Disease indices of incidence of white root rot of six
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7959",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Digestive System - Recent Advances",title:"Digestive System",subtitle:"Recent Advances",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book focuses on the recent advances in the digestive system. It is composed of 3 sections: gastrointestinal duct, liver, and biliary system. There are 9 chapters: peptic ulcers; mid-gastrointestinal bleeding; gastrointestinal manifestations of IgA vasculitis; biomechanics of intestinal contractions; evaluation of serum sodium change after terlipressin in cirrhosis; history and background of biliary system; gallbladder carcinoma; ERCP for cholecysto-choledocholithiasis; and cystic artery variations and associated vascular complications in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The knowledge presented in this book should be valuable for family physicians, internists, gastroenterologists, hepatologists, endoscopists, radiologists, and pathologists who are interested in digestive diseases to guide the clinical practice and management. This book should be also useful for patients and their relatives to better understand the digestive system.",isbn:"978-1-78985-140-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-139-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-390-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77789",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"digestive-system-recent-advances",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"13733cf2ed3652affb7832d133815bcd",bookSignature:"Xingshun Qi and Sam Koruth",publishedDate:"January 8th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7959.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8811,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:14,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 10th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 25th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 13th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"197501",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingshun",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"xingshun-qi",fullName:"Xingshun Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197501/images/system/197501.png",biography:"Dr. Xingshun Qi is a deputy director at the Department of Gastroenterology, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, China (formerly General Hospital of Shenyang Military Area). His major research interests are the management of liver cirrhosis, portal hypertension (especially portal vein thrombosis and Budd-Chiari syndrome), and hepatocellular carcinoma. He has edited eight English-language books and serves as an associate editor for BMC Gastroenterology, an associate editor for Frontiers in Medicine, an academic editor for Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, an editorial board member of Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology, and an advisory editorial member of Advances in Therapy.",institutionString:"General Hospital of Northern Theater Command",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"237315",title:"Dr.",name:"Sam",middleName:null,surname:"Koruth",slug:"sam-koruth",fullName:"Sam Koruth",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/237315/images/system/237315.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Sam Koruth\\'s educational qualifications include MBBS, MS (General Surgery), FMAS, and DMAS (Fellowship and diploma in Minimal Access Surgery). He has worked in the field of general surgery for over 6 years, and is currently practicing in Lourdes Hospital Kochi, Kerala, India where he has been trained under a reputed surgeon Dr. Santhosh John Abraham (Former President of Associations of Surgeons of India). In these years, Dr. Koruth has presented various papers at National and state level and has published many articles in the International forum. He also got the privilege of co- editing 2 chapters in the book “ Contemporary book of surgery”. Dr. Koruth won Best thesis of the year award, Best poster of the year award, 2nd best Research paper and best faculty video presentation in the year 2017 in the state forum. Additionally, he has won many awards in the national level. His best work has been on “Collagen 3 involvement in all types of Hernias” proving that its not just a primary disorder but a congenital defect, which has been accepted in the international journal.",institutionString:"Lourdes Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"181",title:"Gastroenterology",slug:"gastroenterology"}],chapters:[{id:"67428",title:"Peptic Ulcer Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86652",slug:"peptic-ulcer-disease",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is one of the commonest diseases seen throughout the world. There are various risk factors for the development of peptic ulcer disease, but the most important ones are Helicobacter pylori infection and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Patients generally present with dyspepsia or peptic ulcer bleeding. Acid suppressant therapy, H. pylori eradication, and avoidance of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the cornerstones of treatment of peptic ulcer disease. Peptic ulcer bleeding could be life-threatening. It is managed by appropriate supportive care, intravenous proton pump inhibitor therapy, and endoscopic hemostasis. Transarterial embolization (TAE) and surgery are rarely required if endoscopic therapy fails.",signatures:"Monjur Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67428",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67428",authors:[{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"69303",title:"Mid-Gastrointestinal Bleeding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89337",slug:"mid-gastrointestinal-bleeding",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mid-gastrointestinal bleeding constitutes a small proportion of all cases of gastrointestinal bleeding. It is more difficult to manage mid-gastrointestinal bleeding than upper or lower gastrointestinal bleeding. The etiology differs in younger and older age groups. The clinical presentation, investigations, and management are also different. Capsule endoscopy has improved the diagnostic accuracy to a great extent. Device-assisted enteroscopies (balloon-assisted enteroscopies and spiral enteroscopy) have both diagnostic and therapeutic potentials. Most of the time, patients present with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding which could be overt or occult. Another common presentation is iron deficiency anemia. A stepwise approach is essential to accurately diagnose and manage mid-gastrointestinal bleeding.",signatures:"Monjur Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69303",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69303",authors:[{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"67812",title:"Gastrointestinal Manifestations of IgA Vasculitis-Henoch-Schönlein Purpura",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86966",slug:"gastrointestinal-manifestations-of-iga-vasculitis-henoch-sch-nlein-purpura",totalDownloads:993,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Immunoglobulin A vasculitis, formerly called Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP), is the most common systemic vasculitis in childhood. It is a small-vessel vasculitis mediated by type III hypersensitivity, manifested as rash accompanied by gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, arthritis, and nephritis. The etiology of this disease (a leukocytoclastic vasculitis) is still uncertain, but immune complexes of IgA and unidentified antigens seem to have a central pathogenic role. Most often the diagnosis is established after the clinical examination; it is easy at first glance when the clinical presentation includes the classic tetrad of rash (nonthrombocytopenic palpable purpura), arthralgia/arthritis, abdominal pain, and renal manifestations but may be difficult when the gastrointestinal manifestations precede the skin purpuric rash. Gastrointestinal involvement is frequently seen and varies from mild symptoms to severe complications; sometimes the gastrointestinal symptoms (colicky abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, gastrointestinal bleeding) are the first manifestations of the disease. Immunoglobulin A vasculitis is usually a self-limited disease with a benign course, and the treatment is often symptomatic; in severe cases corticosteroids are necessary.",signatures:"Camelia Cojocariu, Ana Maria Singeap, Stefan Chiriac, Catalin Sfarti, Irina Girleanu, Oana Petrea, Anca Trifan and Carol Stanciu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67812",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67812",authors:[{id:"45442",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Trifan",slug:"anca-trifan",fullName:"Anca Trifan"},{id:"58426",title:"Prof.",name:"Carol",surname:"Stanciu",slug:"carol-stanciu",fullName:"Carol Stanciu"},{id:"202666",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",surname:"Girleanu",slug:"irina-girleanu",fullName:"Irina Girleanu"},{id:"288391",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Camelia",surname:"Cojocariu",slug:"camelia-cojocariu",fullName:"Camelia Cojocariu"},{id:"306764",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Singeap",slug:"ana-maria-singeap",fullName:"Ana Maria Singeap"},{id:"306765",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Chiriac",slug:"stefan-chiriac",fullName:"Stefan Chiriac"},{id:"306766",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",surname:"Sfarti",slug:"catalin-sfarti",fullName:"Catalin Sfarti"},{id:"306768",title:"Dr.",name:"Oana",surname:"Petrea",slug:"oana-petrea",fullName:"Oana Petrea"}],corrections:null},{id:"67678",title:"Biomechanics of the Small Intestinal Contractions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86539",slug:"biomechanics-of-the-small-intestinal-contractions",totalDownloads:1235,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The small intestine is a part of the gastrointestinal segment comprising of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. They help to process the gastric contents for further digestion, which involves mixing with duodeno-biliary-pancreatic (DBP) secretions to facilitate the chemical digestion, and homogenization of the luminal contents through contractions of the circular and longitudinal smooth muscle fibers of the intestine. The contractions of these smooth muscle fibers develops the mechanical forces at the mucosal wall, which as a consequence, transfers its momentum to the underlying fluid to develop the fluid flows, suggesting relevance of mechanics in physiology. The resulting flows are what drive the digestion. Changes in contractility of wave shapes of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle contractions and fluid rheology are known to affect the digestive process through generation of various flow patterns that differ in luminal pressure, peak velocity, extent of shearing/ mixing, volume of mixing, and flow rate. Recent studies indicate that the digestive process can be very specific such as to cause lipid digestion through segmental contractions and transport by eliciting propagating contractions, suggesting that the intestine