets prepared by the 532-nm laser irradiation to the aqueous GO solution for 10 min, (c) AFM image and cross-sectional analysis of the r-GO nanosheets (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Sokolov et al. obtained r-GO via continuous-wave (532 nm) and pulsed (532 and 355 nm) laser irradiation of GO [32]. They investigated the graphene degree of r-GO with different laser power and background gas and fabricated microsized defects in r-GO film using laser with a higher energy, indicating laser could be an effective technique for reducing r-GO with high spatial resolution and patterning feature. Many attentions have been paid to the mechanisms of laser reduction and ablation of GO, and most of them focused on the interaction among electron, photo, exciton, and ions [32–34]. When GO nanosheets are exposed to a laser beam, deoxygenation reaction is triggered instantaneously via both photochemical and photothermal reduction pathways. Though electron-lattice temperature equilibration occurs on the picosecond time scale, strain associated with the oxygen in GO nanosheets can lead to exciton self-trapping, hole localization, and subsequent material removal, as indicated by the release of CO, CO2, and H2O from GO nanosheets by laser irradiation [33]. During the ablation process of GO/r-GO nanosheets by laser, the release of high mass carbon cluster ions had been observed during photon- and low-energy electron-stimulated desorption, which can be deposited on the surface of r-GO nanosheets and served as seeds for growth of larger graphene particles or nanosheets [31].
Gao et al. demonstrated the scalable fabrication of an all-carbon monolithic supercapacitor by laser reduction and patterning of GO films [35]. They patterned both in-plane and sandwiched structured electrodes consisting of r-GO nanosheets with micrometer resolution, between which GO served as a solid-state electrolyte. The substantial amounts of trapped water in GO nanosheets made them simultaneously an excellent ionic conductor and an electrical insulator, allowing them to serve as both an electrolyte and an electrode separator with the ionic transport characteristics. The resulting microsupercapacitor devices showed an excellent cyclic stability and energy storage capacities as compared to the existing thin-film supercapacitors. El-Kady et al. used a standard LightScribe DVD optical drive to directly reduce GO films into r-GO by laser, and the as-fabricated r-GO–based films were mechanically robust and showed high electrical conductivity (1738 S/cm) and specific surface area (1520 m2/g) [36]. The r-GO–based supercapacitor exhibited a high energy density of as high as 1.36 mWh/cm3, which was approximately two times higher than that of the commercial activated carbon-based electrochemical capacitors (AC-EC). Moreover, a power density of about 20 W/cm3 can be achieved, which was 20 times higher than that of the AC-EC and three orders of magnitude higher than that of the 500-mAh thin-film lithium battery.
Though laser reduction of GO cannot achieve mass production of r-GO, combined with film technology, r-GO fabricated via laser-reducing GO nanosheets is a promising electrode material for flexible, ultrathin, and binder-free microsupercapacitors and other electronic devices, such as sensors, displays, and batteries.
Rapid developments in semiconductor devices, low-power integrated circuits, and packaging technology are accelerating the reduction in the size and volume of current electronic devices, especially portable mobile communication equipment, implantable medical devices, and active radio frequency identification (RFID) tags. It makes rechargeable high-performance miniaturized energy storage devices become an urgent need [37]. R-GO–based miniaturized MSCs exhibit excellent rate capability, high power density, long lifetime, and good 3D microintegration capability with other components, showing a promising perspective for the use as miniaturized energy storage devices. Here, some of recent representative works in the area of r-GO–based miniaturized MSCs are progressively introduced.
El-Kady et al. demonstrated scalable fabrication of high-power graphene microsupercapacitors for on-chip energy storage by direct laser writing on graphite oxide films using a standard LightScribe DVD burner [38]. Figure 3a shows the features of r-GO–based MSCs on a chip, and Figure 3b shows the morphological change of GO films after direct laser irradiation. The as-fabricated r-GO–based MSCs showed an excellent electrochemical performance and good flexibility on a flexible polymer substrate. Furthermore, the adaptability of r-GO–based MSCs for serial/parallel combinations was demonstrated by connecting four devices together both in series and in parallel configurations, as shown in Figure 3c and d. The tandem MSCs exhibited a very good control over the operating voltage window and capacity, thus enabling them to be considered for practical applications. Figure 3e shows a Ragone plot comparing the performance characteristics of r-GO–based MSCs with different energy-storage devices designed for high power microelectronics. Remarkably, compared with activated carbon-based MSCs, r-GO–based MSCs exhibited three times higher energy and about 200 times higher power density. Furthermore, r-GO–based MSCs demonstrated power densities comparable to those of the aluminum electrolytic capacitor while providing more than three orders of magnitude higher energy density. This superior energy and power performances of the r-GO–based MSCs should enable them to compete with microbatteries and electrolytic capacitors in a variety of applications.
