Density and kinematic viscosity of diesel fuel and adulterant kerosene at different proportions (reprinted from Sh. R. Yadav, et.al, 2005).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6396",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"People living in rural areas migrate to urban areas to secure better qualities of life, education, and health facilities and also because they believe that urban settings offer more livable conditions. These appealing features have led to rapid population growth in urban areas, which has resulted in problems that need to be solved through different urban planning and design approaches. In conjunction with this book, a supplemental resource, which both provides and proposes solutions based on innovative approaches to urbanization problems that emerge from urban agglomeration, has been created. This resource supplement shall also serve as a guide to future urban development efforts. In effect, this book will play an important role in compensating for the limited number of resource books on urbanization. This book is intended to be a reference source for scientists and students interested in the subject.",isbn:"978-953-51-3898-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3897-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4093-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70025",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"urban-agglomeration",numberOfPages:298,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"da1643c7ce5482ec846a188d34ce2839",bookSignature:"Mustafa Ergen",publishedDate:"March 21st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6396.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19756,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:30,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:77,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:142,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 8th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 25th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 24th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 22nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/166961/images/system/166961.png",biography:"Mustafa Ergen graduated from the Department of Landscape Architecture, Abant İzzet Baysal University, Turkey, in 2000. In 2005, he completed his first master’s degree in Urban and Regional Planning at the Gebze Institute of Technology, Turkey. He completed his second master’s degree in Landscape Architecture at Anhalt University of Applied Sciences, Germany, in 2006. During 2007–2008, he studied Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania, Greece, and was granted a specialization diploma in Environmental Management. He also received a Dr.Eng from the Technical University of Dortmund, Germany. Currently, he works in the Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture, Sakarya University of Applied Sciences, Turkey.",institutionString:"Sakarya University of Applied Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"636",title:"Landscape",slug:"landscape"}],chapters:[{id:"58109",title:"Urban Agglomeration and Supporting Capacity: The Role of Open Spaces within Urban Drainage Systems as a Structuring Condition for Urban Growth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71658",slug:"urban-agglomeration-and-supporting-capacity-the-role-of-open-spaces-within-urban-drainage-systems-as",totalDownloads:1563,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Urbanisation greatly changes the natural environment—city growth may cause urban sprawl, increasing land consumption and infrastructure demands, with consequent built and natural environments degradation. To face this challenge, the supporting capacity of the natural environment needs to be addressed in the urban planning process. This chapter will particularly discuss urban drainage role in the planning context, integrating engineering, urbanism and landscaping in order to set the basic conditions towards a sustainable city development. Urban drainage systems (and the related urban rivers) play a crucial role in city planning, once it intermediates the needs of the built environment, providing safe areas free from flooding, and the demands of the natural environment, giving space and passage to floods. This particular feature gives to the drainage system a spatial structuring characteristic and it provides opportunities to revitalise city areas, improving biodiversity and recovering environmental values. On the other side, a city open spaces system is the main reserve of urban areas for sustainable urban drainage interventions. The adequate land use planning and consequent management of these open spaces shall be in the core discussion to produce integrated and functional solutions for built and natural environments.",signatures:"Marcelo Gomes Miguez, Aline Pires Veról, Andréa Queiroz da Silva\nFonseca Rêgo and Ianic Bigate Lourenço",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58109",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58109",authors:[{id:"97645",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Miguez",slug:"marcelo-miguez",fullName:"Marcelo Miguez"},{id:"215719",title:"Prof.",name:"Aline",surname:"Pires Veról",slug:"aline-pires-verol",fullName:"Aline Pires Veról"},{id:"215720",title:"Prof.",name:"Andréa",surname:"Queiroz Rêgo",slug:"andrea-queiroz-rego",fullName:"Andréa Queiroz Rêgo"},{id:"215721",title:"MSc.",name:"Ianic",surname:"Bigate Lourenço",slug:"ianic-bigate-lourenco",fullName:"Ianic Bigate Lourenço"}],corrections:null},{id:"59481",title:"Characteristics of Urban Agglomerations in Different Continents: History, Patterns, Dynamics, Drivers and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73524",slug:"characteristics-of-urban-agglomerations-in-different-continents-history-patterns-dynamics-drivers-an",totalDownloads:2854,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Urban agglomerations show different development patterns and stages. Here, we describe, discuss and compare urban agglomerations in different continents. The introduction section gives a general overview of specific issues of urban agglomerations. Different characteristics in Europe, Asia and America are discussed as experienced by the article’s co-authors, living in or working for urban agglomerations in these continents. First, the history of urbanization and agglomeration evolvement is described, then patterns, functional structures and relations, drivers as well as social and demographic characteristics are discussed (e.g. migration, aging, household structure, housing patterns, workplaces, etc.). Transportation infrastructure (roads, public transport systems) is also addressed as trigger for spatial dynamics causing certain effects (floor space, office and apartment rents releasing urban sprawl or hyper-densification), as well as gentrification. Further topics are urban governance and its impact on agglomeration development. Recent state and future trends will be debated, if important. A conclusion section summarizes the comparison of state, dynamics, drivers and trends.",signatures:"Wolfgang Loibl, Ghazal Etminan, Ernst Gebetsroither-Geringer,\nHans-Martin Neumann and Santiago Sanchez-Guzman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59481",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59481",authors:[{id:"160720",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernst",surname:"Gebetsroither",slug:"ernst-gebetsroither",fullName:"Ernst Gebetsroither"},{id:"167419",title:"Dr.",name:"Wolfgang",surname:"Loibl",slug:"wolfgang-loibl",fullName:"Wolfgang Loibl"},{id:"214919",title:"MSc.",name:"Ghazal",surname:"Etminan",slug:"ghazal-etminan",fullName:"Ghazal Etminan"},{id:"214920",title:"MSc.",name:"Hans-Martin",surname:"Neumann",slug:"hans-martin-neumann",fullName:"Hans-Martin Neumann"},{id:"214923",title:"MSc.",name:"Santiago",surname:"Sanchez-Guzman",slug:"santiago-sanchez-guzman",fullName:"Santiago Sanchez-Guzman"}],corrections:null},{id:"59689",title:"A Multilevel Approach to Urban Regional Agglomerations: A Swedish Case of Transition Paths toward a “Fossil-Free Society” by 2050",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73104",slug:"a-multilevel-approach-to-urban-regional-agglomerations-a-swedish-case-of-transition-paths-toward-a-f",totalDownloads:1170,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This article has a focus on the changing patterns of connected urban spaces forming large super-regional aggregates made up of cities of various sizes and regional functions as well as the interconnecting space of much smaller municipalities of agricultural or forestry types of character. The multi-scalar level analysis of these connected clusters is pursued from the level of the individual to the regional, national, Nordic and EU levels. The enfolding of the regional pattern also has global connotations in terms of trade connections, but also in the context of bio-geo challenges as climate change, biodiversity depletion or food security considerations. The transition dynamics involves governance, economic, social and cultural aspects. International negotiations, as the Paris agreement on climate change and agreements at the UN level as the 17 “Sustainable Development Goals” (SDG), or agreements at the EU level, provide an international political frame to this process.",signatures:"Uno Svedin and Hans Liljenström",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59689",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59689",authors:[{id:"220633",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Uno",surname:"Svedin",slug:"uno-svedin",fullName:"Uno Svedin"},{id:"226792",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",surname:"Liljenström",slug:"hans-liljenstrom",fullName:"Hans Liljenström"}],corrections:null},{id:"58196",title:"The Multivariated Effect of City Cooperation in Land Use Planning and Decision-Making Processes: A European Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72191",slug:"the-multivariated-effect-of-city-cooperation-in-land-use-planning-and-decision-making-processes-a-eu",totalDownloads:1112,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Spatial and urban planning processes regarding border cooperation have reached unprecedented levels in recent decades, not only due to their potential for territorial integration, i.e., infrastructure construction and planning activities worldwide. Bearing in mind the European project, for a united and strong network of nations, this scenario is more evident in European territories. In this regard, through multivariated analyzes of city cooperation on European border areas, it is possible to identify the factors that influence the territorial success and also a sustainable regional development and even their effects over the urban agglomerations. From the identified factors, the study pointed out one that is common to all cases: connectivity-movement between cities.",signatures:"Luís Carlos Loures, Rui Alexandre Castanho, José Manuel Naranjo\nGómez, Ana Vulevic, José Cabezas and Luis Fernández-Pozo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58196",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58196",authors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"},{id:"215340",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Vulevic",slug:"ana-vulevic",fullName:"Ana Vulevic"},{id:"215341",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Cabezas Fernández",slug:"jose-cabezas-fernandez",fullName:"José Cabezas Fernández"},{id:"215342",title:"Prof.",name:"José Manuel",surname:"Naranjo Gómez",slug:"jose-manuel-naranjo-gomez",fullName:"José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"},{id:"222742",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Fernández-Pozo",slug:"luis-fernandez-pozo",fullName:"Luis Fernández-Pozo"},{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho"}],corrections:null},{id:"57969",title:"The City as an Experimental Space: The Interface between Public Satisfaction and Effects on Urban Planning Resulting from Kampala City’s Sprawl",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72186",slug:"the-city-as-an-experimental-space-the-interface-between-public-satisfaction-and-effects-on-urban-pla",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper analyses the interface between public satisfaction and effects on urban planning in the context of Kampala City, Uganda. The interface is significant because it provides an understanding of the effects of urban sprawl service delivery in relation to planning. It further discusses the underlying forces responsible for the city’s urbanisation process. The objective of the study is to establish what defines Kampala’s public satisfaction with urban changes resulting from the city’s sprawl. The study involves focus group discussion interviews, which were used to collect the qualitative data from a group of respondents simultaneously. Moreover, purposive sampling was used to select the respondents interviewed. The analysis indicates that public dissatisfaction with poor urban environment has resulted in urban changes, which are officially sanctioned to take place in their residential areas, and the desire to access services easily that explains urban dwellers’ decisions.",signatures:"Fred Bidandi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57969",authors:[{id:"215494",title:"Dr.",name:"Fred",surname:"Bidandi",slug:"fred-bidandi",fullName:"Fred Bidandi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57499",title:"Scaling in Urban Complex Systems: Mexico City Metabolism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71660",slug:"scaling-in-urban-complex-systems-mexico-city-metabolism",totalDownloads:1293,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Large cities are usually wealthier, denser in terms of population, more expensive, more congested but also more productive culturally and technologically. Mexico City is one of the most dynamic cities of the global economy but also presents the highest crime and congestion levels on the road network. The socio-metabolic approach interprets cities as a socio-metabolic system that interacts with systems in the natural environment. Although considerable progress has been made in studying cities as complex adaptive systems using such approach, many important issues such as social and innovation dimensions remain unexplored, mainly in Mexico City context. The principal purpose of this study is to analyze the metabolic scaling of socio-cultural and technological aspects in the context of Mexico City in order to predict the energy necessary to maintain the city socially connected and to estimate the impact of such social connections on the socio-economic-environmental indicators. We take into account the total population, the cultural infrastructure, the social cohesion, the traffic congestion level, the cost of fuel car, the minimum income, and the number of patents in the analysis as the agglomeration effects in Mexico City. We consider this study can support the design of public policies using the metabolic approach.",signatures:"Aida Huerta-Barrientos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57499",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57499",authors:[{id:"180108",title:"Prof.",name:"Aida",surname:"Huerta Barrientos",slug:"aida-huerta-barrientos",fullName:"Aida Huerta Barrientos"}],corrections:null},{id:"58922",title:"Promotion of Smart Community Strategy in Vietnam’s Binh Duong Province",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73102",slug:"promotion-of-smart-community-strategy-in-vietnam-s-binh-duong-province",totalDownloads:1217,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vietnam’s Binh Duong Province is located in southeastern Vietnam, immediately to the north of Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). The province constitutes the southern economic zone of Vietnam, and many Japanese companies—mainly manufacturing enterprises, including small and medium enterprises—are investing there. Becamex IDC Corp (a Vietnamese state-owned developer) and Tokyu Corporation (a Japanese company) established Becamex Tokyu, a joint venture company, in March 2012. As a smart community strategy, Becamex Tokyu is promoting Tokyu Binh Duong Garden City, which is a development plan integrating new urban development. The Becamex Tokyu Bus, which is a wholly owned subsidiary of Becamex Tokyu, operates the new