Summary of studies that used Amaranth in physically active population. Search was conducted through Google Scholar and PubMed search engines.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
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\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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For instance, negative-index metamaterials with simultaneously negative electric permittivity and magnetic permeability exhibit intriguing reversed electromagnetic properties like phase and energy velocity of opposite directions, leading to a reversed Snell’s law. As a consequence, a thick planar slab made of this sort of novel materials, immersed in air, provides real images of an object set behind, which under some circumstances contains details with a resolution beyond the diffraction limit [2]. Furthermore, a concave negative-index lens would evidence a positive focal length and it might also bring an incident plane wave into a focus [3]. However, optimized structures with reduced losses have been mostly developed at microwave frequencies, dramatically reducing the above-mentioned applied possibilities in nanophotonics and optics [4].
\nFor such spectral window, the well-known concept of lensing with Fresnel zone plates was efficiently materialized over ultrathin metallic films including nanoslits and holes with varying width (and occasionally shape) to achieve high transmission meta-screens with controlled phase distribution induced by elementary plasmonic modes with engineered effective index. As a stimulating alternative, metasurfaces with reduced dimensionality in the direction of light propagation confine the light-matter interaction into a surface thus drastically reducing the inherent losses of the constituting meta-atoms. Possibly the most revolutionary approach to metasurfaces-based focusing devices came to us soon consisting in the inclusion of optical nano-antennas arranged over transparent substrates and flat mirrors, thus achieving an abrupt phase change of the scattered field with controlled polarization pattern. By directly comparing with three-dimensional architectures, simpler fabrication processes through for instance electron beam lithography and its accessible implementation into optoelectronic devices establish the relevant features of these metasurfaces.
\nAlthough several reviews concerning plasmonic Fresnel-type lenses, hyperlenses and metalenses are present in the literature [5, 6], including an open-access book chapter published by InTechOpen [7], a continuous effort is necessary in order to provide the current state of the art of such fascinating and fast-evolving topic. Metalenses with applications in photonics (IR and visible wavelengths) are of our interest here, leaving to supplementary reviews the analysis of reflectarrays and array lenses for uses in low-frequency regimes [8]. Our purpose is then introducing the above-mentioned preliminary results but mainly focus on recent advances in the field, not thoroughly discussed yet. For instance, a revolutionary all-dielectric approach to plasmonic nano-antenna metasurfaces is presently being developed for applications in focusing and others where high-index nanoresonators are the constituents of the gradient nanostructure to provide a full control over the local amplitude, phase and polarization of the scattered field under minimal dissipation effects. On the other hand, two-dimensional materials such as graphene sheets and transition-metal dichalcogenide semiconductors have emerged as promising candidates for miniaturized optoelectronic devices and a few novel proposals enabling the thinnest optical lenses in the scale of a few nanometers. Furthermore, versatile platforms have experimentally been demonstrated for creating dynamically reconfigurable focusing devices. All these examples make the scene of new concepts and materials for the design and fabrication of the next generation metalenses.
\nHere, we present a review including the recent advances in the field of gradient-metasurfaces lenses. For that purpose, we first introduce the fundamental analysis enabling the control of the wavefront with metasurface structures. We then look into primary designs based on holey metallic screens and nanoslits with variant widths and more recent proposals based on nano-antenna resonators. Next we analyze in detail innovative assemblies including all-dielectric high-index nanoresonators as the constituents of the metasurface. A special emphasis will be set in atomically thin lenses enabling the thinnest lenses to date. Holographic lenses are also examined and we present the possibilities that they could offer in numerous useful applications. Finally, we consider reconfigurable lenses allowing the design of powerful new functionalities.