manages to digest a variety of food in an efficient manner by eliciting appropriate contractions.",signatures:"Ravi Kant Avvari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67678",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67678",authors:[{id:"296837",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravi Kant",surname:"Avvari",slug:"ravi-kant-avvari",fullName:"Ravi Kant Avvari"}],corrections:null},{id:"69768",title:"Serum Sodium Concentration in Patients with Portal Hypertension and Acute Gastrointestinal Bleeding Treated with Terlipressin: A Retrospective Observational Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89981",slug:"serum-sodium-concentration-in-patients-with-portal-hypertension-and-acute-gastrointestinal-bleeding-",totalDownloads:662,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This retrospective observational study aimed to investigate the risk of serum sodium concentration in patients treated with terlipressin and attempted to explore the factors associated with serum sodium concentration. We included 17 patients with portal hypertension treated with terlipressin (Group 1), 7 with portal hypertension treated with somatostatin/octreotide (Group 2), 20 with acute non-variceal gastrointestinal bleeding treated with somatostatin/octreotide (Group 3), and 19 with acute pancreatitis treated with somatostatin/octreotide (Group 4). In all groups, serum sodium concentration at baseline was not significantly different from the lowest value during the infusion of terlipressin, somatostatin, or octreotide (Group 1: 136.95 ± 4.68 versus 135.52 ± 4.79, p = 0.426; Group 2: 139.64 ± 3.86 versus 138.41 ± 5.34, p = 0.813; Group 3: 138.02 ± 4.08 versus 137.69 ± 3.11, p = 0.630; Group 4: 135.96 ± 6.87 versus 134.60 ± 3.40, p = 0.098). The rate of serum sodium concentration reduction in Group 1 (8/17) was not significantly different from Group 2 (3/7, p = 1.000), Group 3 (11/20, p = 0.746), or Group 4 (14/19, p = 0.171). Age, sex, baseline MELD and Child-Pugh scores, cDDD value and duration of terlipressin, blood transfusion, and diuretics and paracentesis during terlipressin were not significantly associated with serum sodium concentration reduction in Group 1. In conclusion, serum sodium concentration is often reduced in patients treated with terlipressin. However, the association of sodium concentration reduction with terlipressin should be clarified.",signatures:"Xinmiao Zhou, Lichun Shao, Tingxue Song, Wenchun Bao, Xiaozhong Guo and Xingshun Qi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69768",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69768",authors:[{id:"197501",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingshun",surname:"Qi",slug:"xingshun-qi",fullName:"Xingshun Qi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68799",title:"Prologue: Biliary System - History and Background",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88400",slug:"prologue-biliary-system-history-and-background",totalDownloads:636,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sam Koruth and Sooraj Sankar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68799",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68799",authors:[{id:"237315",title:"Dr.",name:"Sam",surname:"Koruth",slug:"sam-koruth",fullName:"Sam Koruth"}],corrections:null},{id:"63683",title:"Gall Bladder Carcinoma: Clinical Presentations and Different Modalities of Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81263",slug:"gall-bladder-carcinoma-clinical-presentations-and-different-modalities-of-treatment",totalDownloads:927,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the most common cancer of the biliary tract and has a particularly high incidence in Chile, Japan and northern India. The clinical presentation of GBC is often vague or delayed relative to pathologic progression, contributing to advanced staging and dismal prognosis at the time of diagnosis. In the diagnosis of GBC, differential diagnosis and determination of the local extension of tumor are important. For these purposes, imaging modalities such as endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS), CT, MRI and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) are useful. The treatment of localized GBC is based on surgery. Chemotherapy has been used extensively in advanced GBC, and we have gained some experience with gemcitabine-based combination (with cisplatin and oxaliplatin or with capecitabine) regimens.",signatures:"Wala Ben Kridis, Nabil Toumi, Jamel Daoud, Afef Khanfir and Mounir Frikha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63683",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63683",authors:[{id:"241067",title:"Dr.",name:"Wala",surname:"Ben Kridis",slug:"wala-ben-kridis",fullName:"Wala Ben Kridis"},{id:"267757",title:"Prof.",name:"Nabil",surname:"Toumi",slug:"nabil-toumi",fullName:"Nabil Toumi"},{id:"267758",title:"Prof.",name:"Afef",surname:"Khanfir",slug:"afef-khanfir",fullName:"Afef Khanfir"},{id:"267759",title:"Prof.",name:"Mounir",surname:"Frikha",slug:"mounir-frikha",fullName:"Mounir Frikha"},{id:"270321",title:"Prof.",name:"Jamel",surname:"Daoud",slug:"jamel-daoud",fullName:"Jamel Daoud"}],corrections:null},{id:"65788",title:"Intraoperative ERCP for Management of Gallbladder and Common Bile Duct Stones",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83352",slug:"intraoperative-ercp-for-management-of-gallbladder-and-common-bile-duct-stones",totalDownloads:1039,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"It is not an uncommon scenario to have CBD stones in association with gallbladder stones. There is a general agreement in the surgical society that CBD stones should be removed. The classic option is to do open cholecystectomy and CBD exploration. With the emergence of minimally invasive surgery, namely laparoscopic cholecystectomy and ERCP, the therapist has better option to treat such patients such as preoperative ERCP, postoperative ERCP, and laparoscopic CBD exploration. The latest advance in that field is the use of ERCP at the time of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, i.e. intraoperative ERCP. This chapter with discuss the issue of minimally invasive management of cholecystocholedocholithiasis stressing on intraoperative ERCP.",signatures:"Ahmed Abdelraouf Elgeidie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65788",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65788",authors:[{id:"262855",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Elgeidie",slug:"ahmed-elgeidie",fullName:"Ahmed Elgeidie"}],corrections:null},{id:"63779",title:"Cystic Artery Variations and Associated Vascular Complications in Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81200",slug:"cystic-artery-variations-and-associated-vascular-complications-in-laparoscopic-cholecystectomy",totalDownloads:1282,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Substantial knowledge of the arterial supply and its anatomical variations of the gall bladder and liver are important in all the hepatobiliary surgical procedures. The arterial supply of gallbladder called cystic artery (CA) is a vital structure required to get ligated or clipped in the path of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The possible concerns like intra-operative bleeding or adjoining accidental injuries will almost always be focused on the research consisting of dissection and clipping with cystic artery. Pseudoaneurysm of the cystic artery has additionally been belonging to the presence of acute cholecystitis or pancreatitis. An original supply of CA is usually assessed depending on the existence of hepatic artery variants. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is really a recent and arduous noninvasive procedure and might even result in substantial unintended effects possibly iatrogenic or in the form of post-procedural complications. The perfect knowledge of anatomy in addition to feasible variation of cystic artery is mandatory. An efficient operative strategy and consciousness are probably the key components with all the results and marginal likelihood of complications, which often can be ultimately attainable. Within this chapter, we have attempted to explore some variations of cystic artery, complications and management.",signatures:"Pankaj Prasoon, Tomohiro Katada, Kohei Miura, Yuki Hirose, Jun Sakata and Toshifumi Wakai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63779",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63779",authors:[{id:"79381",title:"Dr.",name:"Toshifumi",surname:"Wakai",slug:"toshifumi-wakai",fullName:"Toshifumi Wakai"},{id:"266766",title:"Dr.",name:"Pankaj",surname:"Prasoon",slug:"pankaj-prasoon",fullName:"Pankaj Prasoon"},{id:"266768",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomohiro",surname:"Katada",slug:"tomohiro-katada",fullName:"Tomohiro Katada"},{id:"266770",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuki",surname:"Hirose",slug:"yuki-hirose",fullName:"Yuki Hirose"},{id:"266772",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",surname:"Sakata",slug:"jun-sakata",fullName:"Jun Sakata"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10422",title:"Portal Hypertension",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ad8b9fc22c286639c6b0f4c2b275f7c",slug:"portal-hypertension-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Xingshun Qi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10422.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197501",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingshun",surname:"Qi",slug:"xingshun-qi",fullName:"Xingshun Qi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6663",title:"Management of Chronic Liver Diseases",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"833ebcb9a2596f81deff0246ed7c9642",slug:"management-of-chronic-liver-diseases-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Xingshun Qi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6663.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197501",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingshun",surname:"Qi",slug:"xingshun-qi",fullName:"Xingshun Qi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6164",title:"Metagenomics for Gut Microbes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"672dc229a6318cc2b7b7ef16b314e046",slug:"metagenomics-for-gut-microbes",bookSignature:"Ranjith N. 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Monoclonal
The rubber tree is subject to a plethora of economically important pathological problems, mainly of fungal origin (the basisdiomycetes) (Igeleke, 1998). In Nigeria, the most serious diseases of rubber seedlings and budded plants in the nursery are leaf diseases (Begho, 1990), while In mature plantation, the most devastating leaf disease is the South American Leaf Blight (SALB), and
Rubber tree exhibits natural resistance to invading root pathogens. Resistance often breaks down due to effect of pathogens that colonize living tissues of the tree to obtain nutrients as a result of the damaging and weakening of the plant with toxins or by preventing the plants defense mechanism (Jayasuriya 2004). A number of certain defense mechanisms in
The process of pre- infection involves pathogen breaking down the host cuticle and cell wall. Plants respond to infection process by producing anti-microbial compounds of low molecular weight (phytoalexins) (Darvill et al 1984).