transportation system KAZE Shuttle. In addition, Binh Duong Province has developed a smart community strategy centered on energy establishment in urban development, information and communications technology infrastructure development and utilization, the elimination of physical waste in infrastructure construction, and smart traffic. In this chapter, by using his field work as a basis, the author examines the current status of, and issues faced by, development of the smart community strategy in Binh Duong Province in Vietnam.",signatures:"Tetsuro Saisho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58922",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58922",authors:[{id:"211195",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuro",surname:"Saisho",slug:"tetsuro-saisho",fullName:"Tetsuro Saisho"}],corrections:null},{id:"58749",title:"Wicked Water Systems: A Review of Challenges and Opportunities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71914",slug:"wicked-water-systems-a-review-of-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:1257,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The contemporary urban water system is under extreme pressure due to growing demand, climate change, and social inequality. Conventional methods to mitigating extreme water events have proven to be insufficient to safeguard our growing urban centers. Unless the competing demands and pressures of the urban water system are addressed in holistic manners, we will soon lack of access to good-quality water, and extreme water events will increasingly affect our metropoles, with most severe consequences for communities already living in marginal conditions. This chapter takes as point of departure that the future urban waterscape is a wicked problem in which actions taken to mitigate the problems are often inadequate and temporary, even when they are the result of the public debate and shared concern. The current urban water system has reached a critical threshold, but how can innovative urban water design or planning solutions be implemented when there is so much at stake? The chapter will address the urban waterscape, its contemporary challenges and what we can expect in future climate conditions. Furthermore, we will discuss contemporary solutions as well as highlight the sociopolitical, economic, and ecological barriers to their implementation. To illustrate the challenges as well as the range of solutions, we will present the algal blooms in Lake Erie, USA, as a case study. We will end with an elaboration on how to innovate in the case of wicked problems.",signatures:"Tamara Anna Streefland and Yoram Krozer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58749",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58749",authors:[{id:"215531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tamara",surname:"Streefland",slug:"tamara-streefland",fullName:"Tamara Streefland"},{id:"215532",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoram",surname:"Krozer",slug:"yoram-krozer",fullName:"Yoram Krozer"}],corrections:null},{id:"57824",title:"Waste in the City: Challenges and Opportunities for Urban Agglomerations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72047",slug:"waste-in-the-city-challenges-and-opportunities-for-urban-agglomerations",totalDownloads:2887,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:27,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Worldwide cities are rapidly expanding, creating visible environmental and social challenges. The generation of waste is one of the central concerns in urban agglomerations, particularly in the global South, where inadequacies, absences and weaknesses shape the local waste management system. Uneven geographic development has created obvious spaces of exclusion and neglect. In response, informal and organized waste pickers engage in selective waste collection and recycling, serving their community and the environment. These contributions are still mostly unrecognized and unaccounted for. This chapter begins with emphasizing the challenges of urban growth, consumption, poverty and waste. In the global South, every day millions of informal waste pickers reclaim recyclables from household waste to earn their living. In doing so they make an important contribution to reducing the carbon footprint of cities, recovering resources, improving environmental conditions and health creating jobs and income among the poor, particularly in low-income residential areas. This chapter discusses the organization of these initiatives into networks and examines the challenges and benefits of such practices that promote grassroots resilience and contribute to reducing both the adverse impacts of cities on climate and environmental change (UN sustainable development target # 11.6) as well as urban poverty (Goal # 8).",signatures:"Jutta Gutberlet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57824",authors:[{id:"188532",title:"Prof.",name:"Jutta",surname:"Gutberlet",slug:"jutta-gutberlet",fullName:"Jutta Gutberlet"}],corrections:null},{id:"58421",title:"The Corbusier Dream and Frank Lloyd Wright Vision: Cliff Detritus Vs. Urban Savanna",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71908",slug:"the-corbusier-dream-and-frank-lloyd-wright-vision-cliff-detritus-vs-urban-savanna",totalDownloads:1033,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Investigators are seeking methods to assess the visual and environmental quality of the landscape across urban areas. In addition investigators are interested in applying these predictors to study landscape transformation and change. In our study we employed an environmental quality prediction equation, which assesses environmental quality to create a visual quality map of southern Michigan and then evaluated the map’s ability to determine the map’s reliability. Through the Kendall’s coefficient of concordance statistical test, we determined that the map is significantly reliable (p ≤ 0.01) and conclude that constructing such a map of a large area is possible. We then applied this approach to quantify environmental quality change to southeast Michigan (Detroit metropolitan area) from land-use maps in the 1800s, and from a map constructed in 2008. Only areas with cliff detritus had statistically significant changes. Many of these cliff detritus areas are now being transformed back to pastoral urban savanna environments, a vision that had been embraced by Frank Lloyd Wright. Wright’s approach compares differently with the grand vision Le Corbusier had for urban areas, a series of multiple-use towers spaced across an urban forest. The sprawling towers of Shanghai, P.R. of China exemplify this model in a modern manner.",signatures:"Yuemin Jin, Jon Burley, Patrica Machemer, Pat Crawford, Haoxuan\nXu, Zhen Wu and Luis Loures",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58421",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58421",authors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"},{id:"95281",title:"Dr.",name:"Jon",surname:"Bryan Burley",slug:"jon-bryan-burley",fullName:"Jon Bryan Burley"},{id:"218503",title:"Ms.",name:"Haoxuan",surname:"Xu",slug:"haoxuan-xu",fullName:"Haoxuan Xu"},{id:"223942",title:"Ms.",name:"Yuemin",surname:"Jin",slug:"yuemin-jin",fullName:"Yuemin Jin"},{id:"223943",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Machemer",slug:"patricia-machemer",fullName:"Patricia Machemer"},{id:"223944",title:"Dr.",name:"Pat",surname:"Crawford",slug:"pat-crawford",fullName:"Pat Crawford"},{id:"223945",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhen",surname:"Wu",slug:"zhen-wu",fullName:"Zhen Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"58027",title:"Do Degradation of Urban Greenery and Increasing Land Prices Often Come along with Urbanization?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71651",slug:"do-degradation-of-urban-greenery-and-increasing-land-prices-often-come-along-with-urbanization-",totalDownloads:1079,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the wake of urbanization, driven by a variety of individual and socio-economic merits, human’s basic residential needs and standard of living may be compromised in the urban areas, as the population agglomerates. However, the knowledge of the associations of urbanization with urban greenery and residential land prices is still in the pursuing process. This empirical research aims to contribute whether the degradation of essential living conditions is a trade-off for the pursued urban life. Hence, Taiwan is selected as the case to analyze the associated relations primarily between 1976 and 2016. The research methods involve descriptive statistics, the panel data analysis, and the cluster analysis. The panel data analysis demonstrates that degraded urban greenery and increasing residential land prices came along with the urbanization in Taiwan between 2001 and 2016. Policy implications include rethinking of the building coverage rate for renewed buildings for more plant-friendly ground, the adoption of building setback policy for more accessible mid-air mini-parks, and avoiding residential units as an investment commodity.",signatures:"Yu-hsin Tsai, Jhong-yun Guan and Yu-Hsin Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58027",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58027",authors:[{id:"215320",title:"Prof.",name:"Yu-Hsin",surname:"Tsai",slug:"yu-hsin-tsai",fullName:"Yu-Hsin Tsai"},{id:"224006",title:"Ms.",name:"Jhong-Yun",surname:"Guan",slug:"jhong-yun-guan",fullName:"Jhong-Yun Guan"},{id:"224007",title:"Ms.",name:"Yu-Hsin",surname:"Huang",slug:"yu-hsin-huang",fullName:"Yu-Hsin Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"57949",title:"The Corridor Island: A New Space to Redesign the Landscape of Tenerife",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72190",slug:"the-corridor-island-a-new-space-to-redesign-the-landscape-of-tenerife",totalDownloads:1212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The urbanization processes in the island of Tenerife in the last 50 years have left a very fragmented landscape. Due to the growing and constant process of construction-infrastructures-construction, the abiotic and biotic space is being reduced but still more the productive space of the primary sector. The reaction to the threat, especially the “natural” space—abiotic and biotic—was protection. The result is that half of the island has some protection figure, but the other half does not. To this “unprotected” half, I call the risk island and concentrate the stress or tension, because it is where economic activities and habitat are developed and combined. For its management, in spite of existing an island territorial planning, it is the municipalities that have the competences in urban planning, always under the norms of superior administrative rank. Therefore, there are 31 different models, one per municipality. We have to focus on the corridor island understood as the unsealed soil. This is the area where we should intervene, redesigning the new spaces, to connect organically and in balance the two islands.",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Mejías Vera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57949",authors:[{id:"222690",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel Ángel",surname:"Mejías Vera",slug:"miguel-angel-mejias-vera",fullName:"Miguel Ángel Mejías Vera"}],corrections:null},{id:"59382",title:"Land and Infrastructure Development in Peri-Urban Areas: Case Study of Gomti Nagar, Lucknow, India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73525",slug:"land-and-infrastructure-development-in-peri-urban-areas-case-study-of-gomti-nagar-lucknow-india",totalDownloads:1872,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objectives of the paper is to determine the status of land and infrastructure in the peri-urban areas of Lucknow Municipal Corporation (LMC). Lucknow, being the capital of most populated state of the country, has lots of migration in search of jobs and better education. The growth of Lucknow peri-urban areas has propelled by the economic growth and demographic pressure. The growth of peri-urban areas has of the city has to sustain over a period of time. However, the predominance of growth form over the period of time has significant harmful impacts. It has thwarted mass transit development, separated rich and poor, caused unnecessary travel, consumed fragile land, and generated excessive public expenditures. The paper has tried to pursue three key objectives of the development of land and infrastructure in peri-urban areas of the Lucknow city. The first was to elaborate the main conceptual and theoretical debates concerned with peri-urban areas. Second, the paper considered planned development of land and infrastructure as an option for sustainable development of peri-urban areas. Third, how planned development of land and infrastructure would help other Indian cities in providing better services to their citizens.",signatures:"Kana Ram Godha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59382",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59382",authors:[{id:"214103",title:"Mr.",name:"Kana Ram",surname:"Godha",slug:"kana-ram-godha",fullName:"Kana Ram Godha"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5235",title:"Sustainable Urbanization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76200e89c8c93b3c0b22062aa09a84ff",slug:"sustainable-urbanization",bookSignature:"Mustafa Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5235.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10766",title:"Landscape Architecture Framed from an Environmental and Ecological Perspective",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf47534a17fef030dc256b541482553c",slug:"landscape-architecture-framed-from-an-environmental-and-ecological-perspective",bookSignature:"Mustafa Ergen and Yaşar Bahri Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10766.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3727",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26e11b6e4cce4e245e6e28b281563139",slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",bookSignature:"Francesco Holecz, Paolo Pasquali, Nada Milisavljevic and Damien Closson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3727.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13897",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",surname:"Closson",slug:"damien-closson",fullName:"Damien Closson"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",slug:"medical-internet-of-things-m-iot-enabling-technologies-and-emerging-applications",publishedDate:"February 27th 2019",bookSignature:"Hamed Farhadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6655.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171143",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamed",middleName:null,surname:"Farhadi",slug:"hamed-farhadi",fullName:"Hamed Farhadi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"233776",title:"Dr.",name:"Nafiseh",middleName:null,surname:"Shariati",fullName:"Nafiseh Shariati",slug:"nafiseh-shariati",email:"nafiseh.shariati@ericsson.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Ericsson (Sweden)",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},{id:"233777",title:"Dr.",name:"Dave",middleName:null,surname:"Zachariah",fullName:"Dave Zachariah",slug:"dave-zachariah",email:"dave.zachariah@it.uu.se",position:null,institution:{name:"Uppsala University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},{id:"233778",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Karlsson",fullName:"Johan Karlsson",slug:"johan-karlsson",email:"johan.karlsson@math.kth.