Conventional refractive lenses rely on gradual phase accumulation via light propagation through a bulk material polished to a specific surface topology to shape the incident beam. In general terms, metamaterial lenses will mold the phase front curvature of the light passing through the constituents of the photonic device. For the waves of individual building blocks to be in phase at the focal distance
where
Fresnel zone plate lenses are practical energy collectors, which are currently in use in the electromagnetic spectrum spanning from the microwave to X-rays. The principle of operation of Fresnel zone plate lenses is based on the wave nature of light. The wavefront arriving at the lens is divided into sections, or zones. The specifications employed to characterize these zones are well established in the literature. For simplicity, let us first consider a central nanoslit and a set of off-axis nanoslits suitably placed in the metallic film. In the transmissive mode, the amplitude of the diffracted field is in practical terms zero in the plane immediately behind the zones where the metal is deposited. The phase difference between the light radiated from the
In recent years, metallic nanostructures based on surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) and exhibiting extraordinary enhancement of transmission is appealing for researchers. The conversion from SPP waves, which can propagate inside slits and holes much smaller that the wavelength, to propagation waves in the quasi-far-field region takes place by diffraction from the subwavelength zones of a given zone plate metalens. In this way, it was experimentally demonstrated that a Ag film-based microzone plate can combine such SPP wave effect and Fresnel zone plate focusing together [11]. Further noble metals such as gold can be used instead. In the cases given above, plasmonic waves do not contribute to far-field focusing. Importantly, the lens performance is significantly altered for the incidence in different polarization directions.
\nFollowing the basic proposal given above, a nano-focusing structure was experimentally demonstrated with high focusing efficiencies and easy fabrication by using a T-shape microslit surrounded by multislits in Au films [12]. In practical terms, it should be taken into account the propagation loss of SPPs owing to the Ohmic loss of Au and the fabrication roughness by focused ion beam (FIB). To realize the focusing, the T-shape microslit (microslit width of
As a natural progress in the field, numerous types of Fresnel 2D zone metalenses subsequently appeared including for instance circular and elliptical nanopinholes. In Ref. [13], an optical nanosieve with circular symmetry was proposed, which is composed of 7240 subwavelength holes located at 22 concentric rings, where the holes in each ring are uniformly allocated and equally sized. However, more sophisticated designs can be found. For instance, light can concentrate into multiple, discrete spots by exploiting an evolutionary algorithm to optimize a structured optical material based on the discretization of a surface into a two-dimensional subwavelength lattice [14]. Polarization can be controlled by using the slits as antennas, as shown in Figure 1, acting as local linear polarizers. In such a way one may modulate an optical field in amplitude, binary phase and polarization for the cross-polarized component of the scattered field, for the generation of vectorial optical fields [15].
SEM image of a slot-antenna-based metalens with 450 μm diameter. (a) Overall structure from top view. (b) Part of ring for the area enclosed with red solid line in (a). (c) Zoomed-in picture for the area enclosed with yellow-dashed line in (b). Reprinted with permission from [
In some circumstances, the number of slits and any other kind of aperture mapping a metallic thin layer can be substantially reduced in order to generate a focused beam. One of the first experimental examples we found consists of a subwavelength annular aperture made on a silver film, where the transmitted light of a 442 nm incident laser was focused at several micrometers behind the silver structure at a tiny spot (354 nm), also exhibiting a remarkable depth of focus [16]. The resultant wave field is essentially a quasi-nondiffracting Bessel beam, whose depth of focus and transverse central spot can be tuned by changing the diameter of the subwavelength annular aperture. More recently, a logarithmic spiral nanoslit was proposed to converge an incident wave field of opposite handedness to that of the nanoslit into a subwavelength spot, a fact that is caused by a strong dependence on the incident photon spin [17]. By varying the nanoslit width, different incident wavelengths interfere constructively at different positions, thus configuring a sort of switchable and focus-tunable structure, as depicted in Figure 2. Anyhow, such inherent dispersive behavior attributed to diffraction can be corrected [18], enabling ultra-broadband achromatic focusing that is necessary for some applications. These kinds of lenses were recently fabricated using single-step grayscale lithography, where linear grooves with a designed height are set on a photoresist [19].
Right-hand logarithmic spiral exhibiting a broadband response under left-hand circularly polarized illumination. Reprinted with permission from [
A new idea in optical imaging has emerged which exploits the recently predicted and observed effect of optical super-oscillations. The key element of this new super-resolution technique is a super-oscillatory lens, which is a nanostructured mask that creates a focus beyond the diffraction limit, in principle of any prescribed size, without the contribution of evanescent waves [20]. However, the subwavelength hotspot is created in a low-intensity super-oscillatory region, thus only receiving a minimal fraction of the total power, with a simultaneous larger high-intensity halo, the latter limiting the field of view of this focusing device in imaging.