The growth and spread of infective fungal pathogens from existing population have been on the increase with great virulency and inflicting damages even to resistant genotypes. The impact of fungal pathogens results in crop losses. The production of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) is implicated as key enzyme in the plant phenyl propanoid pathway to catalyse the synthesis of phenyl lignin and phytoalexin from L-phenylalanine (Jones 1984). The synthesis of these anti-microbial compounds and the subsequent increase in PAL concentration are often useful resistance indicator in the host (Nicholson and Hammerschmidt 1992). Also, oxidases and peroxidases are known to be actively involved in polymerization of phenolic compounds in the lignin formation. In resistance mechanism action of peroxidase is related to initiation of hypersensitive cell collapse (Simons and Rose 1971).
Pathogenesis-related proteins(PR) is yet another defense response of rubber against pathogen infection (Narasimhan et al 2000) The PR protein induced by polyacrylic, acetyl salicylic (aspirin) and salicylic acids are known to increase resistance to pathogens (Gianinazzi 1984).
There is variation among high yielding genotypes in disease tolerance level. In this regard, some clones are resistant to virtually most of the diseases but are susceptible to few diseases. However, certain clones exhibit tolerance to few diseases but some others are susceptible to many diseases. There are few clones which tolerate characteristics of pathogens, and as a result of abiotic factors, produce new strains, and these strains can be more aggressive against rubber clones. Mutation is seen to be responsible for variability in pathogens, which involves changing sequence bases in the nuclear DNA, either by way of substitution or addition or deletion of one or many base pairs.
The
The
The host-parasite interactions involve attacks by
Analysis of root tissues (Geiger et al 1986) indicated that some enzymes – (CM – cellulose, pectinase, laccase) are present only in parasite tissues. It is explained that these enzymes are biosynthesized by the parasite and not by the host. However, it is yet to be shown that the fungi are able to perform biosyntheses of those enzymes.
Involvement of CWDE goes through certain criteria. The synthesis of CWDE is not a proof of involvement in disease. Pathogens with low potentials for the production of CWDE, the ability of cells to reduce the viscosity of a polysaccharide or to grow on a polysaccharide implies synthesis of the relevant polysaccharide, and lack of growth can sometimes reflect inability to metabolize the end product.
Studies of transmission electron microscopy show valuable indications to the participation of CWDE. Microcopic alterations of walls of the infected tissue is displacement of wall fibrils indicating mechanical penetration, whereas extensive wall dissolution signifies freely diffusible extracellular CWDE. Loss of the middle Lamella implies action by pectic enzymes (Baker
In wood degradation by enzymes of white root rot fungi the structural elements cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin synthesized and deposited in the plant cell walls reinforce the mechanical strength and rigidity of the stems of higher plants.
In the host specificity of wood rotters (Tuor
Infected trees show a general foliage discoloration, proceeded sometimes by premature flowering and fruiting. Affected tree branches die back until the whole canopy is destroyed and the tree eventually dies. In Nigeria, the foliage symptoms appear only when the tree is beyond treatment and recovery. The pathogen
Basidiocarps of
When roots of infected are exposed, profusely branched white rhizomorphs are readily seen. The rhizomorphs are flattened mycelia strands of 1-2 mm thick that grow firmly attached to the surface of infected roots (Fig. 2).
The rhizomorphs grow rapidily and ahead of the rot and extend many meters through the soil freely hindrances from woody substrate. The internal progression of the development of the root rot pathogen is rather an ectotrophic growth characteristic. At infection point, the parasite penetrates the taproot down the soil. Nandris et al. (1987) explained for infection to take place, the rhizomorphs are subjected to morphogenetically state into infectious hyphae
Rhizomorph strands on the collars of root of
exhibiting degrading extracellular enzymes capable of wood rotting. The authors further stated that this mechanism is strictly regulated by partial anoxia conditions in the soil. Following root infection, colonization within the taproot progresses towards the collar region and other parts of the root. Newly killed wood is brownish thereafter turns cream and soft. This shows fading of coloration along a gradient from the progression front of the parasite toward the tissues that were colonized before now. The effect of
Fluffy growth of
Foliage of infected trees shows general discoloration, often preceded by premature flowering and fruiting. Branches of infected tree die back until the whole canopy is destroyed and the tree eventually dies. In Nigeria, usually the foliage symptoms appear only when the tree is no longer treatable. Exposure of roots around the collar infected trees is carried out by searching the collars with wooden like spades for the presence of rhizomorph filaments. The stick-trapping method is also a useful tool in detecting the growth of
Generally, two phases characterize the spatial spread of root rot disease in
The level of incidence of white root rot disease and its effect on
where,
0, 1, 2, and 3 are infection categories
a, b, c, and d are plants that fall into the infection categories
x is the maximum disease category which is 4
Rep. | NIG 800 | NIG 800 | NIG 800 | GT 1 | PR 107 | RRIM 707 |
1 | 25.10 | 23.18 | 28.00 | 9.34 | 25.30 | 22.83 |
2 | 31.72 | 21.10 | 20.13 | 10.75 | 27.47 | 26.48 |
3 | 28.13 | 29.19 | 29.90 | 10.61 | 33.61 | 37.11 |
4 | 26.53 | 34.00 | 32.00 | 28.14 | 35.80 | 22.00 |
Mean | 27.87 | 26.87 | 27.51 | 14.71 | 30.55 | 26.86 |
Disease indices of incidence of white root rot of six
Disease indices recorded showed highest susceptibility score in PR 107 (30.55) and lowest score in GT 1 (14.71). Intermediate scores among other clones were equally high compared with PR 107. The lowest susceptibility in GT 1 indicated that GT 1 showed a significant level of resistance to the white root rot disease.