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"233779",title:"Prof.",name:"Mats",middleName:null,surname:"Bengtsson",fullName:"Mats Bengtsson",slug:"mats-bengtsson",email:"mats.bengtsson@kth.se",position:null,institution:{name:"Royal Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"59062",slug:"robust-optimal-power-distribution-for-hyperthermia-cancer-treatment",signatures:"Nafiseh Shariati, Dave Zachariah, Johan Karlsson and Mats\nBengtsson",dateSubmitted:"November 11th 2017",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 27th 2019",book:{id:"6655",title:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT)",subtitle:"Enabling Technologies and Emerging Applications",fullTitle:"Medical Internet of Things (m-IoT) - 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The intended purpose of the book will be to extend the circle of users of the Kalman filter by considering it not as a means of theoretical analysis, but rather as a powerful tool for the design of a technical system. The editor accumulated experience of using suboptimal KF in various aerospace applications and would wish to share it with the pool of potential users and like-minded specialists. Instead of the formal programming of the recursive KF equations some simple and robust sub-optimal forms are proposed. For example, developed by the editor, suboptimal (KBF), with bounded grows of memory (FBGM) and its steady-state form- the time-invariant filter with constant coefficients is aimed to be considered. This allows the developer to use the KBF not only for system state estimation but for control as well. Proceeding in this way developer can be guaranteed the filter stability and robustness in many practically uncertain situations when the statistic characteristics of system disturbances and measured errors are not entirely known. A guaranteed approach with using an equivalent white noise is also aimed to be considered. Some representative examples from typical aerospace systems (the editor’s main professional field) are intended to be presented. Summarizing the above, it can be emphasized that when implementing the KF it is always useful to replace the art of programming with the experience of designing conventional robust systems having an idealistic estimate of maximum (best) of achievable performance. This would prevent the system's real-time computer from many possible situations with “empty “computations and even to the divergence of the computational process. It can also show that the filter is not a magic mill and cannot achieve the desired performance if it cannot be achieved in principle, better that it can be “promised” by the KF quadratic criterion minimum, or if some state vector components are not observable and controllable.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-576-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-575-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-577-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"4c3e68adcaeaa44f9fbfe9bb19bdd55b",bookSignature:"Dr. Yuri Kim",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11504.jpg",keywords:"Separation Theorem, Extended Kalman Filter, Covariance Matrix, Riccati Equation, FBGM, Analytical Implementation Forms, Physical Implementation Forms, Steady State Filter, Inertial Navigation System, Global Positioning System, Controllability, Multisensory Navigation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Y.V. Kim is a Doctor of Technical Science, having a broad and wealthy international scientific, engineering, and teaching experience, obtained in the former USSR, Israel, and Canada. He has many scientific publications and implemented inventions dedicated to Aerospace GN&C.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/316140/images/system/316140.jpg",biography:"Yuri Kim\n24 Buttenut, Gatineau, QC, Canada\nTel : 1-(514)- 466-1033, e-mail: yurikim@hotmail.ca\n\nHIGHLIGHTS OF QUALIFICATIONS:\n\nExperienced scientist, engineer and manager with internationally recognized achievements in area of Aerospace Avionics, (GN&C); Analysis, design (HW&SW), integration, testing and operation for various aerospace platforms and missions. \n\nGained a broad experience in preparation of technical documents for Joint (Industry-Customer) State Commissions for the acceptance (commissioning) of Aerospace Avionics, Navigation and Special application experimental equipment for further serial production, and operational support. Last works have been dedicated to R&D projects developing new Satellite Navigation Control Technology and customer support of Canadian satellites Control system design.\n\n\nACADEMIC DEGREES:\n\n 1991 *Doctor of Technical Science Diploma in Aerospace Vehicles Guidance \n Navigation and Control \n Scientific Council of State Institute of Automatic Systems, Ministry of Aviation\n Industry of USSR, Moscow\n (Recognized by Canadian Professional Counsel of Engineers) \n1982 * Senior Scientific Fellow Diploma in Gyroscopes and Navigation systems \n Capital Certification Commission of Scientists, Ministry of High Education of\n USSR, Moscow.\n (Recognized by Canadian Professional Counsel of Engineers)\n1974 * Candidate of Technical Science Diploma in Aerospace Navigation\n and Control Systems (Accredited as Ph.D by York University, Toronto.)\n Scientific Council of Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow.\n1970 * Engineer Electromechanic Diploma in Gyro and Navigation systems,\n Faculty of Flight Apparatuses Control Systems, Moscow Aviation Institute, \n Moscow (Accredited as between Masters Degree and Bachelor Degree by\n York University, Toronto).\n1965 * Radio and TV Systems Technician Certificate, Dnepropetrovsk Technical School \n of preparation of technical specialists for Soviet Army, Military Aviation and \n Navy.\n\nMILITARY EDUCATION:\n\n1970 * Engineer in ballistic rocket control system, Military Faculty of MAI, last rank senior engineer-lieutenant (in reserve)\n\n\n\nEMPLOYMENT HISTORY:\nA. GOVERNMENT\n\nAt present - Canadian Space Agency, Space Science and Technology Division, David Florida Laboratory\n\n Senior Aerospace System engineer \n\n° Performing, developing and supporting phases of design, testing, commissioning and \n operation for space vehicle orbit and attitude control systems, in particular: Tecsas, Scope, \n J2Sat, Small satellite, M3Msat, Cassiopea, Neossat, RCM, PCW\n\n° Reviewing and commenting on Attitude Control systems design documentations, related to \n all phases of system development commissioning and operation\n \n° Supporting Aerospace Industry R&D projects funding by CSA (STDP) as Scientific\n Authority, in particular: Microwheel (Dynacon), LOCOOS (NGC), PCW (Bristol)\n\n° Providing expertise on new initiatives for Space Exploration and Utilization regarding \n Attitude and Orbital Control and possible development of Canadian space launcher\n\n° Developing basic mathematical (Simulink/Matlab) simulator for developing the \n requirements and expected performance of AODCS for new space vehicles\n\n° Developing new basic technology (based on Kalman Filter) for satellite attitude\n determination and sensor calibration, developing of FF test-bed equipment and GPS \n navigation in environment of CSA laboratory, developing of methods of ACS sensors\n calibration, measuring and compensation of satellite residual magnetic moment, experimental determination of satellite inertia matrix during ACS integration tests\n\n° Interacting with Space Industry and Universities in the problems, related to development of \n new methods and systems for space vehicle attitude and orbit determination and control\n \n° Sharing with International Aerospace community CSA achievements and experience in\n development of new technologies and methods for space vehicle attitude and orbit \n determination and control through publications, presentations and participation in scientific\n conferences, meetings and symposiums as well as maintaining an awareness about new \n technological advancements\n \n° Providing professional training for students and post. Graduates in the area of Orbital and\n Attitude Dynamic and Control\n\nB. INDUSTRIAL\n\nSept. 1998 – Feb. 1999 – Olympia Engineering Ltd. (Toronto)\n\nResearch and Development Engineer\n\n•\tDevelopment of measuring instrument for measuring remote measuring of micro- deformations of machinery (milling machine) equipment\n•\tResearch and testing of differential GPS survey equipment and antennas in environment of industrial facility for developing a new remote method for the measuring of machinery micro-deformations\n\n\n\n\nFeb.1999 – Jun.2002 – Saskatoon Engineering Division of Calian Company, \n Radarsat-1 Operation Team (CSA, Montreal)\n\nAttitude Control System Analyst\n\n•\tWorking as RADARSAT-1 Attitude Control System Analyst performing day-to-day operation TLM data analysis; reporting, monitoring and solving ACS flight anomaly problems, maintaining ACS software and performance \n•\tAuthor of many reports (see attached list of publications), devoted to solving of Radarsat-1 non-benign Safe Hold Mode problem, Momentum Wheel failure problems and improvement of the performance of attitude determination method with Magnetometer and Sun Sensor (back up, ADM3 mode for the case of potential failure of Horizon Scanner).\n•\tPreparation and implementation of the solution for RADARSAT-1 operation without failed Momentum Wheels, that saved the satellite mission after the wheel failures\n(This work was prolonged after in CSA and awarded by the Canadian Government Award for the invention used by the Government)\n•\tDesign and implementation of new dynamic simulators (based on Simulink\ntoolbox) for Radarsat-1 ACS for operation support\n•\tPreparation for operation of new Canadian satellites Scisat and RADARSAT-2 \n\n\n\nJan. 1994 – Sep. 1997 – Israel Aviation Industry (IAI factories: TASHAN, LAHAV)\n\nAvionics system engineer\n\n•\tResearch and preliminary design of the Special Data Fusion System for a fighter-interceptor\n•\tIntegration of Inertial Navigation System with Global Position System into Upgraded Avionics Suit and installation in aircraft cockpit for A/C – trainer T-38\n\nNov. 1977 – Apr. 1993 – Moscow Research and Design Institute of Electromechanic and Automatic (formerly P/B: M5537, presently “Aviapribor” Corporation)\n\n \nHead of Division (R&D in Pilot-Navigation Systems)\n\n•\tLeadership of the Division, performing planning, financial and methodological duties, related to this position, reporting to the R&D deputy director of the Institute\n•\tResponsibility for Pilot-Navigation System integration, interaction, tests and transferring for serial production and operational support\n•\tInitiation and methodical leadership of innovative research and development projects\n•\tReviewing, commenting and implementation of Technical standards and Navigation norms\nas well as sharing progressive methods and results within Aerospace organizations within former USSR\n \n Head of Department (INS and Flight Management System SW Development)\n\n•\tLeadership and performing of duties of Head of Department \n•\tResponsibility for the prospective research and preliminary design of the Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and Flight Management Systems (FMS)\n•\tDesign of the INS and FMS algorithms and simulation of expected performance\n•\tDevelopment of INS/FMS flight code\n•\tDevelopment of test procedures and simulators for FMS, and pilot nav.complexis for aircrafts \n•\tResponsibility for system performance analysis in the ground and flight tests\n\n Head of Sector (System Flight Test data analysis) \n\n•\tLeadership of the Sector\n•\tDevelopment of ground and flight test simulation procedures and requirements for test equipment and simulators, for flight test aircraft measuring equipment, installation and recorded data processing\n•\tDesign of Estimation and Identification algorithms for ground and flight data processing\n•\tTest data analysis, preparation of test results analysis reports and conclusions\n\n Senior Scientific Fellow\n\n•\tResearch, development and principal design of the special Suboptimal Kalman Filter for the fusion of data of various navigation sensors for aviation and space platforms\n•\tDevelopment of new Guidance and Navigation methods for aviation and space platforms\n•\tAnalysis of INS and FMS performance in ground and flight tests\n\nC. ACADEMIC \n\n1977–1993 – Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow Institute of Instrument -\n Making, Aviation Industry Ministry Upgrade Qualification Institute\n(Part Time) Professor, Associate professor, Chairmen of State Diploma Commission,\n Member of Scientific Council\n•\tLecturer of the disciplines: Applied Oscillation, Theory (MIIM), Design of Instruments (MIIM), Integrated Navigation Systems (MUQI)\n•\tChairman of the State Diploma Commission -Gyro Instruments and Systems (MAI)\n•\tLeadership of postgraduates, participation in sessions of Scientific Council (MAI)\n•\tMethodical management of cathedra of Orientation and Navigation in MAI \n\n2009 McGill University, Montreal\n\nPart time lecturer for course (in English): Aircraft Performance, Stability and Control\n\n1970–1977 – Moscow Aviation Institute \n(Full Time) Associate Professor, Senior Researcher, Assistant Lecturer \n•\tLecturer of the courses: Spacecraft orbital mechanics and attitude determination and control, Inertial Navigation Systems, Gyro Instruments and Systems\n•\tResearch and development of suboptimal robust estimation methods for navigation data processing\n•\tResponsibility for the navigation systems laboratory\n•\tDeputy head of cathedra of Orientation and Navigation\n\nFIELDS OF THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGIC EXPERTISE:\n \n•\tSpace vehicle Orbit and Attitude determination and control\n•\tGyro instruments and systems\n•\tRadio navigation systems\n•\tInertial Navigation systems\n•\tAirplane Navigation and Control\n•\tAnalytical mechanics \n•\tApplied oscillation theory\n•\tAutomatic control theory\n•\tStochastic estimation theory\n\nENGINEERING EXPERIENCE:\n\n•\tFlight and laboratory tests of Aerospace Avionics Equipment\n•\tDistribution of mission requirements between Aerospace vehicle subsystems, definition of functions and ICD \n•\tSpacecraft operation and performance maintenance\n•\tAvionics system (hardware and software) development and testing (autonomously and integration)\n•\tInertial navigation systems\n•\t Development of Avionics for Soviet Military aircrafts: Tu-142, Tu-95MC, An-124, An-70, A-40, Soviet Space shuttle “Buran” (responsibility for preliminary design of radio-navigation automatic landing system), \n•\tIsrael (IAI) upgrade of Avionics system for T-38 (USA Air force trainer) \n•\tOperation and modification in space Canadian Satellite RADARSAT-1 Attitude Control system\n•\tParticipation in commissioning of ACS of Canadian Satellite Scisat\n•\tDevelopment of a generic mathematical simulator for satellite AODCS analysis and simulation of expected performance for a family of Canadian new generation small satellites\n\nSCIENTIFIC EXPERIENCE:\n\n•\tTheoretical and experimental investigation in the fields of S/C Orbital and Attitude Control\n•\tKalman Filter suboptimization and robust guarantee estimation theory development: authorship of new Suboptimal Kalman Filter modification, methods of INS correction and calibration, Geomagnetic Inertial Navigation System\n•\tResearch in areas of ACS and INS sensors development, their performance improvement\n•\tVarious Avionics Systems Mathematical models development and mathematical and semi-natural simulation\n•\tCoordination of research and development projects related to Aerospace equipment performed by Universities and Industries\n•\tScientific reports and articles reviewing and editorship \n•\tMembership in Scientific Counsels and Commissions\n•\tTutorship of under-graduate, graduated and post -graduate students \n\n•\tScientific reports and inventions in the field of GN&C for aircraft and spacecraft methods development \n•\tSeveral articles dedicated to the development of new methods in estimation theory: new suboptimal Kalman Filter with limited growth of the memory, observability and factor of state vector components estimation, guaranteed ellipsoidal estimation and stochastic estimation comparison \n\nLANGUAGES:\n \n•\tEnglish, Russian, Ukrainian, Hebrew, French (beginning level)\n•\tProgramming languages: Matlab/Simulinc/С",institutionString:"Canadian Space Agency",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453623",firstName:"Silvia",lastName:"Sabo",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453623/images/20396_n.jpg",email:"silvia@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and 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In particular, the automobile sector has emerged as a major consumer of fuel oil and a major contributor to air pollution. In developing countries like India, China, Brazil the automobile industry is expected to grow at a faster rate in coming years (Veloso, Kumar 2002) accompanied by proportional increase in the air pollution. The problem is essentially global in nature as the tail pipe emissions of automobiles result in an increase in the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leading to global warming.