(a) Schematic illustration of r-GO–based MSCs on a chip, (b) SEM image showing the direct reduction and expansion of the GO film after exposure to the laser beam (scale bar is 10 mm), galvanostatic charge/discharge curves for four tandem microsupercapacitors connected (c) in series, and (d) in parallel, (e) energy and power densities of r-GO–based MSCs compared with commercially available energy-storage systems (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Xie et al. developed device-level tailorable gel-based MSCs with symmetric electrodes prepared by electrochemically reducing and depositing GO on a nickel nanocone array (NCA) current collector using a unique packaging method [39]. Figure 4a shows the fabrication process of the tailorable Er-GO–based MSCs, which connected in series can be used to drive small gadgets, such as a light-emitting diode (LED) and a mini-motor propeller. Figure 4b and c displays the morphology and structure of the Er-GO electrode, which exhibited a high areal specific capacitance (57.1 mF/cm2) and an outstanding cycle stability (20,000 cycles with only 3.5% capacitance loss). Compared with conventional chemical reduction, the porous Er-GO layer can be homogeneously deposited on a conductive substrate and be used as the electrode material without any binder; besides, the production process of Er-GO can be conveniently scaled up, all of which made the electrochemical reduction routine more promising. CV curves of the MSC under different scan rates from 50 to 5000 mV/s in Figure 4d demonstrated the excellent rate capability of Er-GO–based MSCs, which can be attributed to the excellent electrical conductivity and porous structure of Er-GO itself. Furthermore, Er-GO–based MSCs exhibited excellent mechanical reliability, indicated by the little capacitance loss under pressure or bending, showing great potential in flexible, bendable, wearable, and even tailorable electronics.
(a) Schematic illustration of the shape-tailorable r-GO–based ultra-high-rate supercapacitor (Regular nickel nanocone arrays (NCAs) deposited on a Ti substrate were used as current collector, and perpendicularly stencil-printed EVA glue was used as cofferdams, and Er-GO electrochemically deposited onto the NCAs was electrode material, and Na2SO4/PVA gel was used as electrolyte), (b, c) SEM and TEM images of NCAs and Er-GO, (d) CV curves of the MSC under different scan rates from 50 to 5000 mV/s, (e) capacitance retention performance of the MSC under different compression strength, (f) CV curves of the MSC tested at 100 mV/s with and without bending (curvature radius: 1.7 cm) (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Xie et al. in the same group also carried out a benchmark study of the state-of-the-art well-packaged ultrathin microsupercapacitor compared with commercial microsupercapacitor and aluminum electrolyte capacitor [40]. Figure 5a shows the fabrication process of the ultrathin and flexible MSCs using laser to complete the reduction and ablation of GO film to obtain patterned r-GO–based electrodes. Figure 5b gives the optical image of as-fabricated r-GO–based MSCs arrays, and Figure 5c demonstrates the porous structure of laser-processed r-GO film with a thickness of about 4 μm, providing more surface area and being beneficial to a high mobility of ions, both of which helped deliver high energy and power densities. The as-fabricated r-GO–based MSCs demonstrated great flexibility and bendability indicated by the almost same CV curves under different bending angles around a cylinder with a diameter of about 3 cm in Figure 5d. The Ragone plot in Figure 5e suggests that the energy density of this r-GO–based MSC with LiCl-PVA gel electrolyte achieved 0.98 mWh/cm3 at the power density of 300 mW/cm3, which was almost three orders of magnitude higher than that of a commercial activated carbon supercapacitor. With the power density raised from 300 mW/cm3 to 2000 mW/cm3, the energy density of this r-GO–based MSC had no significant degradation in capacitance, showing excellent rate performance. Furthermore, using the ionic liquid electrolyte, r-GO–based MSCs with a thickness of 18 μm can be fabricated with a maximum energy density up to 5.7 mWh/cm3 at 830 mW/cm3, which can be comparable with lithium thin-film battery but with more than two orders of magnitude higher power density. However, their energy density was still not large enough for high-performance MSCs compared with those of Refs. [1, 38, 41]. The ultrathin thickness and foldability of as fabricated r-GO–based MSCs made it possible for them to be folded to fit in restricted spaces integrated with other components. Similarly, Meng et al. reported an integrated, flexible, and all-solid-state MSC technology with 3D microintegration capability [37]. They firstly embedded the entire electrical routing path and contact pads within the effective device area, utilizing the novel fabrication of through-via bottom electrodes. The entire device was successfully packaged with a solid-state electrolyte at the microscale (720 μm × 720 μm × 50 μm) and has surface-mounted integration capability.