\nOne of the first experimental demonstrations of super-oscillatory metalenses consisted of a quasicrystal array of nanoholes in a metal screen producing bright foci sparsely distributed in the focal plane [21]. Although nearly any array of small holes will create a diffraction pattern of foci when illuminated by a point source, a suitable choice of nanohole pattern is required for lensing applications [22]. Particularly, a Penrose array of 200 nm holes enables to generate an isolated hotspot of electromagnetic radiation at some distances [23]. Furthermore, a displacement of the point source leads to a linear shift of the image point, thus mimicking a function of the lens.
\nTo design the binary mask, the radial coordinate can be divided into a number of concentric annuli, each of which had either unit or zero transmittance. In Ref. [24] 25 transparent regions of varying size was finally reached. Specifically, the ring pattern of the super-oscillatory lens with outer diameter of 40 μm was manufactured by FIB milling of a 100-nm-thick aluminum film supported on a round glass substrate and mounted as a microscope illuminating lens. When illuminated with a laser at
Surface plasmon polaritons cannot be used directly to focus light by free-space propagation since they propagate at the interface between a metal and a dielectric. SPPs and free-space beams are often coupled through periodic gratings. A metal grating with a period Λ on top of the metal layer provides an additional wave vector, in such a way that an incoming electromagnetic wave at an angle
where
By employing holographic-based techniques for modulating the grating, one can systematically control the amplitude and phase of the coupled free-space beam. Thus, a planar beam transformer can be obtained by means of gratings with different periods for the input and output coupling. Following such procedure, in Ref. [26] it was experimentally demonstrated the coupling of SPPs into focused free-space beams, as shown in Figure 3, as well as into accelerating airy beams and vortex beams.
(a) Illustration of gratings enabling coupling and decoupling into SPPs. (b) 1D lens generated by output coupling of the SPP wave through a grating with quadratic phase. (c) Cross-section of the generated free-space beam. Adapted with permission from [
Much earlier, it was theoretically shown how, by patterning the exit plane of an aperture in a metal film, the angular distribution of the transmitted light in the far-field region can be shaped, producing highly focused beams at resonant wavelengths [27]. Since the diffracted beams are modulated by the nanometric grooves, through adjusting the parameters of the grooves such as their width, depth, period and number, the diffracted beams can be fully manipulated resulting in a tailored ultracompact lens [28]. The architecture can exhibit radial symmetry, so the plasmonic lens would consist of an annular slit and concentric grooves which, under radially polarized illumination, produces a focus spot. With a proper design, the inherent chromatic dispersion can be compensated and thus focusing dual-wavelength SPPs to the same focal plane [29]. Furthermore, the manipulation of plasmonic beaming fields can be based on the variation of dielectric surface gratings instead of using grooves. Plasmonic off-axis beaming and focusing of light by the use of asymmetric or nonperiodic dielectric gratings around a metallic slit has been experimentally demonstrated in Ref. [30].
\nNote that the present procedure based on plasmonics is suitable for terahertz beamforming. In this case, metallic grooves with a subwavelength spacing can couple to free-space propagating wave fields by means of spoof surface plasmon polaritons. Bullseye structures made of concentric scatterers periodically incorporated at a wavelength scale experimentally have demonstrated the launching of surface waves into free space to define a focal beam [31].
In this section we consider different proposals to locally modulate the effective index of refraction undergone by wave fields traversing the apertures that constitute a metalens. The basic degrees of freedom include changing the width of the slits, assuming a cylindrical holey lens, their relative positions and the shape of the entrance and exit surfaces. An early idea inspired in thick left-handed metamaterial lenses is based on creating metallic lenses with curved surfaces, resembling glass lenses in their shape, such that each nanoslit transmits light with a phase retardation which is controlled by the metal thickness [32]. However, efficient fabrication processes may benefit from keeping the film thickness fixed but tailoring alternate geometrical parameters of the holey metallic device. Shi et al. first proposed a lens design based on an array of nanoslits which have constant depth but variant widths [33]. The variation of the slit width is associated with a change in the effective index of the transmitted field mode. The latter principle of operation was massively followed by others.