\n\t\t\tAdulteration of automobile fuels i.e. gasoline and diesel, leads to increased tailpipe emission and the consequent ill effects on public health. The primary cause of adulteration is the greed fueled by differential tax system (World Bank reports July 2002, September 2001, December 2001, CSE India report March 2002). For example, in south Asia, gasoline is taxed most heavily, followed by diesel, kerosene, industrial solvents and recycled lubricants, in that order. The fact that adulteration of gasoline by diesel and that of diesel by kerosene, is difficult to detect, combined with the differential tax structure makes such adulteration financially alluring, even though it is illegal. Mixing kerosene with diesel does not lead to an increase in tailpipe emission, but contributes to air pollution indirectly in South Asia. The diversion of kerosene for adulteration drastically brings down its availability, to the poor households, who turn to bio-mass for the purpose of cooking. This leads to an increase in the indoor air pollution and consequent ill effects on health. For the prevention of adulteration, monitoring of fuel quality at the distribution point, therefore, is highly essential.
\n\t\t\tIn the Indian context, the gasoline is adulterated by mixing diesel and diesel is adulterated by mixing kerosene. This is because these types of adulterations when limited to small volume percent are difficult to detect by the automobile user. The expected adulteration percentage is 10 % to 30 % by volume in both the cases. Less than (10%) adulteration is financially unattractive, while more than 30% adulteration is likely to be easily detected by the user from the degradation of the engine performance caused by the adulterated fuel.
\n\t\t\tTo check the adulteration effectively, it is necessary to monitor the fuel quality at the distribution point itself. The equipment for this purpose should be portable and the measurement method should be quick, capable of providing test result within a very short time. The measuring equipment should also be preferably inexpensive (as a large number of such units would need be simultaneously deployed) and easy to use.
\n\t\tThe American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM International) has developed and documented the test methods for most of the widely used materials including petroleum products. Many ASTM tests for the gasoline and diesel have been standardized and documented. Some of these tests involve determination of physical and chemical properties while others provide a measure of suitability of the fuel for use in automobiles from the point of engine performance / air pollution generated. Though no test is specifically designed to measure the adulteration of petrol by mixing diesel or diesel by mixing kerosene, some tests namely Density test, Evaporation test, Distillation test, Chemical Marker test, Gas Chromatography may be used to determine the adulteration of fuel also. However, none of these methods are suitable for adulteration test in the context mentioned in section-1, as pointed out below.
\n\t\t\tDensity Test (ASTM D4052):
\n\t\t\tHydrometers and digital densitometers are used to measure the density of the fuel sample. The reported densities of gasoline, diesel and kerosene at 150C are in the ranges 0.74-0.75 Kg./L, 0.835-0.855 Kg./L and 0.79-0.80Kg./L respectively. The adulteration causes a change in the density which can be correlated with the adulteration. The method has the advantage that densitometer provides very good accuracy but suffers from the disadvantages that (i) densitometers are expensive and need a controlled environment (for correct operation) which is unlikely to be available in the field at the distribution point and (ii) the change in density is very small even for high level of adulteration as reported in the literature and reproduced below.
\n\t\t\tNo. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tDiesel and Kerosene Proportions (v/v) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tDensity at 15°C (g/ml) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tKinematic Viscosity at 40°C (Cst) | \n\t\t\t\t\t
1 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPure Diesel | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8456 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.63 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPrescribed Level | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.82-0.86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2 to 3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t85:15 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8400 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.33 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t75:25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8390 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t2.16 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t65:35 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8321 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.89 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t50:50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8304 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t25:75 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.8234 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t1.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Density and kinematic viscosity of diesel fuel and adulterant kerosene at different proportions (reprinted from Sh. R. Yadav, et.al, 2005).
Similar results for density variation in gasoline and diesel as a function of % adulteration by diesel and kerosene respectively has also been reported by Sharma and Gupta-2007. Therefore the overall sensitivity of this method is rather poor if the change in density is used as an indicator of extent of adulteration. However as evident from Table 1, the viscosity of the fuel shows a considerably stronger dependence on the % adulteration and therefore should be a preferred parameter to be calibrated against % adulteration.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
The evaporation techniques are capable of detecting very low concentrations (1-2%) of diesel in gasoline and fairly low concentrations (5%) of kerosene in gasoline. However this is basically a laboratory technique and is not suitable for field use.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
This technique exploits the difference in the boiling points of different liquids comprising the fuel sample. Accurate distillation data for uncontaminated fuel is essential for comparison and precise results. The technique, however, is not suitable for field use as the measurement set up is generally bulky and measurement process is time consuming.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
GC is powerful laboratory tool which can be used to detect hydrocarbon based adulterants. However it requires an experienced technician to operate the equipment and interpret the results. It is an effective method for detection of adulterants in gasoline and diesel but would require easily portable, robust and user friendly equipment which may be operated by an inexperienced operator also.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
A technique for detection/estimation of adulteration of petrol/ diesel by kerosene using optical fiber sensor has been reported by Roy S. (1999). The technique exploits the change in refractive index and therefore the evanescent absorption of monochromatic light in petrol/diesel when the same is adulterated by mixing kerosene.
\n\t\t\tOptical fiber acts as a wave guide for light if the cladding has a lower refractive index than that of fiber material. When the light is reflected from the interface of the fiber and the cladding (or any other material surrounding the fiber), the field associated with the light wave extends beyond the interface into the surrounding medium. The amplitude of this field decreases exponentially with distance from the interface. If the surrounding material absorbs some part of the light propagating through the fiber, the power received at the other end of the fiber would be less by the amount absorbed by the surrounding medium. This idea has been implemented in the experimental set up shown below (Roy S. 1999).
\n\t\t\tThe light source in fig. 1 is a He-Ne laser which is coupled with the optical fiber through a lens. The length of the fiber within the vessel containing the fuel under test is unclad so that the fiber is directly in contact with the absorbing medium that is, the fuel under test. The received power is measured by the power meter.
\n\t\t\tOptical Fiber Sensor and associated experimental Set up (Reprinted from
The power received by the power meter is reduced by the amount that is absorbed by the fuel through evanescent absorption. The received power at the detector is given by the expression,
\n\t\t\twhere ‘L’ is length of the unclad optical fiber and ‘P0’ is the power transmitted from the laser source end. The parameter ‘α’ is evanescent absorption coefficient of the fuel and the factor ‘exp (-α.L)’ accounts for the power absorbed by the fuel through evanescent absorption. The power P (L) is a sensitive function of ‘α’ which itself depends upon the refractive index of the fuel.
\n\t\t\tThe dependence of P (L) and ‘α’ (also refractive index of the fuel) have been experimentally investigated by Roy S. (1999) for petrol and diesel adulterated with kerosene. The method is particularly suitable for adulteration detection in petrol as its refractive index (< 1.42) remains lower than that of core of the optical fiber i.e. silica (refractive index =1.457) even after mixing with 50% kerosene which results in smooth ( and almost linear) variation of received power with % adulteration. The received power normalized with respect to ‘P0’, as observed for petrol adulterated with kerosene are shown in Fig.2. The similar experimental results for diesel adulterated with kerosene are not consistent with the theory and so are not reproduced here.
\n\t\t\tNormalized power as a function of volume% concentration of kerosene in petrol (Reprinted from
The note worthy feature of this method is that the sensitivity of the sensor can be effectively varied by changing the ‘L’, the length of unclad fiber because the received power P (L) varies exponentially with ‘L’.
\n\t\tAs mentioned in the previous section, the adulteration leads to the change in density as well as viscosity of the fuel. Since both these parameters influence the speed of sound in a fluid, it is expected that the speed of sound in the adulterated fuel would be different from that in un-adulterated fuel (Thomas K V et.al. 2004). The effect of adulteration of petrol by diesel and diesel by kerosene on the speed of sound in the fuel sample has been investigated by the authors. The experimental method followed is described in following sub-sections.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
For determination of speed of sound, the time taken by the sound to travel a known distance (commonly termed as Time of Flight or TOF) is to be determined. There are two basic methods for determination of TOF.
\n\t\t\t(A) Pulse-Echo (PE) Method:
\n\t\t\tThe schematic of the basic experimental set up for this method is shown in Fig. 3. The transmitter TX, excited by an electrical signal of sonic/ultrasonic frequency, emits a pulse of acoustic energy of a short duration.
\n\t\t\tBasic experimental setup for Pulse-echo method.
In general, the transmitting transducer TX also serves as receiving transducer RX (converting received acoustic pulse into electrical signal). The time delay TD between the transmitted and the received pulse (after reflection from a target) is measured. The value of TD is related with the speed of sound by the equation,
\n\t\t\twhere ‘d’ is the distance between the TX/TR and the reflector.
\n\t\t\tThis simple principle of measurement gets considerably complicated due to the following:
\n\t\t\tThe transducer TX / RX (generally ultrasonic piezoelectric crystals) has narrow bandwidth, which causes the long ringing tails in the emitted pulse. So there is no sharply defined start and end point of the pulse emitted.
The emitted acoustic pulse gets attenuated in the medium. The attenuation is proportional to the square of the frequency. Therefore, the higher frequency components of the pulse get more attenuated than its lower frequency components. As a result, the received pulse is broadened more as compared to the transmitted one.
Noise also corrupts the received pulse.
Echoes from other objects make it difficult to identify the echo from the object under study.
The resolution (for distance measurement) is limited by the width of the acoustic pulse.
Simple threshold technique, for measurement of
(B) Continuous Wave (CW) Method:
\n\t\t\ta) Basic Experimental Setup (Continuous Wave Method). (b) Transmitted ( ) and Received ( ) Signals.
The typical setup is shown in Fig.4a. The acoustic vibrations of the signal frequency are excited in the medium. The received signal is processed to recover the time-delayed replica of the transmitted signal. The time delay TD in Fig.4b is the sum of the transit time of the sound (or TOF) of acoustic radiations and the delay caused by the electronic circuits (including transducers).
\n\t\t\tThe measurement of phase difference between the transmitted and received signal gives transit time (i.e. TOF), if the delay due to electronic circuits is negligible or the necessary correction in the measurement of TD has been made. The CW method has found application in fluid flow velocity measurements. This method however does not seem to have attracted much effort possibly because the measurements are more sensitive to external noise, even though it has potential to lead to more accurate measurements.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
The authors have studied the effect of adulteration on speed of sound in petrol/diesel, using Continuous Wave (CW) method, with an objective to explore the feasibility of detection/estimation of adulteration of petrol and diesel. The experimental setup (including the electronics part used) is shown in Fig.5. It consists of a 30 cm long metallic cylinder, with inner diameter of 7.62 cm and a base of thin copper foil. The cylinder has a valve-controlled nozzle near its base for controlled removal of fuel contained in the cylinder. The cylinder is placed and locked on a wooden platform which has a circular hole of 3 inch diameter, covered by a speaker (the transmitter- TX) which is fixed on the wooden platform. This ensures that the vibrations of the frame of the speaker do not excite sound waves in the liquid. The pressure waves in the liquid column are excited only by the sound emitted by the speaker, through the copper foil at the base. A glass tube containing the microphone (the receiver- RX) is held vertically inside the cylinder along its axis. The liquid / fuel sample to be tested is contained in the cylinder.
\n\t\t\tExperimental setup for measurement of speed of sound in a medium using CW method.
Note: The waveforms of the signals S1, S2, SQ1, and SQ2 in Fig. 5 are shown in Fig. 6.
\n\t\t\tSignal waveforms.
The signal X is Exclusive-OR of signals SQ1 and SQ2 (SQ1 SQ2). The pulse width of ‘X’, TD, is the time delay of the received signal and it is equal to the sum of time taken by the sound to travel through the liquid column of known height plus the delay caused by the circuit.
\n\t\t\tIf TD1 and TD2 are measured for path lengths h1 and h2 in the medium, then
\n\t\t\tBecause the Td (circuit) is independent of path length h1 and h2 in the medium, therefore
\n\t\t\tThus, the speed of sound can be determined by measuring the ON- time of signal X (see Fig. 6) for two path lengths h1 and h2 in the medium.