Diagramatic illustration of white root rot disease cycle.
The result of the white root rot incidence in six clones are shown in Table 1.
Based on the susceptibility status recorded, the GT 1 Lowest susceptibility status was assessed for the volume of latex and dry weight of cup lumps from effects at different infection categories of white root rot incidence (Table 2). The ‘O’ infection category had the highest volume of latex (228.93 cm3), however, showed no significant difference with the rest clones. The highest infectivity category gave the highest dry weight of cup lumps (118.88g), followed by ‘0’ ‘1’ and ‘2’ categories but no significant difference among the clones was obtained. This may be attributed to increase in DRC in response to effect of the white root rot disease.
Infection category | Volume of latex (cm3 ) | Dry weight of cup lumps (g) |
0 | 228.93 | 114.00 |
1 | 192.44 | 103.71 |
2 | 191.17 | 94.00 |
3 | 224.18 | 118.88 |
Cv (%) | 26.91 | 28.24 |
Volume of latex and dry weight of cup lumps under infection categories in GT 1
Observations recorded at Rubber Research Institute of Nigeria (RRIN), Iyanomo, on the roots of some
Clone | No. Planted Out | No. 9 Survival | No. with White Root Rot | No. of Dead From Root Rot | % Infection | % Survival |
RRINSC*1 | 9 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 44.44 | 55.55 |
3 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 55.55 | 77.77 |
8 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 1 | 66.66 | 88.88 |
11 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 55.55 | 77.77 |
21 | 9 | 9 | 6 | - | 66.66 | 100.00 |
27 | 9 | 9 | 7 | - | 77.77 | 100.00 |
28 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 1 | 66.66 | 88.88 |
29 | 9 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 44.44 | 66.66 |
42 | 9 | 9 | 5 | - | 55.55 | 100.00 |
43 | 9 | 8 | 4 | 1 | 44.44 | 88.00 |
47 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 1 | 88.88 | 100.00 |
51 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 1 | 88.88 | 88.88 |
52 | 9 | 9 | 7 | - | 77.77 | 100.00 |
54 | 9 | 9 | 6 | - | 66.66 | 100.00 |
55 | 9 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 66.66 | 66.66 |
58 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 1 | 66.66 | 88.88 |
75 | 9 | 8 | 6 | 1 | 66.66 | 88.88 |
76 | 9 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 44.44 | 77.77 |
82 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 1 | 55.55 | 77.77 |
83 | 9 | 9 | 6 | - | 66.66 | 100.00 |
85 | 9 | 9 | 8 | - | 88.88 | 100.00 |
86 | 9 | 9 | 8 | - | 88.88 | 100.00 |
87 | 9 | 9 | 6 | - | 66.66 | 100.00 |
97 | 9 | 9 | 6 | - | ||
98 | 9 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 44.44 | 55.55 |
Root Rot Observation after 10years of Planting at RRIN
Clone | No. Planted Out | No. 9 Survival | No. with White Root Rot | No. of Dead From Root Rot | % Infection | % Survival |
RRINSC | ||||||
104 | 9 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 11.11 | 66.66 |
105 | 9 | 9 | 7 | - | 77.77 | 100.00 |
106 | 9 | 9 | 5 | - | 55.55 | 100.00 |
114 | 9 | 6 | 5 | 1 | 55.55 | 66.66 |
118 | 9 | 9 | 4 | - | 44.44 | 100.00 |
PB86 | 162 | 121 | 87 | 25 | 53.70 | 74.69 |
Impact of
Reduction of root diseases is performed through some control approaches. Proper clearing of land is recommended especially mechanically clearing is the most effective clearing method. In the recent past in Nigeria, treatment of infected roots with root rot diseases involved excavating the soil around the roots of infected trees, and removal of surface rhizomorphs and roots sections penetrated by the pathogen. A long-lasting collar protectant dressing fungicides such as pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) is then smeared around the collar, tap root and basal portion of the main laterals of the tree, before replacing the soil. The same treatment is also given to immediate tree neighbors, especially those along the same row. This approach is rather labor intensive and quite difficult to apply on a large scale plantation.
Results of investigation on the effectiveness of calixin fungicide (a.i. tridemorph) at the RRIN mainstation, Iyanomo (Table 5) revealed significant reduction of white root rot disease of
Clones | Dead/ No. Planted | No of Survivors | Pecentage of Plants cured |
PRINSC 1 | 2/9 | 7 | 77.77 |
3 | 1/9 | 8 | 88.88 |
8 | 1/9 | 8 | 88.88 |
11 | 1/9 | 8 | 88.88 |
28 | 1/9 | 8 | 88.88 |
55 | 3/9 | 6 | 66.66 |
58 | 2/9 | 7 | 77.77 |
75 | 1/9 | 8 | 88.88 |
76 | 2/9 | 7 | 77.77 |
82 | 1/9 | 8 | 88.88 |
98 | 4/9 | 5 | 55.55 |
104 | 2/9 | 7 | 77.77 |
114 | 2/9 | 7 | 77.77 |
PB 86 | 30/162 | 133 | 82.09 |
Clones with White Root Rot treated with Calixin.P< 0.01 (Clones with over 70 -80% cured)
Foliage discoloration of
Clearing methods such as uprooting and poisoning of old trees are found to reduce root disease incidence in replanting. The stumps from felled trees should be poisoned and the cut surface painted with creosote. This will prevent the root fungi of food sources.
Planting of legume cover crops helps to reduce root disease since they cause roots and stumps to rot faster (Malaysian Rubber Board 2000). It also asserted that about 30g of powdered sulphur should be amended into the planting hole. Sulphur is known to promote fungal growth antagonistic to incidence of fungal root diseases.
The use of collar protectant to paint the collar part of the tree is said to prevent root disease infection for few years (Malaysian Rubber Board 2000). Suitable fungicidal wound dressing should be applied to any damaged part of the tree. This prevents infective spores from gaining entry into the plant tissues. The digging of isolation trenches of one meter between infected and healthy trees prevents the spread of disease from infected plants to health trees. This method is rather difficult and may not be satisfactorily effective.
On exposure of infected root system, all dead roots are removed, bulked and burnt. Soil particles attached to the roots are shaken off. After exposure, root surface are dried and suitable long lasting collar protect ant fungicide pentachloronitrobenzene (PCNB) is painted over the exposed infected root system, including collar, tap root and basal portion of the main laterals of the tree, before replacing the soil. The same treatment is carried out for the immediate tree neighbors, especially those along the same row. This method of exposing the root system and subsequent application of a collar protect ant fungicide is quite labour intensive exercise and uneconomical. The PCNB use is hazardous, being carcinogenic and has been banned (Rajalakshmy and Jayarathnam 2000). This method has been abandoned in most rubber growing regions of the world.
A less laborious approach is digging a slight furrow around the base of the infected tree and drenching the collar region with two liters of 0.5% calixin (a.i.tridemorph). Infected trees as well as two direct neighbors in the same row are treated every six months. Other suitable fungicides for the treatment of white root rot disease is the use of Bayleton (a.i. triadimefon), Bayfidan (a.i. tridimenol), Anvil (a.i. hexaconazole), Folicur (a.i. tebuconazole), Contaf (a.i. hexaconazole) and Daconil (a.i. chlorothaconil) (Jayaratne et al 2001). The use of these chemical fungicides as described above involving loosening the soil and forming funnel – like furrow around the base of the trunk, and then drench the chemicals into the furrow along the trunk of the tree with about 10-20 ml at every four to six months is highly effective.