(a) Schematic illustration of ultrathin laser-processed r-GO–based MSCs (the PET substrate with a thickness of 6 μm sputtered with Ni layer (500 nm) was homogenously deposited with GO nanosheets by electrostatic spray deposition technique, and the reduction and ablation of GO film were completed by different power of laser treatment. Then, electrolyte was added and a thin PET film printed with cross-linkable PU cofferdams was used as the cover layer.), (b) photographic image of r-GO–based MSCs arrays (Inset is a single unit), (c) cross-view SEM image of laser processed r-GO with a height of about 4 μm, (d) CV curves of r-GO–based MSCs observed in different bending state, (e) Ragone plot of r-GO–based MSCs and some reported supercapacitors (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Wu et al. demonstrated r-GO–based in-plane interdigital MSCs with high power and energy densities on arbitrary substrates [1]. Figure 6a shows the fabrication process of the device. The resulting r-GO film had an electrical conductivity of 297 S/cm, and the as-fabricated r-GO–based MSCs showed the features of large-area uniformity, good transparency, and mechanical flexibility. The plot of the discharge current as a function of scan rate in Figure 6b demonstrated an enhanced electrochemical performance. A linear increase of discharge current can be observed up to 200 V/s, suggesting the ultrahigh power ability of r-GO–based MSCs. The as-fabricated r-GO–based MSCs can be operated at an ultrahigh rate up to 1000 V/s and showed an excellent capacitance. For example, an areal capacitance of 78.9 mF/cm2 and a volumetric capacitance of 17.5 F/cm3 were obtained for the device at 10 mV/s in Figure 6c. The Ragone plot in Figure 5e suggests that the r-GO–based MSCs delivered a volumetric energy density of 2.5 mWh/cm3, which was an order of magnitude higher than that of the typical supercapacitors of activated carbon (≤1 mWh/cm3) and well comparable to that of lithium thin film batteries (10−3–10−2 Wh/cm3). Furthermore, the r-GO–based MSC manifested an ultrahigh power density of 495 W/cm3, which was 50 times higher than that of conventional supercapacitors (even at a high energy density of 0.14 mWh/cm3) when discharged within an extremely short time (1 ms) and much higher than those in Refs. [38–40].