\n\t\t\tIn the above experiment, the correct measurement of TOF requires that the received signal S2 is exact replica of transmitted signal S1 because any phase distortion in received signal will lead to shifting of zero crossing point and consequent change in measured value of TD. It was determined experimentally that the preamplifier output remains sinusoidal only in the frequency range 80 Hz to 390 Hz. This was possibly due to the mismatch of acoustic impedance at the speaker output since the speaker output is coupled to the metal diaphragm through air, which provides for rather poor coupling. To ensure accurate measurement of TD, all the measurements were taken at 90 Hz. The measurement of time delay TD (i.e ON- time of signal X pulses) was done using digital storage oscilloscope LeCroy 9361A. An average width of signal X in ten successive measurements for the same sample was determined using the built in provision for the same in the oscilloscope.
\n\t\t\tTo test the accuracy of the measurement system described above, the speed of sound in air and water was determined. The average value of speed of sound in air, VS(air), determined using equation (6) is 344.03 m/sec at 230C which is in very close agreement to the expected value of 344.824 m/sec on the basis of the values of VS(air) reported in literature (William M. H 1998). The speed of sound in water at 220C was determined to be 1486.76 m/sec. The reported value of speed of sound in distilled water is 1482 m/s at 20ºC (Benedetto G et.al. 2003). The temperature co-efficient in water being 2.87 m/s/ºC, the expected speed of sound in water at 22ºC, therefore, is 1488m/s. The value for speed of sound in water determined in our experiment, therefore, is in close agreement with the corresponding reported value (within 1.3 m/sec.).
\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t
The samples of gasoline and diesel used in the experiments (along with the respective test reports) were collected from the local depot of Indian Oil Corporation Limited. The kerosene was obtained from a retail outlet of the public distribution system regulated by Government of India.
\n\t\t\tThe values of TD1 and TD2 in unadulterated gasoline and intentionally adulterated (with diesel) gasoline samples were measured using the experimental setup of Fig. 5 for two different volumes V1 (= 500ml) and V2 (= 400ml) contained in the metal cylinder. The corresponding column heights (path lengths) h1 and h2 were computed using the equation,
\n\t\t\tThe speed of sound was computed using equation (6). The volume percent of diesel in gasoline (i.e. % adulteration) has been plotted against measured speed of sound (in gasoline) in Fig. 7 (labeled as CW).
\n\t\t\tThe experiments, as performed with gasoline, were also carried out with unadulterated diesel and intentionally adulterated (with kerosene) diesel for V1 (= 500ml) and V2 (= 300ml). The volume percent of Kerosene in diesel (i.e. % adulteration) has been plotted against measured speed of sound (in diesel) in Fig. 8. (Labeled as CW).
\n\t\t\tSpeed of Sound in Gasoline Mixed with Diesel.
\n\t\t\t\t
An extensive search in literature for the speed of sound in gasoline and diesel yielded no result. Therefore to verify the results shown in Figs. 7 and 8 (labeled as CW), the speed of sound in gasoline and diesel samples was also determined using equipment, namely NUSONIC model 6080 Concentration Analyzer (manufactured by MAPCO INC. ITALY). The equipment measures the speed of ultrasound (of frequency 4 MHz) in liquids and is based on pulse echo method. The % adulterations vs. speed of sound as measured using this equipment are plotted in Figs. 7 and 8 (labeled as PE). As can be seen, the measured speed of sound by the two methods is in good agreement. In case of gasoline samples the maximum difference between the speeds of sound measured using the two methods is 7.14 m/sec while the same for diesel samples, it is 5.9 m/sec.
\n\t\t\tSpeed of Sound in Diesel Mixed with Kerosene.
A significant and measurable change in speed of sound in gasoline/diesel samples with change in level of adulteration is seen in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. This indicates towards the feasibility of calibrating the speed of sound in gasoline/diesel samples in terms of percent adulteration. From the plots of Figs. 7 and 8, the equations of the curves that are the least square fit to the experimental data, have been determined to be:
\n\t\t\t(for gasoline samples using Pulse-echo method)
\n\t\t\t(for gasoline samples using CW method)
\n\t\t\t(for diesel samples using Pulse-echo method)
\n\t\t\t(for diesel samples using CW method)
\n\t\t\twhere
\n\t\t\tVs = Speed of sound ( m/sec) in fuel under test, and
\n\t\t\tA = Percent adulteration (by Volume) in the fuel under test.
\n\t\t\tThe equations (8) to (11) can be used for computing percent adulteration when speed of sound in the sample under test is known. Such computations can be easily performed by a micro controller based system with coefficients of the equations stored in its memory. Since the composition and, therefore, the physical properties such as density, viscosity of the gasoline, diesel, and kerosene are not constant and may vary significantly, depending upon the supplier company; the above equations would need to be updated as required. Alternatively, a look-up table of measured speed of sound vs. percent adulteration data for known samples can be used to estimate percent adulteration in the samples under test, by interpolation. However, no attempt has been made to design such a micro controller based system because the commercial equipments (based on Pulse Echo principle) for the purpose are already available for measurement of speed of sound in liquids and these equipments can easily be programmed for detection / estimation of adulteration in gasoline/ diesel using the experimental results obtained in this work.
\n\t\tThe problem of increasing urban air pollution due to fast increasing number of auto mobiles and adulteration of automobile fuel has been pointed out in the context of developing countries. For prevention of the adulteration, the monitoring of fuel quality at the distribution point is essential. For the detection/estimation of the commonly used adulterants (i.e. diesel in petrol and kerosene in diesel), a number of possible methods have been reviewed.
\n\t\t\tAs such there is no standard method/equipment for detection of adulterants. The authors have explored the feasibility of using the speed of sound in the fuel under test to detect/estimate the volume percentage of commonly used adulterants in automobile fuel and have concluded that it is feasible to develop a cheap and easy to operate equipment which measures and uses the measured speed of sound to estimate the adulterants in fuel. A NUSONIC model 6080 Concentration Analyzer (manufactured by MAPCO INC. ITALY), commercially available equipment namely NUSONIC model 6080 Concentration Analyzer (manufactured by MAPCO INC. ITALY) may be used for the purpose with a small modification.
\n\t\t\tBesides the sound/ultrasound based method proposed by the authors, optical fiber sensor based method needs to be given more research effort. The method of measurement has great advantage of being relatively more insensitive to a number of external disturbances such as acoustic noise, temperature variation etc. and the required measuring equipment can be easily designed at low cost with large sensitivity to adulteration leading to more accurate measurements.
\n\t\tThe sustainable growth of aviation is important for the future of the economic growth, development, commerce, cultural exchange, and many other factors. According to some experts, by 2045, international air traffic is expected to increase by 3.3 times [1]. In 2015, international aviation consumed approximately 160 megatons (Mt) of fuel. By 2045, compared with the anticipated increase of 3.3 times growth in international air traffic, fuel consumption is projected to increase by 2.2–3.1 times compared with 2015, depending on the advances in technology and the Air Traffic Management (ATM) scenario [1].
The emissions resulting from the combustion of fossil fuels are usually considered as the main responsible for Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, which are pointed as the primary factor that leads to global warming. For climate change, the primary concerns are emissions of CO, CO2, NOx, and nvPM [2]. Also of concern are persistent contrails, which lead to cirrus clouds. Generally, it is the combination of a number of factors that determine the overall impact of the emissions on global surface temperature over a given timescale. These factors consist of quantities emitted, residence time, radiative forcing, and the temperature response profile of a particular pollutant [2].
The CO2 emissions are of particular concern because of its exceptionally long residence time (thousands of years). Aviation today accounts for 2–3% of global CO2 emissions. While at the global level, CO2 emissions are increasing by around 3% per year, aviation’s emissions covered by the EU ETS have increased on average by 5% year-on-year between 2013 and 2018. By 2040, it is expected that international aviation emissions could rise by up to 150% compared with 2020. These growth forecasts take into account the incremental technology improvements that may reduce fuel consumption and emissions by 1–1.5% annually [3].
About the NOx emissions, they are evaluated in two possible scenarios, which are landing and take-off (LTO) NOx emissions, which primarily affect local air quality, and full-flight NOx emissions, which have more effect on the global climate. In 2015, LTO NOx emissions were approximately 0.18 Mt., and by 2045, they are projected to range from 0.44 to 0.80 Mt. depending on the technology and ATM scenario [1]. While, in 2015, the full-flight NOx emissions of international aviation were 2.50 Mt., by 2045, the full-flight NOx emission projection ranges from 5.53 to 8.16 Mt., which represents a 2.2–3.3 times growth compared with 2015 [1].
To mitigate this problem, there are several possible solutions. On the one hand, the fuel burn reductions through the upgrade of the technology employed in the actual aircrafts such as the airframes (aerodynamics and mass) and the engines, both with the aim of achieve higher efficiency [2]; on the other hand, the use of alternative fuels and power sources [4, 5]. According to the ICAO 2016 trends assessment, a 100% substitution of aviation fuel with SAF could reduce 63% of the baseline CO2 emissions from international flights in 2050 [4]. As referred by ATAG [5], it is possible that aviation meets net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050; however, it would take an enormous effort to make it a reality. This would mean a rapid and massive transformation on aviation’s energy supply through the use of SAFs, and it would require acceleration in aircraft and engine technology development, mainly: electric-, hybrid-, and hydrogen-powered aircraft.
Within this context, the conversion of the current gas turbine engines to new sustainable fuels can also be a solution. So, in this study, be analyzed the feasibility of the use of hydrogen fuel as substitute of the conventional jet fuel in a CFM56--3 combustor using a CFD approach. The NOx emissions produced while completing the ICAO’s LTO cycle burning this fuel will be assessed for the standard operating conditions of the engine, as well as the influence of several operating parameters (swirl effect, temperature, and pressure of fuel) in these emissions.
To date, the largest user of hydrogen in aeronautics is the space program where it is used as fuel for the rocket engines of launch vehicles. The first successful launch of a space vehicle propelled by a liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen rocket engine took place at Cape Kennedy on November 27, 1963. Several other rocket engine manufacturers in the United States were involved in the development of designs using LH2; for example, the General Electric Company, the Rocketdyne Division of North American Aviation (now Rockwell International, Inc.), and the Aerojet General Corporation were among the leaders. Of the designs developed by these companies, the Rocketdyne J2 engine is an example, which has been eminently successful. It was used in both the second and third stages of the Saturn V launch vehicle, used in the Apollo program, which landed U.S. astronauts on the moon. In all of the launches of the Apollo program, there has never been a failure of one of the hydrogen-fueled rocket engines.
However, the space applications are relatively recent, if we look at history, the first reported use of hydrogen in aeronautics was a long time ago. According to Brewer [6], hydrogen was first employed as lifting medium when, in France, a small silk balloon was constructed by the Roberts brothers, under the direction of physicist J.A.C. Charles, and it was flown in Paris on August 27, 1783. This balloon rose to a height of 3000 ft. (914.4 m) and traveled a distance of 15mi (24.14 km). In that year, on December 1, a larger hydrogen-filled model, which carried two passengers, the physicist Charles and one of the Roberts brothers, was launched. This flight traveled 25mi (40 km) from Paris in less than 2 hours.
Later in history, airships came into being as a result of man’s desire to control the direction and speed of flight. Numerous attempts were made to achieve such control with balloons without measurable success until 1852, when a Frenchman, Henri Giffard, constructed an airship on which he mounted a steam engine of his own design. Giffard flew this hydrogen-filled airship from the Hippodrome in Paris on September 24, 1852, attained an estimated speed of 6 mph, and demonstrated the first appreciable control of a “lighter-than-air craft.” In 1872, Paul Haenlein developed and flew an airship powered by an internal combustion engine, which was fueled by gaseous hydrogen that was drawn from the lifting cells of the airship envelope [6]. A significant step leading to the use of hydrogen in commercial air transportation occurred in 1900 when the first rigid airship designed by Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, the LZ-1, made a successful flight. In 1911, commercial air operations were started by a German transportation company (DELAG), using five Zeppelin airships. In October 1924, the Zeppelin factory at Lake Constance, in Germany, completed the construction of the LZ-126, inflated it with hydrogen, and delivered it to the United States by a transatlantic flight.
In 1955, a report by Silverstein and Hall of the (then) NACA-Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory was published in which the potential of liquid hydrogen as a fuel for use in both subsonic and supersonic aircraft was explored. According to it, theoretically, the use of hydrogen fuel could significantly improve the maximum range [6]. As a result of this study, an experimental program with a U.S. Air Force B-57 twin-engine medium bomber was initiated to demonstrate the feasibility of burning hydrogen in a turbojet engine at high altitude. The modified aircraft was first flown in 1956.