The purpose of controlling root diseases is to remove their sources of infection or inocula at the very young stages of the trees in order to prevent the rest trees from being infected as they mature. Due to possible sources of infection it is necessary to put in place adequate management measures. In embarking on preparations for the management, the role of tapers is necessary since tapers know the locations of the diseased trees in the plantations and this however, simplifies task of locating the diseased trees. This explains the need to train tapers on how to recognize root diseases and other
Agriculture is a major source of food in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), and a primary source of livelihood [1]. The sector employs more than half of the total labour force and accounts for roughly a third of the gross domestic product (GDP) [2, 3, 4]. The share of agriculture in GDP varies significantly by country ranging from below 3% in Botswana to over 50% in Chad [5]. Due to the fragmentation of land caused by population pressure in most rural areas, farm sizes are typically less than 2 hectares each [6]. As a result, smallholder farms are dominant across the subcontinent [7]. They make up 80% of the farms, which translates to approximately 33 million smallholder farms [8]. Although the widely accepted view is that, smallholder farmers produce the majority of the food, because they farm land very intensively resulting in high levels of productivity per unit of land [9, 10], their farms are often too small to provide a sustainable income at the household level, let alone food security [7]1. In addition, smallholder farmers are known to face several challenges associated with missing markets for credit, insurance, information including economies of scale in marketing and transportation [10]. Problematically, they are also reliant on non-drought tolerant crops and seed varieties2, non-mechanised farming systems and subsistence rain-fed farming3, factors which jointly contribute to the volatility of agriculture and the vulnerability of the smallholder farmers [13]. Having a full grasp of the character of risks that affect smallholder farmers is key to developing appropriate solutions to deal with risks. Similarly, it is important to understand how farmers respond to the solutions designed to ameliorate risk as this will help to establish the effectiveness and compatibility of the measures apropos the target market.
This chapter seeks to explore the gap between the assertion, that weather index insurance (WII) is a promising risk transfer mechanism for smallholder farmers in SSA and the realisation that, even where microfinance is made available, subscription rates among smallholder farmers rarely rise. The chapter pays attention to the risk response behaviour of smallholder farmers when presented with the option of purchasing WII that is bundled with microfinance. Weather index insurance is crucial because it potentially addresses welfare losses due to weather risk and complements existing informal risk management strategies [14]. The linkage between WII and credit has been discussed widely in theory but rarely investigated empirically, yet a lot of recommendations have been put forward by scholars for WII to be bundled with microfinance (see [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]). This is because, when smallholder farmers are believed to pose less risk to creditors when they have access to insurance [20]. In this sense, agriculture insurance can crowd-in credit, the lack of which has long been identified as a major, if not the main, constraint for smallholders in developing countries [21].
Access to agriculture insurance is crucial for smallholders because agriculture is generally prone to production failure due to the risk of catastrophic events such as those linked to extreme weather events [22]. Weather extremes have been repeatedly seen to have long-lasting impacts on farming livelihoods [23, 24, 25, 26]. Sub-Saharan Africa is especially vulnerable to weather-related risks because of the strong reliance on climate-sensitive rainfed agriculture [27]. While extreme weather shocks are not new to this region, the frequency and intensity of the events have increased over the past few decades. Based on the Human Cost of Disasters 2000–2019 Report, there has been a sharp increase in weather-related disasters4 over the past 20 years. Notably, disasters including extreme weather events rose from 4212 in the period 1980 to 1999, to 7348 in the period 2000 to 2019 [28]. Weather events figure large among the recorded disasters5.
Equally alarming are the rising patterns of loss and damage in the agricultural industry that are strongly correlated to the increasing catastrophic events [29]. For example, it is estimated that more than 75% of recent economic losses caused by natural hazards in Sub-Saharan Africa are attributable to climate change-induced weather events [30]. Outcomes linked to economic loss include livelihood insecurity, poverty, food insecurity and poor nutrition – cyclical patterns which can be ameliorated through adaptation financing [31]. What smallholders need therefore is access to perfect financial markets (savings, credit and insurance) and economic incentives to (re)invest in agriculture [7]. Reducing the economic impact of severe weather events is thus a crucial step towards supporting agricultural growth, sustainable livelihoods, poverty alleviation as well as bolstering food security and nutrition [32]. Given the foregoing, the vulnerability of smallholder farmers in lower-income countries is acute in part because they repeatedly lack access to financial mechanisms to efficiently manage production uncertainties [33]. In the absence of effective insurance and credit markets, households remain vulnerable to the financial consequences of high-magnitude loss events.
While SSA is not a single unit and challenges vary spatially and temporally, agriculture, and especially crop production in this region is predominantly rainfed and as such reliant on unpredictable climatic events [24, 31, 34, 35]. Under the current variable climate conditions, SSA already experiences a major deficit in food production especially in semi-arid and subhumid regions and areas [1]. This means a further drop in soil moisture due to mounting climate extremes will have devastating effects on agricultural production and will worsen food insecurity [26]. SSA is vulnerable to climate change also because the economies of most countries in this region are dominated by subsistence agriculture, the productivity of which is grossly susceptible to changing weather patterns [36]. Furthermore, the sub-continent is prone to complex natural climatic phenomena such as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the West African Monsoon and the Indian Ocean Dipole [37], which influence climate variability (inter-annual and intra-seasonal rainfall), trends (upward or downward) and the persistence thereof [38]. The natural climatic phenomena give rise to regional climatic patterns which are impacted to some degree by climate change [37]. Because of the regional climatic phenomena, SSA has a long history of rainfall fluctuations of varying lengths and intensities (ibid) and is prone to cyclical drought patterns which are a frequent event in the semi-arid countries of the sub-continent [1]. The droughts in SSA have in recent times become more frequent and protracted, ostensibly due to climate change [39].
Climate forecasts have shown warming of approximately 0.71°C over much of the African continent in the twentieth Century [1], and an increase of over 1°C in the twenty-first Century [40]. Rather, average near-surface temperatures across parts of the continent have risen by more than twice the global rate of temperature increase in the twenty-first Century [41]. According to WMO [40], the year 2019 was among the three warmest years on record for the continent. Recent decadal predictions encompassing a five-year period from 2020 to 2024, signify continued warming and decreasing rainfall markedly over North and Southern Africa (ibid). Further predictions by Woetzel et al. [42] suggest that, due to climate change, the number and intensity of extreme weather events in SSA are set to increase. This is consistent with findings submitted in the Human Cost of Disasters 2000–2019 Report, which revealed that 1192 extreme weather events were recorded in Africa over the last 20 years (see [28]).
An enquiry on climate change and its likely impacts on SSA cannot be achieved by examining long term weather changes alone [43], as most countries in SSA suffer from intersecting stressors that give rise to low resilience and limited adaptative capacity to climate-related shocks [1]. Incidentally, climate change acts to exacerbate pre-existing conditions and has thus been dubbed a threat multiplier [25]. As such, the effects of drought and other climate extremes in SSA are exacerbated by endemic poverty, complex governance and institutional dimensions; limited access to capital, including markets, infrastructure and technology; ecosystem degradation; and complex disasters and conflicts ([36], p. 435).
SSA accounts for more than half of the world’s extreme poor, amounting to approximately 400 million people, most of which are smallholder farmers [37]. Poverty is among the key reasons why a lot of smallholder farmers in SSA are continuously exposed to inter-annual variations and occasional shocks caused by weather which affect agricultural output beyond their manageable limits [30]. As a result, at the 25th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that took place in Madrid in December 2019, it was revealed that 7 out of the 10 most climate-vulnerable nations in the world are located in Africa [44]. The figure is consistent with findings published in the Human Cost of Disasters 2000–2019 Report, which pointed out that, the top 10 list of countries with the highest share of affected populations by extreme weather shocks over the last 20 years is dominated by Sub-Saharan African countries, which make up 6 out of the 10 countries on the list [28].