\nThe basic building block of the patterned metallic lens is a narrow slit surrounded by metallic walls. By illuminating with a plane wave whose electric field is polarized perpendicularly to the orientation of the slits, the fundamental transverse magnetic (TM) mode is excited in the metal-insulator-metal structure following a dispersion relationship as
\nwhich relates the modal propagation constant
Verslegers et al. reported the first experimental demonstration of far-field lensing using this type of gradient-index nanoslit array [35, 36]. The fabricated planar lens consists of an array of nanoscale slits, with range in width from 80 nm at the center of the array to 150 nm on the side, in an optically thick gold film, as illustrated in Figure 4. The gold film is evaporated onto a fused silica substrate using electron beam evaporation, which is later patterned by milling through the film. After this exploratory finding, the interest for gradient-index metalens grew tremendously followed by a large number of experimental studies. For instance, Chen et al. [37] fabricated plasmonic lenses in the visible range using nanoslits in an aluminum film.
Planar lens based on nanoscale slit array in metallic film. (a) Geometry of the gradient-index lens. The inset shows a scanning electron micrograph of the structure as viewed from the air-side. (b) Focusing pattern measured by confocal scanning optical microscopy. (c) Finite-difference frequency-domain simulated focusing pattern of the field intensity through the center of the slits. Reprinted with permission from [
Flat metalenses offer some advantageous accessibility to manufacture and integrate in complex devices; however, they suffer from severe geometrical restrictions to attain extremely high numerical apertures. An alternative design relies on sculpturing a concave surface. In such manner an aplanatic metasurface patterned on a spherical substrate has been proposed to focus light without coma and spherical aberrations [38]. Note that nonplanar metacoatings composed of subwavelength metal-dielectric arrays can not only focus an incoming light [39] but also let it accelerate in the near field [40]. Such basic concept can be utilized to engineer gradient-index ultrathin coatings, in a parallelizable assembly, as focusing elements with high efficiency [41, 42].
\nDifferently from works conducted previously by other groups, it was investigated by numerical simulations and experiments the manipulation of an incident electric field that is parallel to the slits (TE-polarized plane wave) passing through arrays of nanometric spatially varying near-resonant slits perforated in a silver film [43]. Slits illuminated with the TE polarization exhibit a cut-off wavelength together with a resonance for transmission, enabling a fast phase modulation of the transmitted field, which is absent in the case of the TM polarization. Similarly, the dispersion of metal-dielectric-metal plasmonic waveguides is exploited to artificially mimic an epsilon-near-zero medium at optical wavelengths by working near the cut-off of the TE1 mode [44].
\nAn important drawback of the nanoslit lens design is its polarization dependence, which can be eliminated by extending the concepts of gradient-index metalenses into two dimensions. For example, a planar, holey metal lens was experimentally made as a set of concentric circular arrays of nanoscale holes milled in a subwavelength-thick metal film [45]. In this case, each nanohole used as a phase-shifting element acts as a finite-length, circular, single-mode waveguide with a radius-dependent mode index.
\nNote that laterally propagating SPPs excited by the periodic nanohole array play an important role in light transmission through a metal-dielectric hole array. Therefore, the novel idea is not exploiting propagating waves in a plasmonic waveguide but using resonances. An early experimental demonstration of two-dimensional focusing was based on planar plasmonic lenses formed by an array of subwavelength cross-shaped apertures in a thin metal film, where the apertures have dimensions that vary spatially across the device. In this case, the lenses utilize localized surface plasmon resonances occurring within the apertures that are accompanied by controlled phase shifts in the transmitted field by means of a modulation of the arm length of the crosses [46].
\nAs an important category of the gradient-index metalenses, focusing elements based on semiconductor high-contrast gratings has been widely investigated. The basic geometry of the high-contrast grating consists of an array of nanoscale ridges completely surrounded by low refractive index materials (e.g., air). By using a nonperiodic design of the subwavelength grating pattern allows a dramatic control of the phase front of the reflected beam, without affecting the high reflectivity of the mirror [47]. Note that wavefront-engineered diffraction gratings also enable high aperture three-dimensional focusing in free space. As an example, Figure 5 shows a grating structure, made of amorphous silicon on a glass substrate, which is designed by locally modulating the period and duty cycle of the grating for a wavelength of 980 nm and optimized for operation in reflection, normal incidence and TM polarization [48]. In particular, a path-finding algorithm allows to find a path in the parameter space of the grating that continuously connects two points of the desired phase evolution.