From 1954 to 1955, Lockheed Aircraft Corporation made a series of conceptual design studies of hydrogen-fueled aircraft in cooperation with Pratt & Whitney Aircraft and the Rex Division of AiResearch Corporation. In 1956, the U.S. Air Force awarded a contract to Lockheed’s Advanced Development Projects organization to build two prototype aircrafts (known as CL-400), which would be capable of cruising at Mach 2.5 at 100000 ft. (30,480 m) altitude. This aircraft was to carry a two-man crew, and the main objective was related to long-range reconnaissance missions.
Also in 1956, at the same time the U.S. Air Force contracted with Lockheed for the development of the CL-400 airplane, and the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Division of United Aircraft Corporation was awarded a contract to investigate the feasibility of using LH2 as a fuel in aircraft engines. The work at Pratt & Whitney covered a broad spectrum ranging from applied research efforts such as heat transfer and materials investigations, to development testing of a J57 engine modified to operate on LH2. It also included the design, construction, and test of a new design of engine (the Model 304). Conversion of the J57 to operate on LH2 was accomplished in just 5 months, and the first tests were performed in the fall of 1956 [6]. The work with the J57 showed that conventional jet engines could be readily adapted to use LH2 fuel. In this research, after examining many possible cycles, the Hydrogen Expander cycle (this cycle is well explained by Brewer [6]) was selected for experimental evaluation to create the Model 304 engine. This was a unique cycle developed specifically to take advantage of the properties of hydrogen and to meet the performance requirements of the CL-400 airplane. The first demonstration test of a complete 304 engine was accomplished in September 1957.
In spite of the success in developing practical solutions to the problems encountered with handling the cryogenic liquid fuel, the CL-400 aircraft was never built due to performance and logistics limitations. So, in 1957, the program was terminated by mutual agreement between the Air Force, Lockheed, and Pratt & Whitney. However, the CL-400 design and development program showed that it was entirely feasible to build a hydrogen-fueled airplane.
In the 1970s, Lockheed performed studies on different liquid hydrogen-fueled subsonic cargo and passenger transport jets for NASA Langley Research Center. The results are presented in the NASA-reports NASA CR-132558, NASA CR-132559, and NASA CR-144935. The main conclusions from these and furthers studies have been summarized by Daniel G. Brewer in [6]. The studies showed that hydrogen propulsion is especially beneficial in terms of energy use for long-range aircraft with internal hydrogen tanks.
In the 1980s, Tupolev developed the Tu-155 that was based on the medium-range transport aircraft TU-154B. Moreover, the TU-155 was built and successfully tested without any serious incidents, and it first flew burning hydrogen in one of its three engines in April 1988. The modified engine was also able to be run with natural gas. The TU-155 was followed by the TU-156 that could be run with natural gas or kerosene [7].
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the Cryoplane Project comprised of 36 European research partners from industry, universities, and research institutions. They contributed to this project covering aircraft configuration, systems and components, propulsion, safety, environmental compatibility, fuel sources and infrastructure, transition. The total project time was 26 months and started in April 2000. During this project, several conventional and unconventional overall aircraft design studies and detailed investigations of hydrogen fuel systems and components were performed [7, 8].
More recently, in July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen-powered Phantom Eye UAV that uses two converted Ford Motor Company piston engines. Nowadays, governments and companies are investing again in hydrogen’s potential. For instance, the ENABLEH2 (ENABLing cryogEnic hydrogen-based CO2 free air transport) consortium was given such a hand, almost 20 years after the European Commission’s last attempt to ramp up LH2 research and development under the Cryoplane project. The project’s objective is to demonstrate that switching to hydrogen is feasible and must complement research and development into areas such as advanced airframes, propulsion systems, and air transport operations [9]. Another example is the project named ZEROe, announced by Airbus in September 2020, which has the ambition to develop the world’s first zero-emission commercial aircraft. This project consists of the development of three concept planes (powered by hydrogen combustion through modified gas turbine engines or hybrid systems), which Airbus says that could be ready for deployment by 2035 [10].
The CFM56-3 is a high bypass, dual-rotor (or dual-shaft), axial flow turbofan engine, and this particular variant of CFM56-3 has a bypass ratio of 5.1:1 and a dry weight of 1966 kg [11, 12]. Its dual-shaft design consists of a fan and booster (low-pressure compressor), high-pressure compressor, annular combustion chamber, and a high- and low-pressure turbine section. The two shafts respectively connect the low- and high-pressure sections using a five-bearing system (three roller, and two ball bearings) [13].
First of all, it is important to understand the difference between the combustor and the combustion chamber [14]. The combustor includes all of the combustion systems, that is, the diffuser, the combustion chamber, the inner and outer casing, the spark plugs, and the fuel injectors, whereas the combustion chamber refers to the exact place in which combustion takes place.
The main purpose of a gas turbine combustor is to introduce heat energy into the mass of air previously compressed (in the compressor) [15], by burning fuel in it so that the products of combustion can be expanded to get useful work output (absorbed by the turbines) and then, on their discharge to atmosphere, provide a propulsive jet [16]. Due to space limitations and requirements of energy and momentum, the volume flow rate as well as rate of heat release is very high in a gas turbine combustion chamber and the residence time of fuel is very small, of the order of a few milliseconds [15]. In gas turbines, the combustion is a continuous process that takes place at high pressure in a smaller space and usually at a very high temperature [16]. Thus, continuously high combustion temperatures, large continuous flow, and high heat energy release make the design and development of a gas turbine combustor rather difficult [15].
A gas turbine combustor must satisfy a wide range of requirements. However, for the aircrafts, the priorities are the reliability, the low fuel consumption, low pollutant emissions, engine size, and weight [17].
The choice of a particular combustor type and design is determined largely by the overall engine design and by the need to use the available space as effectively as possible [16]. Overall, the combustors may be subdivided into three main types: tubular or can, tubo-annular, and annular [16]. The CFM56-3 has an annular combustor, and Figure 1 shows it during the digitalization process to obtain the model of geometry used in this work.
CFM56-3 combustor photograph [
The annular configuration is used by most modern jet engines because of its lighter design. This type of combustor represents the ideal configuration for combustors since its “clean” aerodynamic layout results in compact dimensions [16]. This configuration consists of an annular liner that is mounted concentrically inside an annular casing. Among the advantages, the annular combustion chambers have the least pressure drop due to larger volume per unit surface area and are more efficient than can-type chambers. It also requires about half of the diameter of can-type chambers for the same mass flow [15].
Its main drawback stems from the heavy buckling load on the outer liner [17]. Moreover, any change in the flow velocity profile can result in significant change in the temperature distribution of the outlet gases, and distortion of inner annular chamber is critical because it disrupts the flow of cooling air and also changes the outlet temperature distribution. This is because of lower degree of curvature of the chamber surfaces [15]. Another drawback is related to experimental tests of this type of combustion chamber. At full-load conditions, the tests of large annular combustion chambers supplying air at the levels of pressure, temperature, and flow rate required are extremely difficult, and the cost is very high [17]. Nowadays, there are very few facilities worldwide that can supply air in those conditions [18].
At the current time, almost all aviation fuel (jet fuel) is extracted from the middle distillates of crude oil (kerosene fraction), which distils between the gasoline and the diesel fractions [18]. The Jet A and Jet A-1 grades are the most used kerosene-type fuels worldwide in civil aviation.
As referred before, to mitigate the problem of the pollutant emissions in the future, there seem to be two viable solutions, the use of SAFs or the use of hydrogen fuel (through hydrogen combustion engines or fuel cells). In this work, will only be considered the hydrogen for the combustion gas turbine engines (GTEs).
The hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant of the chemical elements in the universe. On Earth, under standard conditions (H2), its concentration is negligible. However, in chemically combined form, it is the third most abundant element on Earth. Consequently, hydrogen can be considered an energy carrier, similar to electricity, since it can be produced from other compounds, mostly from hydrocarbons and water [19]. The main reasons why hydrogen can play an increasingly significant role in meeting the worlds energy demands and addressing environmental concerns are that hydrogen meets three important criteria: a promising low-carbon alternative reducing emissions of GHG, providing energy security, and the possibility of reducing local pollutants, that is, NOx and particulates [19].
On a commercial scale, despite the several production sources, most of the hydrogen is currently produced through the process of steam reforming of methane (SRM) from natural gas [19]. As part of the energy future, the various hydrogen sources can be grouped into three types, namely fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, petroleum, oil shale, etc.), renewable sources (biofuels, water, photovoltaic, solar, algae, etc.), and nuclear (e.g., using thermal energy from nuclear reactions for water splitting). For hydrogen to be part of a sustainable energy future, renewable and nuclear sources need to play a more significant role in hydrogen production, and cost-effective carbon capture and storage technologies need to be developed and upgraded.
For the use of the hydrogen fuel in the current GTEs, in theory, the minimum modifications needed are the change of the injection system and the implementation of facilities to evaporate the hydrogen, which is stored in the tanks in a liquid (or cryogenic) state. This can be accomplished by an external heat source or a heat exchanger (HE) [20]. However, to take full advantage of the hydrogen’s distinct thermo-transport properties (high diffusivity, low ignition energy, wide flammability limits, and the highest laminar flame speed) that make its combustion and emission characteristics notably different from those of hydrocarbons fuels, beyond the injection system, the combustion chamber must be also changed [19]. In Table 1, is provided a comparison between the main properties of hydrogen and Jet A [6, 9].
Properties | Units | H2 | Jet A |
---|---|---|---|
Liquid density | g cm−3(at 283 k) | 0.071 | ∼0.811 |
Melting point | K | 14.01 | −263 |
Boiling point | K (at 1 atm) | 20.27 | 440–539 |
Heat of vaporization | J g−1 (at 1 atm) | 446 | 360 |
Specific heat | J g−1 | 9.69 | 1.98 |
Lower heating value | MJ kg−1 | 119.96 | 43.15 |
Flammability limits in air | vol% | 4.0–75.0 | 0.6–4.7 |
Thermal energy radiated to surrounding | % | 17–25 | 30–42 |
Diffusion velocity in NTP air | cm s−1 | ≤2.00 | <0.17 |
Flame temperature in air | K (stoichiometric) | 2318 | 2200 |
Properties for hydrogen fuel and Jet A fuel.
When changing to hydrogen, either the combustor outlet temperature (COT) or the net thrust could be retained [20]. Because of the considerably higher heating value of hydrogen, the fuel flow to achieve the same COT or net thrust is reduced by almost two-thirds. When the COT is preserved, the net thrust increases, resulting in a corresponding increased specific thrust. When it is opted to retain the net thrust, this results in a lower COT [20]. According to Boggia and Jackson [21], the performance improvements could be explained by two fundamental changes when using hydrogen: reduced mass flow and changed composition of the gases expanding through the turbine(s). While the latter improves the performance, the former deteriorates the performance. Reduced mass flow through the turbine lowers the thrust output for two reasons. First, decreasing the fuel flow implies that the exhaust mass flow decreases accordingly; hence, without any variation in gas composition, the thrust output decreases. In second, a reduced mass flow through the turbine will result in a higher total temperature drop and, thereby, also a higher total pressure drop across the turbine in order to deliver the same amount of power to the compressor. Because of the lower total temperature and pressure at the turbine exit, both the pressure thrust (thrust due to different pressure at engine inlet and exit) and momentum thrust decrease (the effect of decreased core nozzle velocity).
However, the loss in thrust due to reduced mass flow is offset by the increased thrust owing to changed properties of the combustion products [21]. With the use of hydrogen, the combustion products contain no CO2 and a larger portion of H2O, which has a higher Cp value than CO2. Having investigated a simple turbojet engine, Boggia and Jackson [21] concluded that the Cp value has increased by ∼4% in the hot section of the engine when changing to hydrogen fuel. Increased Cp value through the turbine will similarly, but in the opposite direction as reduced mass flow, affect the performance. For a fixed power output, it will cause smaller total temperature and pressure drops across the turbine. Provided that the core nozzle is not choked, a larger nozzle expansion ratio will result in a larger exhaust velocity, which, in turn, will increase the momentum thrust. In total, the positive effect of increased Cp value outweighs the effect of reduced mass flow and, hence, results in an increased net thrust when switching to hydrogen and retaining the COT [20].
It should be pointed out that the energy consumption to attain a certain COT is highly dependent on the fuel-injection temperature and the location of the heat exchanger (HE) used to evaporate the liquid hydrogen. By heating the fuel more, it is possible to achieve performance benefits. The effects on engine performance are quite small, but still there are some desired features that could be exploited [20].
If the COT is kept the same, the turbine entry temperature (TET) is also about the same, thus requiring the same cooling technology [21]. On the other hand, the option of lowering the COT to preserve the net thrust will lead to a decrease in TET. So, this will require less advanced cooling technology as well as having a favorable effect on turbine blade life. Moreover, designing for a lower maximum cycle temperature will help to suppress the NOx emissions.