(a) Schematic illustration of the fabrication of flexible r-GO–based flexible MSCs (The fabrication process included a sequence of spin-coating of GO solution on Cu foil, CH4 plasma reduction of GO film, transfer of r-GO film from the Cu foil to PET substrate, masking pattern and deposition of gold current collector, oxidative etching, drop casting of H2SO4/PVA gel electrolyte and solidification of gel electrolyte.), (b) a plot of the discharge current as a function of the scan rate (red star line) (linear dependence (magenta dot line) was observed up to at least 200 V/s (green dash dot line), suggesting the ultrahigh power ability of r-GO–based MSCs.), (c) areal capacitance and stack capacitance of r-GO–based MSCs, (d) the comparison of energy and power density of as fabricated MSGs with commercially applied electrolytic capacitors, lithium thin-film batteries, Panasonic Li-ion battery, and conventional supercapacitors (indicated by the pink region), demonstrating that the as-fabricated MSCs exhibited exceptional electrochemical energy storage with simultaneous ultrahigh energy density and power density (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [
Wu et al. in the same group also described the development of large-area, highly uniform, ultrathin nitrogen and boron co-doped graphene (BNG) films for high-performance MSCs [41]. The BNG film was prepared using a layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly technique of anionic GO nanosheets and cationic poly-L-Lysine (PLL) as a nitrogen-containing precursor, followed by intercalation of H3BO3 within the layers and annealing treatment. Remarkably, BNG-MSCs allowed for operation at an ultrahigh scan rate of up to 2000 V/s, which was three orders of magnitude higher than that of conventional supercapacitors and represented superior value for high-power MSCs. The volumetric capacitance of BNG film for MSCs recorded at 10 mV/s was ∼488 F/cm3, which can be attributed to the co-doping with dual heteroatoms. On one hand, the co-doping strategy created new electrochemically active moieties (e.g., B-N-C) with a synergistic effect that provides additional pseudocapacitance contribution, and on the other hand, the new binding environment of neighboring B and N atoms directly incorporated into the graphene lattice was favorable for improving the interface wettability of the electrode with the electrolyte, resulting in a thickened electrochemical double layer. Furthermore, based on the volumetric capacitance and working voltage (1.0 V), the energy density and power density were calculated to be about 16.9 mWh/cm3 and 910 W/cm3, which was among best performances of the-state-of-art carbon-based MSCs.
Even significant progress has been achieved in the field of carbon-based MSCs in recent years, their application as energy storage devices is still limited due to their low energy density, which results in a high cost per kilowatt-hour, i.e., around 20,000$/kWh, significantly higher than those of well-established storage technologies (such as batteries) [42]. One direct way to lower their cost is to find suitable electrode materials with high energy storage capability without any damage to their power handling ability, for example, the MSCs based on graphene and MnO2 hybrid materials demonstrated a two times higher energy density than that of initial pure graphene due to the Faradaic pseudocapacitance effect of MnO2 [43]. Another way is to use fabrication methods compatible with efficient large-scale production throughout the fabrication process of MSCs, including preparation of electrode materials, fabrication of electrodes, and assembly of electrodes, electrolyte, and/or separator as well as their packaging process, for instance, combining with low-cost printing technology during electrode fabrication process can greatly lower the total cost [44].
In summary, this chapter reviews the recent research advances of r-GO as a promising electrode material for miniaturized MSCs. R-GO exhibited many advantages such as excellent rate capability, high power density, long lifetime, facile production in large scale and low costs. However, further enhancement in performance characteristics and functionality of r-GO–based miniaturized MSCs need more attentions before this promising technology may be adopted by industry. Combined with novel film-fabrication, patterning, and packaging techniques, miniaturized r-GO–based MSCs with superior capability to be integrated with other components on chip and system levels can be developed due to their ultrathin thickness, flexibility, bendability, foldability, and even tailorability. The examples given in this chapter also discussed about their merits and limitations, we expect that they may give elicitations for developing advanced techniques for the fabrication of high-performance and multifunction miniaturized r-GO–based MSCs in the near future.
The authors acknowledge the financial support from National Nature Science Foundation of China Project Nos. 51578310 & 51607102; China Postdoctoral Science Foundation No. 2016M601017, Guangdong Province Science and Technology Department Project Nos. 2014B090915002 & 2015A030306010, and Nanshan District “Rising Stars” Project No. KC2014JSQN0010A.
Higher ventilation rates are dictated both by better comfort requirements and by the most recent standards such as ASHRAE (62-2019) and various CIBSE guides. However, post-COVID 19 pandemics, these ventilation rates require re-consideration. People shall also maintain social distancing regulations, which impact occupied spaces both indoor and outdoor. Eventually, higher fresh air rates are required and researchers will continue to work on the additional fresh air amounts. The more outdoor air is used, the larger the cooling or heating loads required, particularly cooling loads in hot and humid regions. In addition, the uncontrol of the ventilation air physical parameters will impact human comfort and health. For instance, the fresh air must be treated and conditioned to the desired comfort level of humidity and temperature before being supplied to the occupied spaces.