Scanning micrograph of the entire fabricated grating lens for
In a complementary scheme, one may design a metalens by writing a space-variant nanograting which results in a space-variant effective birefringence. Then, by suitably engineering the local orientation of the nanograting, a Pancharatnam-Berry phase lens can be achieved [49]. In Ref. [50] it was reported a dielectric gradient metasurface optical element with a 120-nm-wide and 100-nm-high Si nanobeam as a basic building block. When the metalens is uniformly illuminated from the substrate side with right circularly polarized light at a wavelength of 550 nm, it concentrates light into a left circularly polarized focal spot.
Metasurfaces have their conceptual roots in early works on subwavelength gratings. The concept of optical phase discontinuities provides a different path for designing flat lenses and has been used in the demonstration of metasurfaces capable of beaming light in directions characterized by generalized laws of reflection and refraction [51]. Under this approach, the control of the wavefront no longer relies on the phase shift accumulated during the propagation of light but is achieved by radiation as it scatters off the optically thin resonators comprising the metasurface.
\nLight focusing was experimentally demonstrated in free space at telecom wavelength using a 60-nm-thick gold metasurface [52] as shown in Figure 6. In the fabricated metalens with 3 cm focal distance, eight different plasmonic V-shaped antennas were designed to scatter light in cross-polarization with relatively constant amplitudes and an incremental phase of
SEM image of the fabricated lens (left). The corresponding phase shift profile is displayed on the right. Insets: close up of patterned antennas. Reprinted with permission from [
Instead of molding linearly polarized wave fields, suitable designs of the elementary resonant nano-antennas and their spatial distribution can be used to manipulate the wavefronts and polarization of azimuthally polarized and radially polarized light. By means of elliptical optical antennas, which instead of converting one linear polarization to the other as in previous works, enable incident right-handed circularly polarized light to be almost converted into left-handed circularly polarized light [54]. In the latter case, the abrupt phase change occurs for circularly polarized light that is converted to its opposite helicity, in such a way that the created focused light carries orbital angular momentum.
\nOne can apply the same working principle by exploiting the shift of wave vector that results from the geometric Pancharatnam-Berry phase. For instance, a plasmonic bipolar lens consisting of dipole nano-antennas with controlled directional orientation was designed to exhibit helicity-controllable real and virtual focal planes, as well as magnified and demagnified imaging at visible and near-infrared wavelengths [55]. We point out that, also, gradient-rotation split-ring antenna metasurfaces were designed and experimentally demonstrated as spin-to-orbital angular momentum beam converters to simultaneously generate and separate pure optical vortices [56].
\nIn contrast to conventional nano-antennas, it is possible to use an inverted design built on Babinet’s principle. In this case, similarly shaped nano-voids (Babinet-inverted, or complementary nano-antennas) have been milled in a thin metallic film, which provides a significantly higher signal-to-noise ratio [57]. More recently, helical devices composed of more than 121 thousands of spatially rotated nanosieves have been fabricated to achieve full manipulations of optical vortices by controlling the geometric phase of spin light, enabling for instance to create multifoci vortex lenses [58]. This approach has been also utilized in the development of innovative terahertz imaging systems.
\nThe metasurfaces demonstrated so far are conveniently designed to manipulate only the phase profile of the outgoing electromagnetic waves. A complete manipulation of the propagation of light, on the other hand, requires simultaneous control of amplitude and phase. To implement this approach for governing both phase and amplitude, a metasurface was designed that consists of C-shaped antennas. The scattered fields from both the symmetric and antisymmetric modes contribute to an orthogonally polarized output wave, whose phase and amplitude can be engineered by adjusting the shape parameters of the antenna [59]. By employing the designed C-shape split-ring resonators, a metasurface with a hyperboloidal phase profile is arranged to engineer the transmitted wavefront in the same way as a conventional lens. This architecture enabling scattered fields with controlled phase and amplitude distribution has also inspired the design of holographic-based multifocal metalenses [60].