The concentration level of pollutants in gas turbine exhaust can be related directly to several factors that control the emissions in conventional combustors. These factors may be considered in terms of primary-zone temperature, equivalence ratio, degree of homogeneity of the primary-zone combustion process, residence time in the primary zone, liner-wall quenching characteristics, and fuel spray characteristics [17]. These factors vary from one combustor to another and, for any given combustor, with changes in operating conditions [17].
For the conventional fuels, such as hydrocarbons (in this case Jet A) or even the SAFs, the pollutant emissions of most concern are CO, CO2, UHC, NOx, and PM (or smoke). From the environmental standpoint, hydrogen is nearly a clean fuel once it produces only NOx (considering that water vapor is not a major pollutant) [19]. So, in this work, only the NOx emissions will be presented.
About the NOx (NO plus NO2 emissions), in conventional gas turbine combustors, there are four main mechanisms that are responsible for the NOx formation: thermal NO, nitrous oxide (N2O) mechanism, prompt NO, and fuel NO. The last one is usually of less importance for normal fuels (there is no fuel-bond nitrogen) [17]. In the case of hydrogen burn, we must still consider the NO formation through intermediate NO2 [19].
For hydrocarbon fuels, the two main mechanisms that are responsible for the formation of NOx are thermal NO and prompt NO, while for hydrogen flames the two main mechanisms associated with NOx formation are the thermal NO and NO formation through intermediate NO2. So, in this subsection only these three mechanisms will be referred. For more information about the others, there are a good review of them in Lefebre et Ballal and Kenneth Kuo [17, 22].
The thermal NO is produced by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) in high-temperature regions of the flame and in the post-flame gases [22]. This endothermic process is controlled largely by flame temperature, and it proceeds at a significant rate only at temperatures above around 1850 K (it requires the breaking of the tight N2 bond) [17, 19, 22]. For the typical conditions encountered in conventional gas turbine combustors (high temperatures for only a few milliseconds), NO increases linearly with residence time, but does not attain its equilibrium value. The extended Zeldovich mechanism is utilized by the most of the proposed reaction schemes for thermal NO. The principal reactions of this mechanism are represented in Eqs. (1)–(4) [17, 19]:
The prompt NO can be formed in a significant quantity in some combustion environments such as in low-temperature, fuel-rich conditions and when residence times are short. These conditions can be created in gas turbines [18].
In hydrocarbon flames, prompt NO occurs in the earliest stage of combustion and its formation is associated with the reaction of molecular N2 with radicals, such as C, CH, and CH2, which are fragments derived from fuel, through a complex series of reactions and many possible intermediate species. Some of these reactions are represented in Eqs. (5)–(9):
For hydrocarbon flames, the major contribution is from CH and CH2 species, as shown in Eqs. (5) and (9). The products of these reactions could lead to formation of amines and cyano compounds that subsequently can react with species such as N, O, or OH to form NO by reactions like those occurring in oxidation of fuel nitrogen or oxidation of other nitrogen species. At present, the prompt NO contribution to total NOx from stationary combustors is small. However, as NOx emissions are reduced to very low levels by employing new strategies that tend to reduce the flame temperature (such as burner design or geometry modification), the relative importance of the prompt NO can be expected to increase [18].
For hydrogen flames, the second mechanism that is relevant for the NOx emissions corresponds to the NO formation through intermediate NO2. This mechanism may be represented by the Eqs. (10) and (11) [19]:
Owing to its high adiabatic flame temperature, hydrogen combustion produces significant NOx. Therefore, by increasing the strain rate (as), which is pressure-dependent, the flame temperature can be lowered and NOx emissions are reduced. So, the pressure can be also a controlling parameter for NOx formation with hydrogen flames.
This way, the thermal NO mechanism is dominant at low pressures, whereas NO formation
Consequently, the maximum NO formation decreases for moderate pressures [22].
At higher pressures, the net effect of reactions (10) and (11) is to H + HO2
Still considering the influence of pressure, but now for hydrocarbon fuels, the N2O and prompt mechanisms dominate at low temperature and are independent of pressure, whereas the higher NOx levels associated with higher combustion temperature are primarily due to thermal NO, which exhibits a square-root dependence on pressure [22].
Chemical kinetics is a capital point when modeling a combustion problem. In this case, the fuel combustion kinetics is extremely important in order to develop a model that allows a good emission prediction from the engine. Without proper kinetics all the attempts will go in vain. The development of detailed chemical kinetic models is extremely challenging once typical fuels (such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuels) derived from different sources can be composed of hundreds to thousands of compounds. Therefore, detailed kinetic models for such fuels cannot contain all the compounds due to the limitation of current computational resources [23]. For that reason, a simplified mixture called surrogate mixture must be defined and used to develop a kinetic model. For the emission predictions, the kinetic model development can be even more difficult once the NOx chemistry must be developed together with fuel chemistry making realistic chemistry getting even more complicated. In this section, will be introduced the Jet A and hydrogen combustion kinetic models applied in this study.
Although kinetic models of jet fuel are still underdeveloped, significant progress has been made in this area in the recent decades. Jet fuels are kerosene-type cut of petroleum containing C-10–C-18 hydrocarbons, including alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic compounds. The literature reviews show that there are several kinetic models available for jet fuel combustion and some of these models are listed (and briefly descripted) by Mostafa [23].
However, only few of them are suitable to satisfy our current needs. Based on our objective to predict aircraft engine emission (specifically NOx) using CFD simulation, we need at first a jet fuel kinetic mechanism that allows to simulate the combustion process and, then, one that fairly predicts NOx formation in this combustion chamber. As CFD with kinetic models is computationally highly expensive, the number of species in the kinetic scheme needs to be limited. For that reason, after evaluating the kinetic models available, it was opted by the option presented by Kundu et al. [24].
Kundu et al. [24] proposed a simplified kinetic mechanism with NOx chemistry based on 17 species and 26-step reaction for Jet A (17 steps for Jet A reaction and nine steps for the sub-mechanism for NOx prediction). This mechanism has been developed specifically to predict NOx formation during combustion of aviation kerosene. However, the mechanism does not cover the entire range of pollutant species, once to limit the number of species, the mechanism does not include NO2. Despite the limitation of this kinetic model, it was used in this work. This was not the best option, but among the available ones was the least bad.
The hydrogen oxidation chemistry represents the most fundamental and important building block in the hierarchy of hydrocarbon chemistry. Consequently, its chemistry has been extensively investigated, and a large number of detailed mechanisms (that can be found in the literature), including H2/O2 kinetics, have been developed and validated using different combustion configurations [19, 25]. Some of these mechanisms have been optimized for the combustion of pure hydrogen, but most of them are dedicated to the combustion of hydrocarbons including sub-mechanisms for H2/O2 chemistry. However, the accuracy of the H2/O2 subset is also essential for the overall performance of a hydrocarbon mechanism [19].
To choose the kinetic model more adjusted for this case, some reviews available in the literature [25, 26] were analyzed. For instance, Ströhl et al. [25] made an evaluation of detailed reaction mechanisms for hydrogen combustion under gas turbine conditions. That study shows that the mechanisms of Li et al. or Ó Conaire accurately represent H2/O2 kinetics under gas turbine conditions. However, it suggests that the Li et al. mechanism is best suited for the prediction of H2/O2 chemistry since it includes more up-to-date data for the range of interest [25]. Also, the Li et al. mechanism has been found to provide the best match with measurements over a wide range of equivalence ratio and pressure, using various targets, including shock tube ignition delay and laminar flame speed data [26].
So, it was concluded that the Li et al. mechanism should perform better than the others, and for that reason it will be used in this work. For the NOx prediction (of hydrogen burn), was used the NOx sub-mechanism based on the study by the Glarborg group that is available in the database of ANSYS Fluent 2020R2 together with the mechanism of Li et al.
For this study, was used a CAD design of the CFM56--3 combustor made in the study [14], based on the CFM56-3 combustor of Figure 1. Due to the existent symmetry in the CFM56-3 combustor and in order to decrease the simulation time and effectively represent the four fuel injectors (in the 20) that supply a richer mixture, it will be used only a quarter section of the combustor for simulation purposes; that is, there will be one fuel injector for every five injectors present in each quarter section of the model combustor that supplies an even richer mixture. In this study, the rich fuel injector is the middle one (element 24 of the Figure 2b). All the details present in the combustor geometry are represented in Figure 2, including the combustor walls, dome, dilution holes, fuel injectors, and primary/secondary swirlers.
Views of the CAD combustor model section used in the simulations: (a) outside view; (b) top view; (c) side view; and (d) inner view.
As told by Oliveira [14], there were some parts of the combustor such as the swirlers that the exact geometry was not achieved. Furthermore, after analyzing some documentation of the CFM56-3 engine, photos of the combustor and doing the preliminary simulations, there were found some problems related with the fuel injectors position, the shape of the exit of the secondary swirlers, and the connection of this exits with the cooling walls of the dome. All of these problems were affecting the results. For that reason, some changes have been attempted to try to correct these small problems. All the changes in the model were performed in CATIA V5 R20. In Figure 3 are presented two cut-view images of the first swirler, in which the first shows the original CAD model received and the second the final CAD model with the modifications made during this work.
Cut view of the models: (a) original model and (b) modified model.
During the early phases of the work, it was concluded that even so, the simulation time for the quarter section would be very large. So, to test new sets of modifications needed in the geometry, mesh, or the used models, a geometry where only one injector was represented was developed. Thereby, some sets of modifications could be excluded without spending the total time of the simulation in the quarter section.
In this work, several meshing software (HELYX-OS, SnappyHexMesh, Simscale and Fluent Meshing) were tried in order to get the best mesh possible with the computational resources available (mainly the quantity of RAM). Due to the complexity of the geometry, the only software that provided a good quality mesh was the Fluent Meshing after using the set of tips provided by ANSYS in [27] about the best practices for gas turbine combustion meshing. This way, it was possible to create a good enough mesh for the simulation, where all the features of the geometry were correctly represented with the available computational resources.
After analyzing several meshes, the independency test was performed using three meshes, with coarse, medium, and fine refinement, having 11,830.638 cells, 16.318.327 cells, and 22.602.875 cells, respectively. The data collected relative to numerical/experimental data for Jet A fuel (no experimental data relative to H2 combustion in this GTE was available) were presented by Ribeiro [28] and ICAO [12], and these documents contain the exit temperature of the combustion chamber (only for the operating condition of 100%) and the NOx emissions of the engine, respectively. For that reason, the parameters used to analyze the independency of the mesh were:
The average static temperature of the combustion chamber in the outlet;
The average static temperature and velocity in a defined plane (cut-view of the first swirler), once the NOx emissions depend mainly of the temperature and residence time inside the combustion chamber.
All the independency tests were performed for the operating condition of 100%, since it is the only operating condition where the outlet temperature of the chamber is known. The maximum difference occurred for the average static temperature in the plane of the cut view of the swirler, and it was in the order of 2.16% between the values of the coarse and the intermediate meshes; however, between the values of the intermediate and the fine meshes, the difference was only 0.1%. The difference between the values of the average static temperatures for the outlet was nearly 0% between the coarse and the intermediate meshes as well as between the intermediate and the fine meshes. For the velocity magnitude, in the cut-view plane, the difference between the values was approximately 0.71%, between the values of the coarse and intermediate meshes, and 0.49%, between the values of the intermediate and the fine meshes.
The software used to perform this study was ANSYS Fluent 2020R2 [29]. Double-precision option was enabled, once a small error in this case can influence largely the results of the models. For the setup, the energy model was enabled. This model must be activated as this regards the energy related to the temperature change within the combustion process or heat transfer. For the viscous model, as was utilized a step-by-step solution, the first step was made with the realizable k-𝜀 and then was used the RSM in the other steps. For the radiation model, the P1 radiation model was chosen to simulate the heat transfer by radiation. This model was chosen for this study because it is accurate enough and reduces the computational cost in relation to the other models. Concerning the species, two models were used. At first to calculate an initial guess, the non-premixed combustion and species transport with one equation were used, for Jet A and hydrogen fuel simulations, respectively. And then, after obtaining a first initial solution converged (or almost converged), the detailed mechanisms referred before (Kundu et al. for Jet A and Li et al. for hydrogen) were imported, and the simulations were resumed until obtaining completely converged solutions. In this case, the used Turbulence-Chemistry Interaction was Eddy-Dissipation and the Chemistry Solver was the Relax to Chemical Equilibrium.
To evaluate the NOx emissions, two approaches were followed. The first one was to use the sub-mechanisms provided in the detailed mechanisms. These sub-mechanisms presented before can cause some problems once; for instance, the sub-mechanism for NOx produced by Jet A does not include the NO2 species, which clearly will affect the results. The second approach was to use the NOx model provided in ANSYS Fluent. This model must be enabled to ANSYS Fluent display information regarding NOx formation during the solution calculation, or it can be calculated in post-processing (the approach chosen in this work). In the end, an assessment must be made to reveal which approach is in better agreement with the ICAO’s database values (for the Jet A), to be used in the work.