Risk is the aggregate of the likelihood or possibility of a shock event occurring, and the severity of loss or impact caused by the event [45]. Three aspects make up risk, namely, threat, uncertainty, and loss. Climate change poses significant risks for food systems and has thus emerged as one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first Century. Climatic extremes affect the primary sources of farm income, such as crops and livestock, and can further destroy household assets such as farming equipment – investments accumulated over time that are needed to generate future income [46]. Loss and damage due to extreme weather events can push farming households into cycles of poverty. According to GlobalAgRisk [47], households that are just above the poverty line can be pushed instantly below the poverty line by a major weather event. In the absence of perfect financial markets, including savings, credit and insurance, smallholdings in SSA generally struggle to recover from loss and damage caused by extreme weather events [34].
In the absence of perfect financial markets, an array of behavioural responses often emerge to fill in the gaps created by market failures [48]. Despite having considerable experience dealing with weather extremes, smallholders are much less likely to plan for low probability, high consequence risks [49]. This is a result of a cognitive bias that causes people to ignore risks with low probability, except when the likelihood of occurrence is well-known [50]. This psychological phenomenon influences the willingness of poor households to spend their limited income to cover low probability risks. Be that as it may, from a risk perspective, behavioural responses to shocks consist of three types of choices, namely, risk mitigation, risk coping and risk transfer [51]. The behavioural responses are characterised as being
Smallholder farmers in SSA are more susceptible to weather fluctuations than farmers in developed countries, who for instance, can more easily alter crop varieties, irrigate their fields, or secure crop insurance [42]. In more developed countries financial markets exist which allow farmers to insure against shocks
Faced with no savings, credit or insurance, they typically manage risk by smoothing consumption through choosing low-risk activities or technologies, which generally yield low to average returns [56]. Smallholder farmers in SSA also smooth consumption through asset attrition. According to Carter and Lybbert [57], since the rural poor have limited access to financial markets, consumption smoothing typically involves amassing assets in good times to use as a fallback in bad times. For example, a study on the impacts of drought on rural households in Burkina Faso showed that a good number of households that sell livestock do so to offset consumption shortfalls due to negative income shocks. Similar findings were observed in studies carried out in the rural Districts of Buhera and Nyanga in Zimbabwe where farmers mentioned the sale of livestock as a means of buffering income losses caused by production uncertainties [58]. Wealth for the rural poor is usually not in the form of cash or savings [47], but productive assets such as livestock [48]. Thus, when a severe weather event occurs, livestock is often sold off, often at a loss [59], because the distressed sale of large numbers of livestock at the same time flood the market, significantly reducing their value [60]. In contrast, insurance has been seen to positively influence households’ behavioural responses to risk through enabling them to reduce the need to rely on costly coping strategies such as selling productive, as this undermines future productivity. Results from an index-based livestock insurance (IBLI) pilot in Marsabit District of northern Kenya, showed that insured households are less likely to sell livestock [61]. Nonetheless, because insurance is not readily available in most rural areas, and where available, demand for it is low, smallholders tend to rely more on on-farm risk mitigation strategies. Thus, to preserve assets, households may smooth consumption further by cutting back on meals and diverting children from school which undermines crucial investments in human capital, hampering current and future productivity (ibid). In terms of its functional objective, consumption smoothing involves creating a balance between spending and saving to achieve a higher overall standard of living and can for that reason be used as a welfare dimension to assess a household’s preparedness to deal with climate change risk [62].
In addition to consumption smoothing, smallholder farmers in SSA also smooth income when dealing with climate change risk [44]. Income smoothing refers to the different strategies and approaches used by households to control the impact of extreme volatility in household income [48]. It is most often achieved
In all, there is an overlap between different types of shocks and behavioural responses to shocks. As the discussion above attests, high-frequency low losses are usually managed at the farm level and mitigated in part through access to household investments [63]. In an ideal world, residual risk (low frequency, medium loss) that cannot be retained by the farmer is better of transferred to third parties, usually insurance companies [45], which is not always an option for smallholders in SSA. Where insurance is an option, smallholders often deem it too costly for their limited income. Nonetheless, transferring a portion of income risk to a third party enables the farmer to have enough money to invest in higher-risk/higher-yield production technologies, such as improved seeds and inputs [20]. When weather-related shocks strike, households that receive indemnity payments have more response options, which notionally should reduce their reliance on detrimental coping strategies [66]. Although smallholder farmers in SSA have developed numerous adaptation mechanisms to cope with weather fluctuations over time, evidence has repeatedly shown that their methods are not adequate to deal with climate change [36]. If climate change adaptation investments are not made (e.g. by governments, multinational corporations and donor communities), the adaptation mechanisms used by smallholder farmers in SSA will not keep up with climate change impacts [22]. The Paris Agreement underlined the global importance of adaptation and contains provisions related to adaptation finance that follow guidelines from the Cancun Adaptation Framework [67]. Paragraph 28 of the Cancun Adaptation Framework stressed the need to explore options for risk-sharing and risk insurance, including options for micro-finance to reduce the devastating impacts of disasters among vulnerable populations [68].
Risk-sharing or risk transfer is a risk management strategy that involves the contractual shifting of risk from one party to another [51]. Risk transfer is most often achieved through an insurance policy, where the insurance carrier assumes the defined risks for the policyholder in exchange for a fee, or insurance premium [69]. Agricultural insurance is one risk transfer tool that farmers can use to manage risks that cannot be mitigated at the farm level [30]. It offers a promising means of cushioning in times of climate change-induced loss and damage for smallholder farmers [35]. Globally, however, less than 20% of smallholder farmers have any form of agricultural insurance [22]. Although the estimated global agricultural insurance premium volume almost doubled in the period 2004–2007, it remained low in African countries where it roughly reached an average of 0.13% of the 2007 agricultural GDP [70]. As a result, some scholars claim that only about 1.3% of the smallholder farmers in SSA have agricultural insurance [71]. Raithatha and Priebe [22] set the figure at 3%, while a more recent study suggests that the figure is around 3.5% which at any rate is far below the rates in Asia (46.2%) and Latin America (15.8%) [72]. Despite the low uptake of agricultural insurance by smallholder farmers in SSA, agriculture insurance is firmly believed can reduce the economic impact of severe weather events and help stimulate economic development through supporting agricultural growth, poverty alleviation, and the development of rural finance [14]. Based on the functional objective of agriculture insurance, it is an income smoothing
There are various types of agriculture insurance, the main ones being, indemnity-based crop insurance (e.g., named peril crop insurance and multiple peril crop insurance) and index-based insurance (e.g., index-based livestock insurance, area yield index insurance and weather index insurance). This chapter looks specifically at weather index insurance (WII). Weather index insurance has been presented as an important risk transfer mechanism that can assist smallholder farmers to deal better with climate risk [22, 35, 73]. The underlying risk for a WII product is the behaviour of the specific weather variable that contributes to production losses [14]. WII focuses on weather-related shocks because rainfall and temperature patterns for instance pose a serious threat for farmers [20]. The pervasive nature of catastrophic weather events is especially well-suited for index products, which explicitly insure against covariate shocks (ibid). Unlike traditional insurance, index-based insurance compensates policyholders according to a pre-determined index value [69] that serves as a proxy for losses rather than upon the assessed losses for individual policyholders [51]. Thus, some of the advantages of WII are that it has low operational costs, fast claim settlement speed and low risk of moral hazard and adverse selection [35]. Low operational costs give WII a critical advantage over traditional insurance, yet the hedging effectiveness of weather index-based insurance tends to be diminished by the often imperfect correlation between the index and realised losses. This is caused for instance, by the non-insurable difference between the weather events happening at the farm site and those occurring at the reference weather station, which is referred to as geographical basis risk [74]. In light of this, some of the drawbacks of WII include high basis risk, high actuarial difficulty, and high set-up costs [75].