\nIn connection with Fresnel zone plates discussed in Section 2, it is worth noting that metasurfaces consisting of cross-shaped and rod-shaped optical nano-antennas can be used to construct diffractive lenses. Since the transmission function of the optical nano-antenna depends on its resonance, by creating metasurfaces out of wavelength and polarization selective optical nano-antennas, the total transmission function can be modulated and construct a metalens that operates as a binary-amplitude Fresnel zone plate.
A vast majority of previous designs based on plasmonic metasurfaces and gratings cannot provide a performance comparable to conventional curved lenses. The implementation of Huygens’ sources at optical frequencies utilizing the strong electric and magnetic resonances of high-permittivity all-dielectric nanoparticles in the near-IR spectral range is currently a very active route. Using dielectric nanoresonators as phase shift elements, metasurfaces enable wavefront molding with experimental demonstrations of beam bending and lensing [61]. For instance, cylindrical converging wave fields can be produced by means of a lens consisting of an aperiodic arrangement of coupled rectangular dielectric resonators whose scattering phases are in addition engineered to achieve dispersion-free focusing at telecommunication wavelengths. The achromatic metalens can be fabricated by depositing 400 nm amorphous silicon on a fused silica substrate, where the rectangular dielectric resonators were defined by electron-beam lithography [62]. Such metalenses address an increased need for low-cost, lightweight and compact optical elements that can easily be assembled to electronic and mechanical components.
\nMany more proposals based on all-dielectric metasurfaces can be found in the literature to produce spherical wavefronts. Full-phase coverage combined with high efficiency in transmission are experimentally confirmed using for instance silicon nanodisks and square silicon ridges [63]. Utilizing lithographically patterned arrays of elliptical silicon nanowires enables in addition to control the birefringence of the material and thus to create dynamically reconfigurable lenses in response to the polarization of the illumination.
\nParticularly interesting is the reported high-NA lens illustrated in Figure 7, which is composed of dielectric nanoposts that are fabricated in an amorphous silicon film [64]. Such polarization-insensitive, micron-thick, high-contrast transmitarray microlens produces a focal spot as small as 0.57
(a) Schematic illustration of the aperiodic high-contrast transmitarray used to realize a high-NA dielectric microlens. (b) Optical microscope image of the fabricated metalens with large NA. Scale bar, 100 µm. (c and d) SEM images of the silicon posts forming the microlens. Scale bars, 1 µm. Reprinted with permission from [
Silicon can be replaced by new high-index dielectric materials for the assembly of efficient focusing metasurfaces. For example, a metalens that consists of TiO2 nanofins on a glass substrate has been designed and fabricated, with a NA = 0.8 and an efficiency as high as 86% in the visible range [66]. In this case, the required phase is conferred by rotation of the nanofin according to the geometric Pancharatnam-Berry phase, showing that they are able to provide diffraction-limited focal spots at arbitrary design wavelengths. Note that these sort of planar metalenses exhibit super-dispersive characteristics, enabling for instance to simultaneously form two images with opposite helicity of an object within the same field-of-view.
The inclusion of active tunability in static plasmonic devices greatly enhances their functionality. Index-variable materials are often incorporated in plasmonic devices and optical metasurfaces, including liquid crystals, vanadium dioxide, silicon and other materials. Thus, one may manipulate the optical phase of the guided modes excited in graded-index metalenses in order to achieve a certain degree of tunability in the focusing behavior of the photonic device. Perhaps one of the first proposals consisted of embedding nonlinear media in the slit region of metallic nano-optic lens in such a way that the focal length can be easily controlled by means of the intensity of incident light in the structures [67].
\nAs mentioned above, the slits of a holey metalens can be filled with liquid crystals to take advantage of their index changing property. In this case, the focal length can be easily controlled by exposing the plasmonic metalens to a constant external electric field, where the change in refractive index is directly converted into a locally modulated phase shift for the incident light. Ishii et al. experimentally showed that the irradiance as well as the transmission profile are altered provided that the liquid crystals change their phase from the nematic state to the isotropic state [68]. Such approach also allows electric and magnetic resonances to be spectrally tuned in all-dielectric metasurfaces as well as switching of the anisotropy (temperature-dependent) of the optical response of the device [69].