The boundary conditions were defined through an iterative process that has three phases. In the first one, through an iterative process (simulation and result analysis) and the available data present by Ribeiro [28] regarding the conditions of each stage of the GTE (mainly air mass flow, fuel flow, operating pressure, and oxidizer temperature) for 100% power, it was possible to determine the percentage of the air flow that enters the combustion chamber through the swirlers and all the boundary conditions for 100% power.
In phase 2, also through an iterative process (simulation and result analysis), the available data presented by Ribeiro [28] regarding the operating conditions obtained in the test-bed charts presented (mainly the operating pressure and oxidizer temperature), the values of the ICAO’s database [12], and the percentage of the air flow that enter the combustion chamber through the swirlers calculated in phase 1, it was possible to define the boundary conditions for 7% power. Finally, after definition the boundary conditions for the conditions of 7% and 100% power, the values of the operating pressure, oxidizer (air) temperature, overall AFR, and primary zone AFR for the other operating conditions were calculated through a linear regression. This allowed the obtention of the boundary conditions for the 30 and 85% power conditions.
Knowing the overall AFR and fuel flow for each condition, it was possible to determine the total air mass flow and then through the primary zone AFR, it is possible to calculate the air mass flow that enters the combustion chamber through the swirlers and the air mass flow that enters through the other entries (mixers and dilution holes). Once these steps were concluded, the boundary conditions for the air mass flow inlets were defined for each power condition of the LTO cycle.
In this section, the results of the simulations are presented. It should be noted that all the results presented are only for one-fourth of the CFM56-3 combustor.
The first set of results was obtained during the process of estimation of the boundary conditions where the outlet average static temperatures to the simulations with Jet A fuel were calculated, as shown in Figure 4. Those are important values once we need them, first to compare with the reference temperature of 1649.94 K obtained by Ribeiro [28] to the condition of 100% power, and then to get reference values for the outlet temperature to allow the calculation of the mass flow of hydrogen fuel for each power condition.
Combustor outlet average static temperature throughout ICAO’s LTO cycle, while burning Jet A and Hydrogen fuel; and the reference values for 100% throttle.
The quantity of fuel for the simulations with hydrogen was calculated through the mass of Jet A fuel for each power condition and the ratio between the lower heating values, LHV, of the fuels, as shown in Eqs. (13) and (14).
Since the LHV changes from author to author, this ratio was calculated and then adjusted for the condition of 7% power in order to get the same value for the outlet average static temperature for the simulations with the Jet A and hydrogen fuel.
Figure 4 shows the most relevant outlet average static temperatures obtained in this work. The values for the sensibility tests are not represented here.
Through Figure 4 it is possible to conclude that the values of outlet temperature obtained through the simulations with the input data from ICAO and
Through the same figure, but now considering the simulations with hydrogen, it is possible to conclude that:
The values of outlet temperature for 7% and 30% power are similar to Jet A, which indicates that the ratios between the amount of hydrogen fuel and Jet A must be correct
For the conditions of 85% and 100% power, the lower outlet temperature for hydrogen fuel indicates that the quantity of hydrogen should be higher.
In this study, it was opted to fix only one value for the ratio, but as we can see, the best approach seems to be to calculate the specific ratio between the fuels to get the same exact outlet temperatures for each power condition.
In the emission analysis, it is possible to study the emissions of all the pollutants, mainly CO, CO2, UHC, and NOx. However, since in this work the only objective related to the pollutants is to compare the pollutant emissions between the Jet A fuel and hydrogen fuel, the only emissions analyzed were the NOx, once H2O is not assumed as a pollutant.
Some of the results presented in this section were obtained through the emission index, EI. This value can be obtained using Eq. (13):
In Eq. (13), the emission flow rate was obtained by reporting the
In the first analysis (reference standard), regarding Jet A fuel simulations, the emission index is used since the quantity of fuel burned is the same for each operating condition, and it can be easily interpreted by the reader. However, in the comparison between the pollutant emissions of Jet A fuel and hydrogen fuel, as the quantities of fuel are very different (the mass flow of hydrogen is almost a third of the mass flow of Jet A), the use of the EI may give a wrong perception of the emissions difference to the reader. So, to simplify the analysis, it was opted for the use of the flow rate of NOx, in grams per second, for a fourth of the chamber.
The results for the control simulations are presented in Figure 5a, which shows the EI(NOx) in the outlet of the quarter of the combustion chamber for the Jet A fuel.
Results for the NOx emissions for one-fourth of the combustion chamber throughout ICAO’s LTO cycle: (a) EI results of NOx for the combustion of Jet A obtained through the use of two approaches, NOx sub-Mechanism and Ansys NOx model; and (b) comparison of the flow rates of NOx for the combustion of Jet A and Hydrogen fuel obtained through the use of two approaches, NOx sub-Mechanism and Ansys NOx model.
As expected, and previously referred, for both approaches, the NOx emissions are lower at low power settings and attain maximum values at the highest power condition, where the temperatures are higher.
Considering Figure 5a, it is possible to conclude that:
The NOx sub-mechanism clearly overpredicts the NOx quantity, in relation to the reference values (ICAO’s database);
Regarding to the NOx model available in ANSYS Fluent, for the lower power conditions (7 and 30% power), the model can predict values for the NOx quantity close to the ones of ICAO’s database; however, for the higher power conditions (85% and 100% power), this model also overpredicts the NOx emissions, in relation to the reference values (ICAO’s database), approximately 2.4 times more for 85% power and 2.9 times more for 100% power.
The NOx model from ANSYS Fluent can predict the NOx emissions better than the other approach, and these values will be used in the next step.
In a second phase, with the same boundary conditions (air mass flow rate, temperature, and pressure) for each operating condition, the simulations were repeated, but now for the hydrogen fuel. Figure 5b shows the comparison between the reference values (from ICAO and from the better model of the previous phase for Jet A fuel) and the NOx emission analysis made through two different approaches for hydrogen fuel, the NOx sub-mechanism, and the NOx model from ANSYS Fluent. As referred before, those analyses were made in terms flow rate, with the units of grams per second.
Looking at Figure 5b, considering the models used for NOx forecast, it is possible to take two principal conclusions:
The forecasts made by the ANSYS NOx model provide higher values than those made with the NOx sub-mechanism for all the operating conditions; however, the error between these values is relatively small (up to 10%).
Comparing the quantity of NOx produced by the hydrogen fuel with Jet A, for the lower power conditions, the quantities of NOx emitted are nearly the double of the values of the Jet A (for both ICAO’s database and for the prediction with the model) and for the higher operating conditions, the quantity of NOx emitted continues to be nearly the double of the predicted NOx emissions for the Jet A fuel simulations with the NOx model and the emissions are predicted to be nearly four to five times higher than the reference data from ICAO.
In this work, several sensibility tests were carried out, namely the presence of the swirl effect on the swirler’s inlets and the influence of the fuel injection pressure and temperature. In this work, the initial value of fuel temperature (used in the study) for the Jet A and the hydrogen fuel was 298.15 K, once this is the fuel temperature used by the software
Flow rates of NOx emissions for the sensibility tests for one fourth of the combustion chamber throughout ICAO’s LTO cycle burning hydrogen: (a) analysis of the influence of swirl effect through the use of two approaches, NOx sub-mechanism and Ansys NOx model; and (b) analysis of the influence of the hydrogen fuel temperature through the use of two approaches, NOx sub-mechanism and Ansys NOx model.
As the represented values are similar, they are also presented in Table 2.
Op. Cond. | Standard Reference | Without swirl | Fuel 600 K | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100 | 17.70 | 19.58 | 18.30 | 20.91 | 16.97 | 32.70 |
85 | 11.97 | 12.75 | 12.98 | 13.40 | 11.51 | 19.49 |
30 | 1.44 | 1.30 | 1.61 | 1.22 | 2.26 | 2.38 |
7 | 0.22 | 0.17 | 0.24 | 0.16 | 0.51 | 0.32 |
NOx flow rates in [g/s] obtained for hydrogen fuel (as in Figure 6).
About the influence of the swirl effect, whose results for the NOx emissions are presented in Figure 6a, if one considers the same forecast approach (only the values of ANSYS model or the values of the sub-mechanism), it is possible to conclude that for this specific case the presence of this phenomenon helps to reduce slightly the quantity of NOx emissions for the high power conditions, while for lower power conditions the NOx values are closer.
To analyze the influence of the inlet fuel temperature, the sensibility tests were made with the hydrogen fuel at 600 K, and the results for the NOx emissions are presented in Figure 6b. From this figure, it is possible to conclude that:
For the simulations with the hydrogen temperature of 600 K, the error between the two approaches used to forecast the NOx is considerable for the higher power conditions (85 and 100% power); that is, if we look to the values obtained, the predicted emissions for the NOx model of Ansys are almost twice the value predicted with the NOx sub-mechanism.
For both approaches, in the lower power conditions (7 and 30% power), the quantity of NOx emitted is higher for the fuel temperature of 600 K than for the reference temperature (298.15 K).
For the higher power conditions (85 and 100% power), the approaches showed different behavior. For the sub-mechanism, the NOx emissions are lower for the fuel temperature of 600 K and for the NOx model of Ansys, the emissions keep higher than for the reference temperature (298.15 K).
About the injection pressure tests, the modification of this value did not make any changes to the results. For that reason, the results are not presented once they do not allow to analyze the influence of this parameter.
In this work, an overview of the use of hydrogen in aviation, the modifications needed to adapt an existent gas turbine to use hydrogen, and a CFD simulation of the CFM56-3 combustor burning hydrogen is provided. During this work, it was demonstrated theoretically that the CFM56-3 can work with hydrogen fuel with minor changes (related only to the injection system).
Regarding the results, starting with the control simulation (reference standard), there are several possible reasons that can be pointed out for the differences between the simulations and the ICAO’s database values. For instance, the fact that the fuel was considered in the gaseous state when injected into the combustion chamber simulates “perfect” atomization, increasing the combustion efficiency and creating a higher temperature inside the combustion chamber. Other reason can be the fact that the chosen mechanism/sub-mechanism does not represent the combustion of the Jet A fuel or the NOx production in the best way. The choice of the radiation model can also influence this result, once the radiation representation is more important in the hydrocarbon fuel burn than in the hydrogen fuel burn. Other possible reason could be the chemical model used. However, due to the limited computational resources, it was not possible to use more complex models.
Regarding the other results, comparing the NOx emissions obtained for the simulations (for both Jet A and hydrogen), it was shown that for this geometry of combustor and injector, the quantity of NOx produced when burning hydrogen is almost twice of the NOx emissions for Jet A. Once we are using the same swirlers and injector geometry (single hole) for both fuels, these results are in agreement with the results of C. J. Marek et al. [30], who concluded in their job that using similar injection geometries, the minimum NOx levels for hydrogen fuel were twice than for Jet A fuel.
Finally, regarding the sensibility tests (changing the swirl effect, fuel injection pressure, and temperature), only the changes in swirl effect and the fuel temperature produced relevant changes in the results. The fact that the changes in fuel injection pressure did not produce major changes in the NOx emission results could be explained as the fact that for these tests, the geometry of the injectors was always considered the same (the area of the inlets did not change), and the fuel mass flow rate was the same for each power condition. For that reason, the pressure changes will not affect the behavior of the fuel jet that much. In practice, in gas turbine engines, the pressure is usually used to control the quantity of fuel injected.
Through the results obtained for the tests with the swirl effect, it was demonstrated that without the swirl effect, the NOx emissions increased. After analyzing the recirculation zone (position and form), it was concluded that without the swirl effect, the quality of the recirculation zone was reduced and the temperature across the combustion chamber was slightly increased (also increasing the emissions). So, the presence of the swirl effect helps to stabilize the recirculation zone, reducing the presence of hot spots in the flame.
About the influence of the fuel temperature, it was expected that an exponential raise in this value could affect largely the temperature in the outlet of the chamber, increasing the efficiency. However, that did not happen, and not only the outlet temperature changed just a small percentage (1–2%) for the double of the initial fuel temperature, but also cause malfunctions across the chamber, with greater evidence in the higher power conditions, where the analysis of the flame shows a great deterioration of the recirculation zone and the presence of a phenomenon that seems to be the occurrence of autoignition or flashback inside the swirlers. These malfunctions were associated with the velocity of hydrogen fuel flow, which has almost doubled when the temperature was raised. The most credible reason for this phenomenon consists of the density reduction of the hydrogen fuel due to that change in temperature.
This work is supported with Portuguese national funds by FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the C-MAST - UIDB/00151/2020.
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Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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