Cooling of outdoor air is usually obtained with refrigeration equipment and often in humid climates and some post-heating is required to heat the air before it is supplied to the rooms. Figure 1 demonstrates the ventilation air mixing in a typical HVAC system. Conventional energy resources are more depleted and the energy demands of a growing global population continue to increase.
Main items for building services operation [
According to Fang et al. [2], individuals spend 90% of their time indoors, resulting in a significant rise in energy consumption to maintain indoor thermal comfort. The characteristics of humid tropical climates are that they are hot and humid. These climates cover a huge portion of the globe and are home to more than 33% of the world’s population as stated by Bonell et al. [3]. As a result, achieving thermal comfort outside is also becoming increasingly crucial. For outdoors, however, thermal comfort is difficult to accomplish since humans are directly exposed to the environment, which is influenced by the combination of air temperature, air velocity, relative humidity and radiation fluxes. These are among the environmental parameters. Clothing insulation and metabolic rate are two human personal factors, which are also variables that influence thermal comfort.
Binarti et al. [4] noted that in these hot-humid locations, a pleasant thermal environment is difficult to establish due to the combination of high temperatures and humidity. These variables also vary and are not uniform in large outdoor spaces, which creates difficulty in monitoring and managing them to achieve thermal comfort. Wind speeds will also impair cooling techniques in hot, humid areas.
If outdoor thermal comfort is accomplished, this will increase city liveability whilst simultaneously reducing building heating and air conditioning energy usage by reducing time spent indoors. To correctly analyse the outside thermal environment, it is important to utilise appropriate outdoor thermal comfort models.
Due to the outbreak of COVID-19, it has become increasingly difficult to have many occupants in the same room inside buildings such as restaurants and cafes. Therefore, outdoor spaces must be utilised to accommodate for a larger group of people. However, in hot-humid climates thermal comfort is difficult to achieve outdoors as previously discussed. The presented ventilation system in this chapter achieves outdoor thermal comfort whilst boasting low energy consumption.
There are challenges related to intensifying energy consumption majorly by the installed air conditioners especially related to hot-humid climates (46°C dry bulb, 31°C wet bulb) due to the fact that evaporative cooling systems will certainly fail to meet the comfort criteria due to the high wet bulb temperature. Despite searing temperatures and high humidity, people will find it interesting to go to places such as markets, cultural venues and other tourist destinations if given a cool and suitable ambiance. Evaporative cooling is often used for outdoors but it will not be enough to relieve people’s discomfort with the weather during the hot months. Cooling is usually obtained with refrigeration machinery, and often some post-heating is required to heat the air before it is supplied to the rooms. Conventional air conditioning systems (e.g. vapour compression systems) address these issues by cooling air below its dew point such that water vapour condenses on a cooling coil, thus removing moisture from the air.
Nevertheless, achieving thermal comfort in using fresh air in hot and humid regions is energy intensive. Countries with extreme climatic conditions impose a heavy reliance on cooling, mostly electricity-based, and thus a strong and structural dependency of a high energy resource. In hot-humid climate, the average highest outdoor temperatures during a year is 37.0°C; however, high-temperature values that exceed 46°C could be observed in summer. As illustrated by Figure 2, the temperature exceeds the 40°C for more than 300 hours, which anticipated to be doubled when considering hot-humid climate climate change in 2025. Air conditioning counts for more than 60% of the electricity consumption in the Gulf Region as explained by Elsarrag [5]. Moreover, this lack of responsiveness to the local climatic conditions also leads to problems of indoor air quality, user comfort and user productivity. With energy being cheaply available, the incentive for building users to save on their energy consumption is weak.
Temperature range in hot-humid climate in Doha City [
In hot-humid climates, not only the total annual energy consumption in buildings is very high, but peak demands for electricity also put a heavy burden on the infrastructures needed to respond to such demand pattern. In this context, building energy efficiency strategies can help to realise peak shaving by load reduction and load shifting.
Improving the energy efficiency measures has taken the attention of researchers in hot-humid climate in the Gulf Region. Experimental and theoretical studies were conducted recently to improve building fabric efficiency and promote enhanced indoor air quality in hot-humid climates as conducted by Elsarrag [5]. High-rise building passive design attracted researchers from different parts of the world [6, 7, 8, 9]. In hot-humid climate, it is vital to cool and dehumidify the ventilation air before being supplied to the space. Alternative fresh air cooling and dehumidification methods to conventional refrigeration system were presented by Elsarrag [10, 11].