\nA novel planar metalens shown in Figure 8, which consists of an array of slits that are filled with phase-change material Ge2SB2Te5 (GST), has also been proposed to engineer the far-field focusing patterns [70]. By varying the crystallization level of GST from 0 to 90%, the transmitted electromagnetic phase modulation supported inside each slit can be as large as 0.56
(a) SEM image of the fabricated planar lens before sputtering GST. (b, c and d) Focusing pattern by confocal scanning optical microscopy for amorphous GST in all slits without crystallization and GST being crystallized in the selected slits; insets show numerical simulations. (e, f and g) The calculated phase fronts (blue curves) and the binarized discrete phase distributions (red circles) which are anticipated from the samples in (b), (c) and (d), respectively. Reprinted with permission from [
In the teraherz regime one may fill the slit array with InSb to create a plasmonic lens with tunable focal length by simply controlling the temperature. When an external magnetic field is applied, the cyclotron frequency of high electron mobility semiconductors such as InSb locates also in THz frequencies, enabling to tune the dielectric properties of the magneto-optical material. Based on the magneto-optical effect, a tunable metal/magneto-optic plasmonic lens for terahertz isolator was introduced which, in addition, exhibits the nonreciprocal transmission property [72].
\nPlanar diffractive microfluidic lenses with switchable properties have also been reported, in particular integrating controlled dielectrophoresis for trapping suspended silicon and tungsten oxide nanoparticles [73]. These nanomaterials can be trapped to produce alternating opaque and transparent rings using the dielectrophoresis forces, thus suitably forming diffractive Fresnel zone plates capable to focus the incident light. The Fresnel zone plate is tuned for the visible light region and the lens can be turned on (dielectrophoresis applied) or off (dielectrophoresis removed) in a controlled manner.
\nGraphene, indium tin oxide and vanadium dioxide have been frequently employed, owing to their large optical tunability as a function of either voltage or temperature. For instance, the Fermi level of graphene can be easily tuned by applying bias voltage, which, in turn, affects the resonance of nearby plasmonic structures. As a result, active metasurfaces capable of delivering efficient real-time control and complex-amplitude manipulation have been proposed, as we will also analyze in the next section devoted to atomically thin metalenses.
\nActive tunability can also exploit the benefits of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). In these techniques, the substrate supporting for the metallic structures itself moves and shifts the plasmonic resonances. As an example, the active plasmon lens shown in Ref. [74] combines a MEMS structure with a metallic width-variant nanoslit lens. The active lens has five movable nanoslits whose widths can be controlled by an external bias, allowing focusing or defocusing of the diffracted light via controlling the phase front. In the reported experiments, a 5-V bias can modify the slit widths initially fixed at
The ultrathin metalens fabricated by Capasso et al. [52], which is based on plasmonic nanoresonators with a thickness of only 60 nm, was considered to be a milestone in the current photonic nanotechnology. As graphene is one of the thinnest and probably most promising materials nowadays, it was used for the design of atomically thin Fresnel zone plates, where in addition the lens performance can be tuned by adjusting the Fermi level of graphene and the number of layers. Early experimental demonstrations of graphene-based metalenses appeared soon after. Monolayers and multilayers of graphene were fabricated and giving form to Fresnel zones in order to produce diffractive lenses, allowing to operate in the visible and near-infrared frequency range [76]. In the reflection mode, the focusing efficiency increases with an increasing number of graphene layers. Figure 9 shows a graphene Fresnel zone plate with a radius of about 50 µm and containing 24 zones, where the average surface roughness was measured as 3.47 nm, which corresponds to approximately 10 layers of graphene. In order to demonstrate the thinnest possible metalens, a single layer of graphene was also successfully patterned lithographically onto a thick glass. The graphene lenses were found to be thinner and easier to fabricate compared to the metasurface-based lenses, having the potential to revolutionize the design of compact optical systems, such as laser focusing for optical storage and fiber optic communication.