The earliest applications of WII in emerging economies in the Americas and Asia are said to have taken place respectively in Mexico in 2002, followed by India in 2003 [47]. In SSA, the first application of weather index is said to have taken place in Malawi in 2005 [76] followed by Ethiopia in 2006 [77]. Almost 2 decades later, however, index insurance markets are still very thin in most African countries. To lessen the limitations of WII, insurance providers have initiated changes to their products being guided by scholarly recommendations and emerging best practices. Some of the key recommendations submitted by the scholarly community include interlinking reliable weather data with location-specific crop and agronomic conditions using flexible geospatial crop modelling tools (see [78]), interlinking WII with subsidies (see [79]) and interlinking WII with microfinance (see [16]). The mixed results of many WII pilot projects to date, for example, as presented by the lack of widespread implementation of even those projects considered successful, followed by the consistently low adoption rate by smallholder farmers, warrant an investigation into the changes needed for the products to become more scalable and sustainable.
Smallholder farmers often do not qualify for credit provided by mainstream banks due to the lack of usable collateral (e.g. savings, reliable earnings, effective land titles and other tangible and intangible assets) to guarantee loan repayments [49, 80]. In addition, the large fluctuations in farm revenue generally make it less commercially attractive to lenders, thus hampering credit provision to the agriculture sector [16]. Credit constraints discourage farmers from investing in higher-risk/higher-yield production technologies, such as improved seeds and inputs [20], which would otherwise boost their capacity to withstand the negative impacts of extreme weather events. In some instances, however, if no collateral is present, lenders may require crop insurance to securitize the repayment of the loan [16]. Thus, crop insurance can facilitate credit. Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) specialise in the supply of credit to segments of the population that is typically unattended by mainstream banks. The promise of microfinance is centred on the awarding of microloans to the poorest of the poor without requiring collateral [81]. What makes microfinance different from traditional forms of credit is its focus on small loans and other low-cost financial services which the poor can use to generate income and become self-reliant [82, 83]. However, while insurance may in some instances unlock credit, bundling microfinance with insurance is far from being the panacea for the credit constraint problem [21]. This is why more insight into the impact of linking insurance and credit is needed, particularly since the adoption rate of WII in SSA has remained low even in cases where microfinance has been made available.
Studies have indicated an uptake of less than a fourth of the smallholder population [80], which shows clearly that demand for WII is low. Actual demand according to the preceding scholars varies from 2 to 40% or 50% maximum. In general, low demand is ascribed to several factors which include farmer budgetary constraints, lack of trust in financial institutions, poor understanding of the contract, and the often imperfect correlation between the index and realised losses (basis risk) [84]. Marr et al. [80] have gone on to group the reasons for low demand into 3 categories namely, (1) neoclassical (i.e., risk aversion, risk mitigation, basis risk and price), (2) behavioural (i.e., understanding, trust and education), and (3) pecuniary determinants capturing credit and liquidity constraints (i.e., wealth, liquidity, credit and income). To weigh in briefly on the effect of the given determinants of low demand, firstly, it has been noted already in this chapter that smallholders are generally risk averse, which causes them to depend more on traditional risk mitigation strategies. Secondly, because, their risk mitigation strategies are limited, they are among the most vulnerable populations to climate change. Thirdly, when presented with risk mitigation strategies such as insurance, smallholders are not always willing to pay for indemnity. Aside from being risk averse, they are poor and often credit and liquidity constrained. Inevitably, price is a crucial factor that the smallholders consider before signing up for an insurance policy. There are thus tensions between what must be charged to insure low-probability high-consequence events and the willingness of households to pay for insurance products designed to protect against losses caused by these events [33].
Fourthly, basis risk interacts with other factors such as price and is an important factor known to drive price beyond the reach of smallholders. To increase demand for WII, suppliers need to focus on minimising basis risk. Even as basis risk is an inherent problem for index insurance, it can be reduced through product design and application [47]. To increase demand for WII, suppliers need to additionally educate smallholders about the benefits of insurance, which should be followed up by cultivating relationships of trust [85]. There is a further need for suppliers to come up with innovative ways to make insurance more attractive to smallholders. This involves adapting financial services and products to match the risk profile of the market demographic [33], for example through bundling WII with microfinance.
Bundling index-insurance with credit is a practice that is widely debated in literature but mainly at a theoretical level [80]. There are several benefits that come with combining microcredit with insurance, some of which have already been discussed in this chapter. Since both insurance and credit are recognised as important tools for smoothening and enhancing income [16], it is believed that when bundled together, they can enhance on-farm efforts (e.g., through increased input, improved seed varieties and investments in and specialised and diversified farming) to mitigate climate risks. Meyer et al. [21] are of the view that neither credit nor insurance markets can exist independently in low-collateral environments. This makes perfect sense considering that insurance can ensure the success of credit by promoting lending to smallholders in credit constrained environments where farmers have weak collateral to offer, and systemic risks are the main cause of loan defaults. While credit on the other hand can ensure the success of insurance by enhancing household income and protecting farmers against the financial risk of crop failure. Linking the two contracts thus seems beneficial for farmer productivity, food systems resilience and incidentally, the growth of rural financial markets. A potential downside of this practice, however, which cannot be overlooked by this chapter is that, if a loss occurs which is not covered by the insurance because the index was not correlated to the realised loss and an indemnity payment was not triggered, the farmer may not be able to repay their loan. On its own, index insurance can harm farmers by extracting insurance payments while providing little or no actual risk coverage [20]. When combined with credit, the farmer may be worse off than if their loan were not insured because they have to pay the insurance premium as well as repay the loan [21]. This shows that while insurance could unlock credit and produce desired results such as higher investments, it could also produce undesired results such as higher default rates (ibid).
A few empirical studies have been carried out to understand the credit insurance linkage in different parts of SSA, and the results have been conflicted. Among these, a study by Giné and Yang [19] sought to test whether reducing risk through WII induces greater demand for credit among smallholder farmers in Malawi. Half the farmers were randomly selected to be offered credit to purchase high-yielding hybrid maize and groundnut seeds for planting. The other half were offered a similar credit package but were also required to purchase (at actuarially fair rates) a weather insurance policy that partially or fully forgave the loan in the event of poor rainfall. The uptake of credit was 33% for farmers offered a loan without insurance and 17.6% for farmers offered a loan bundled with weather insurance. The findings suggest that smallholders do not always value insurance as the demand for credit fell when bundled with insurance. An explanation for the behavioural response given by the authors is that farmers understood that they were implicitly insured by the limited liability inherent in the loan contract so that going for a loan bundled with insurance (for which an insurance premium was charged) would effectively increase the interest rate on the loan. On the other hand, the overall poor uptake rate could be taken to mean that smallholders generally do not trust financial institutions [86].
In a study carried out by Karlan et al. [87]. A randomised control trial was conducted to investigate whether price risk affected the demand for credit by smallholders in Eastern Ghana. Farmers were offered loans with an indemnity component that forgave 50% of the loan if crop prices dropped below a threshold price. A control group was offered a standard loan product at the same interest rate. Loan uptake was high among all farmers. The indemnity component had little impact on the uptake or other outcomes of interest. The indemnity product had incorporated insurance into the loan rather than as an add on, to avoid potential choice overload problems that arise sometimes when too many choices cause stagnation in decision making. Yet, findings showed a high take-up rate of credit despite indemnity, which made it difficult for the authors to assess heterogeneity in behavioural response. What is apparent from the findings is that insurance made no difference to the demand for credit. This again implying that smallholders do not always value insurance. To explain the outcome, the authors suggested among other reasons that, the farmers perhaps did not understand the contract.