The use of efficient systems and effective means of control is vital to reduce the energy consumption. Several resilience cooling strategies are identified by Zhang et al. [12]. The study by Siroky et al. [13] showed that the energy saving of a building heating system by adopting controls could be reached the range of 15 to 28%. At times when ventilation and daylight cannot alone meet the needs of occupants, the building services should meet the remaining demands as simply and effectively as practicable, in harmony with the occupants and the building as a whole. An essential part of the integrated design is to ensure that the energy supply and monitoring strategy are as coherent and environmentally sustainable as possible.
Figure 3 shows about 83% of the ambient weather conditions are not in the comfort zone; therefore, the following strategies are used to design a high efficient cost effective system. Several strategies can be used to reduce the need of conventional vapour compression systems. Such strategies include the use of desiccants and evaporative cooling (direct and indirect).
Extreme weather conditions of hot-humid climate Doha City [
In hot climates, it is desirable to reduce the ambient air temperature in order to improve comfort levels; however, in hot and humid climates (as in some Gulf countries), removal of moisture from the air (dehumidification) is almost as important as cooling [15].
Conventional air conditioning systems (e.g. vapour compression systems) address these issues by cooling air below its dew point such that water vapour condenses on a cooling coil, thus removing moisture from the air. The dehumidified air is then reheated to the desired temperature [16]. This process of deep cooling to dew point and reheating consequently leads to higher energy requirement.
This chapter discusses the integration of the innovative and efficient fresh air cooling and filtration system that has been designed, manufactured and tested to reduce the need of vapour compression cycles and provide better liveability for urban environments.
The innovative smart air conditioning system is a fully integrated and controlled—beCOOL Innovation—ventilating and air conditioning system that provides efficient, cost-effective and sustainable fresh air cooling for open spaces or enclosed spaces in moderate, hot or humid climates. The system can be used tool open spaces such as restaurants, coffee shops, open markets, parks, playgrounds. It can also be used to provide fresh air (ventilation air) to enclosed spaces such as offices, schools, retails. The integrated unit consists of a multistage that can dehumidify and cool the air to the required comfort level. The system utilises the condensate water. The ‘all in one’ HVAC system can be fully driven by renewable energy. Figure 4 shows the proposed system that combines air filtration system, and a three-stream water temperature control system, a multistage fresh air cooling heat exchanger and water collection/makeup system. The system is integrated with a variable frequency drives and smart controls. Initially, fresh air is filtered and used to cool three water streams. The scavenging outdoor air is exhausted to the atmosphere again. The innovative heat exchanger is a compact heat exchanger that allows more than one water stream to circulate. The first water stream is so called the high grade as the water temperature is higher than the second water stream (low grade). The supply hot and/or humid air will be initially filtered, precooled by the first stage in the heat exchanger, dehumidified in the second stage and cooling enhanced in the third stage. Dry cold fresh air is then supplied to spaces. The system is installed at different facilities for testing in a coffee shop, residential external sitting area and industrial workshop in Doha, Qatar. The tests were conducted during the months of June and July where temperature exceeds 47°C in the afternoon and humidity exceeds the 75% at night. Several temperature and humidity sensors are used to verify the readings. At the air intake and outlet, two type of sensors were incorporated, the first is directly integrated with the beCOOL-Innovation control system and the second is connected to the cloud for monitoring and verification.
The innovative system schematics.
The system was placed at a coffee shop—an open sitting area as shown inFigure 5. The system was placed 2.5 m away from the sitting area. To maintain effective outdoor cooling, the use of beCOOL-Innovation must be aligned with outdoor energy efficiency strategies to improve resilience to extreme heat in order to maintain comfortable outdoor thermal conditions during heat waves, such as the use of solar shading and wind barriers. Here, the system was placed between buildings that have shading and act as wind barriers for most of the day.
beCOOL-innovation outdoor testing setup.
Temperature and humidity sensors were placed at the air intake of the unit (behind the unit), and the supply temperature and humidity are measured at the diffuser outlet. Air flow is measured using anemometer. The measured data were used to obtain the enthalpy of the entering and exit air, hence calculating the total cooling energy of the unit. A multimetre was used to measure the voltage and current to calculate the electrical energy. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the system is equal to the cooling energy divided by the electrical energy. Typical COP of conventional air conditioning in hot-humid climate varies between 2 and 2.5 for air-cooled direct expansion units. In this study, the COP for conventional system is considered the highest value (COP = 2.5) to ensure that energy savings are compared with the best practices for similar systems.
The temperature metre accuracy is 0.1°C and the humidity metre is 1%. Energy is measured
Figure 6 shows the beCOOL-Innovation actual system. Jet diffusers are used to supply air to far distances.
The actual beCOOL-innovation system.
Figure 7 compares the theoretical monthly cooling coil load of the conventional fresh air handling unit and the beCOOL-Innovation cooling load. beCOOL-Innovation supplies 2500–3400 m3/h of treated fresh air with a considerable reduction in the cooling coil load compared with conventional. The system is designed to provide fresh air supply without assistant of any mechanical refrigeration in dry season and to provide cooling and dehumidification in humid season. The theoretical analysis showed that it will correspond to an annual cooling load reduction (cooling capacity reduction) of around 60% as shown in Figure 8. The overall predicted monthly and annual system electricity consumption is compared with system cooled
Monthly cooling coil load (kWh).
Annual cooling coil load (kWh).
Monthly system electrical energy (kWh).
Annual system electrical energy (kWh).
Table 1 shows the theoretical and measured results for average summer days. It can be clearly noticed that the discrepancy between the theoretical and experimental is below 8%, which provides confidence to the system design. For thermal comfort comparison, the apparent temperature analysis is used. The apparent temperature (AT) is the temperature perceived by the human body from the combined effects of ambient temperature, wind speed, humidity and solar radiation more objectively reflecting the thermal sensations experienced by the human body than temperature alone, especially in highly humid environments [17, 18].
Ambient air temperature °C | Ambient air humidity % | Measured supply air temperature °C | Theoretical supply air temperature °C | Discrepancy |
---|---|---|---|---|
44.8 | 26.8% | 22.4 | 21.4 | 4.7% |
44.1 | 16.2% | 15.8 | 14.7 | 7.5% |
44 | 22.0% | 18.1 | 17.1 | 5.8% |
42.8 | 31.6% | 21.8 | 21.5 | 1.4% |
41.5 | 43.2% | 23.6 | 23.3 | 1.3% |
37.6 | 65.2% | 26.8 | 26.3 | 1.9% |
36.1 | 74.8% | 28 | 27.5 | 1.8% |
System measured vs. theoretical supply air temperature.
The apparent temperature (AT) is a suitable comfort index for climates with high temperatures and humidity. As shown in Figure 11, the apparent temperature at air speed for afternoon shaded is at 1 m/s air speed 50°C. If evaporative cooling is used, AT is reduced to 36.5°C. A two-stage indirect direct evaporative cooling system will reduce AT to 31.6°C. beCOOL-Innovation can reduce AT to 22.7°C at the same speed (1 m/s), which will have good impact on human comfort compared with traditional technologies.
Comparison of different systems on thermal comfort.
The beCOOL-Innovation is a 100% fresh air system; therefore, the water consumption is directly related to the weather conditions. The average hourly water is found to be 10 litres/hour; however, the system produces 17.5 kW of cooling and consumes 3.4 kW electricity.
This chapter presented the drivers, challenges and the beCOOL-Innovation technology to provide efficient treated fresh air for outdoor comfort whilst reducing energy consumption especially for hot or humid climates. Outdoor comfort is vital to improve urban liveability. The system has shown 50–62% reduction in energy consumption compared with conventional refrigeration systems. The efficient cooling system can shrink clients’ carbon footprints using cost-effective means. In addition to enclosed spaces, typical applications include open spaces such as stadiums and walkways, hospitals, health centres, laboratories, and greenhouses that would reduce food imports and strengthen national and regional food security. The testing results have shown less than 8% discrepancy between the theoretical and actual air supply temperatures.
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/97598",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"97598"},fullPath:"/profiles/97598",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()