In a different study carried out by Mishra et al. [88] in Northern Ghana, results also found no evidence that insurance has a significant impact on increasing the uptake of credit. The study investigated whether coupling agricultural loans with micro-level and meso-level drought index insurance can stimulate the demand and supply of credit and increase technology adoption. Based on empirical findings, if at all, bundling loans with insurance increased the likelihood of loan applications for female farmers. Gallenstein et al. [84] published a paper on the same population in Northern Ghana. The authors investigated the willingness to pay for drought index insurance backed loans and found out that insurance lowered overall demand for loans. In fact, adding an insurance policy to an agricultural loan reduced the demand for credit as 75.3% of the population were willing to pay the market interest rate for the uninsured loan. What is also apparent from the findings of this study is that smallholders do not always value insurance. In this case, insurance had a bearing on demand for credit, albeit in a negative way.
Different results were observed, however, in a study carried out in Machakos County, Kenya by Ndegwa et al. [89]. The authors sought to investigate the causal effect of bundling WII with credit on uptake of agricultural technology among smallholders. 1170 sample households were randomly assigned to one of three research groups, namely, control, risk contingent credit and traditional credit. Based on the findings the average credit uptake rate was 33% with the uptake of bundled credit being significantly higher than that of traditional credit. In this case, insurance was seen to influence the uptake of credit. By and large, the study observed that risk rationing was among the key reasons responsible for the negative credit uptake among smallholders.
In another study, Pelka et al. [74] analysed the influence of weather variations on the repayment performance of credit among smallholder farmers in Madagascar. The farmers studied primarily grow rice in monoculture. The weather risk for rice cultivation in the central highlands of Madagascar is the excessive amount of rain in the harvest period (between the end of February to April), which reduces rice yields and, thus, leads to revenue losses for farmers. Findings demonstrated a high correlation between precipitation and credit risk, where credit risk is defined as whether or not a borrower can pay back all loan instalments by the due date. Thus, findings revealed in particular that, the credit risk of loans granted to smallholders increased in the harvesting period due to the excessive amount of precipitation. Based on the analysis given by the authors, credit risk would reduce significantly if the farmers had weather index insurance policies. This assumption is based on the hypothesis that, “the effect of weather events on the repayment performance of loans equals the effect of the returns of weather index-based insurance on the repayment performance of loans” Pelka et al. [74]. As such, the authors surmise that weather index-based insurance might have the potential to mitigate a portion of the risk in agricultural lending. In this study, the authors do not seem to argue for the bundling of credit and WII, but instead, propose that WII would be instrumental in mitigating credit risk in cases where lending is involved which would work only where the weather index is perfectly correlated to the realised loss. To avoid issues of credit risk, the weather index insurance programs in Malawi often bundle credit with mandatory weather index insurance [78]. However, while making insurance mandatory is good in that it assures worried lenders, the downside is that it may discourage farmers from seeking loans [21] as seen in experiments carried out in Malawi and Ghana earlier cited in this section.
A review of the literature showed mostly mixed results regarding the impact of bundling WII with microfinance among smallholders in SSA. The literature confirmed the premise that, even where microfinance has been made available, the demand for WII has remained consistently low across the sub-continent. Thus, a wide gap still exists between the expectations of what WII can achieve for smallholder farmers in dealing with climate change risk, and the reality that is on the ground, which is that current demand varies from 2 to 40% (50% at the most). While WII may not provide complete protection against losses, it can improve the financial protection coverage needed for smallholders to effectively deal with the financial consequences of high-magnitude climatic loss events. In this way, WII can play an instrumental role in creating an enabling environment for rural financial services including banking and microfinance. For WII to work, it must complement existing risk management strategies, to ensure all round cover against climate change risks.
The chapter focused mainly on demand side dynamics paying considerable attention to the risk behavioural responses of the smallholders. It is crucial to understand how farmers respond to solutions designed to mitigate against risk as this will help to establish the effectiveness and compatibility of the measures apropos the target market. Based on the reviewed studies, the determinants of low demand for WII are many, ranging from risk aversion, liquidity and credit constraints, lack of trust in financial institutions, poor understanding of the indemnity contract to risk rationing. To improve demand for WII, suppliers need to design products to match the needs of target markets. A needs-based approach or deficit model recognises all needs, including underlying needs as valid claims. And so, insurance providers must be fully cognizant of community needs in their entirety for them to package WII more attractively. This would entail tackling more than just weather risk. Some insurance providers are already doing this. For example, research has shown that the uptake of WII is higher in Ethiopia when insurance is channelled through group-based informal insurance schemes
Demographical information and behavioural economics make generalisations about populations which can help insurance providers to know what the customers are looking for and how their product meets customer needs [90]. Since WII takes on an anti-poverty approach, insurance providers should go beyond tactical strategies, and understand and view things from the perspectives of smallholder farmers. Thus, customer empathy is a requirement for the design of WII packages that meet the underlying needs of customers, while factoring in customer feelings about the products being offered. A typical market research seeks to understand the obvious characteristics of population (e.g., age, sex, income, employment, level of education, farm size, cropping activities). While a person-centered market research would seek to understand further information such as, how cultural beliefs and attitudes/religious views/willingness to adopt change/willingness to pay for change/value placed on change (in monetary terms) influence technological preferences. Other information that could be sought by insurance providers include, household structure/headship and gender practices, to ascertain who does what? who has what? and who decides what? at the household level. SSA is home to more than 500 million women who account for about half of the continent’s population [91]7. Based on data from 45 countries in SSA for the periods 1980–2015, until the ages of 15–19, there are more boys than girls in the rural sector and fewer boys than girls in the urban sector, which changes dramatically between the ages 20–24 [92]. This suggests that in a lot of countries in SSA, there are more women than men who live and work in rural areas from the age of 20 onwards. This is consistent with reports which state that, in SSA, women are responsible for much of the food production in rural areas [93]. According to WorldBank [91], the share of labour varies across countries, ranging from 24% in Niger to 56% in Uganda, but remains consistently well below the commonly cited 60–80%. Despite their contribution to agriculture, women in male headed households have very little say in decision-making compared to women who head their own homes (female headed households) [94]. The point is, if women are a major demographic in rural areas, gender differences and practices are important factors that should be incorporated into the design and application of WII in SSA. In a study on Northern Ghana carried out by Gallenstein et al. [84], bundling loans with microinsurance was seen to increase the likelihood of loan applications for female farmers more than men. An analysis into such behavioural patterns could help WII providers to package their products in a gender sensitive manner so as to appeal to the needs of both male and female smallholders, which will potentially increase demand.
The more information is understood about the characteristics and preferences of the target population, and the more inclusive the insurance product or package is, the more likely it is to influence demand in a positive way. For as long as WII suppliers do not genuinely put the people first, combining WII with other innovations will not increase demand. Bundling WII with key farm inputs such agricultural inputs (i.e., fertilisers, seeds, loans, etc.), key agricultural institutions (e.g., Agri-banks, input suppliers, farmers’ organisations, etc.) has not boosted demand for WII in Malawi [27]. From the lessons learned in this chapter, a ‘One Size Fit All’ WII design does not work well in SSA – what worked in Machakos County, Kenya did not work in Eastern and Northern Ghana.
This publication was made possible (in part) by a grant from Carnegie Corporation of New York. The statements made and views expressed are solely the responsibility of the author.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
I would like to acknowledge my academic supervisor Professor Mark New whose comments enabled me to improve this chapter.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
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\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
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\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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