(a) AFM image of single graphene Fresnel zone plate. (b) Roughness distribution along the blue line. Reprinted with permission from [
Graphene has been demonstrated to support surface plasmon polaritons and, thereby, represents an attractive alternative to metals for the design of plasmonic metasurfaces. Furthermore, graphene conductivity can be dynamically controlled by an external stimulus such as electric and/or magnetic field, voltage, or temperature and therefore the optical response of the metamaterial device potentially exhibits a versatile tunability. Metasurfaces based on 1D graphene nanoribbons, periodically patterned graphene nanocrosses, or alternatively nano-antenna plasmonic metasurfaces integrating single-layer graphene, have experimentally evidenced their capability to manipulate the wavefront of light, thereby used to create ultrathin lenses [77–79]. Moreover, a graphene cut-wire layer introducing a discontinuous Pancharatnam-Berry phase profile has been proposed as integrated in a metal-dielectric-graphene three-layer structure to improve the interaction of graphene nanostructures with incident waves [80]. By arranging two different graphene cut-wire resonators in one unit cell, one can excite two resonances and, as a result, 2
2D materials other than graphene can offer a superior performance for some specific applications and frequency ranges. For instance, a single-layer molybdenum disulfide provides an extremely high optical path length, which is roughly one order of magnitude larger in comparison with that experienced from a single layer of graphene. Such a giant optical path length has been exploited to design and fabricate probably the world’s thinnest optical lens, enabling to curve the plane phase front of an optical beam within less than 6.3 nm thick that constitute a few layers of MoS2 [81]. The bowl-shaped structure is 20 µm in diameter, where the MoS2 thickness is gradually changed by using a FIB, thus serving as an atomically thin reflective concave lens. In addition, the refractive index of the layered MoS2 can be largely tuned by applying an electric field, allowing the fabrication of microlenses with electrically tunable focal lengths.
In summary, we have reviewed and discussed the significant recent progress in the field of far-field metalenses in optical applications. The devices analyzed here exhibit important features directed toward solving the main objections related to conventional metamaterial lenses, such as transmission losses and fabrication. Some of the greatest achievements in this area are the staggering progress of current nanofabrication techniques, which have a higher capacity of resolution at the nanometer scale, the development of new materials enabling an increased performance in optical and IR metalenses and the design of novel subwavelength nanostructures with improved functionality. A number of proposals include tunability which allows the dynamic manipulation of complex wave fields, commonly on the diffraction limit and the versatile reconfiguration of metalenses. Owing to its countless advantages in terms of size, manufacturing simplicity and the wide range of applications, the metalenses may be considered indispensable elements conducting future optical devices such as integrated photonics, super-resolving imaging, optical trapping and quantum optics, to mention a few.
The field of sports nutrition studies how food and other dietary supplements can improve performance and general health status of physically active subjects, or athletes (both recreational and professional). Usually, recreational physical activity aims to obtain the healthy benefits which can include improved mood and movement in daily physical activities, aesthetic reasons and maintenance of health status. On the other hand, competitive athletes (especially elite athletes) pursue to peak performance.
For this reason, the first category of subjects would prefer including functional foods and change their overall diet by healthier choices (whatever definition is in their minds), while competitive subjects might prefer a combination of nutritional strategies with promising dietary supplements. Surveys vary much to this respect, but statistics estimated that between 40 and 100% of athletes typically uses supplements such as sports foods, medical supplements, ergogenic supplements and functional foods (super foods) [1, 2]. Amaranth is a pseudo-cereal which has many edible parts like seeds and leaves and by-products (like amaranth oil, flour and powder) which has been attributed to many health benefits.
The area of sports nutrition studying all these aspects is an emerging field which shows some evidence showing efficacy for active compounds, while others still need further quality research to draw reliable initial conclusions. This chapter reviews the existing literature of amaranth applied to the sports field and discusses the potential application of amaranth and its derivate products to sports and their functional value supported by the existing clinical and empirical data.
The number of published research articles of amaranth with physically active human population is still scarce. The few studies found (through Google Scholar and PubMed search engines) at the time of writing this article are summarised in Table 1. Two of the three articles found employed amaranth oil, while the other employed a different product (amaranth drink instead of amaranth oil). To our best knowledge, only one of the studies assessed amaranth supplementation in an exercise test, while the other two studies used athletic population to measure aerobic metabolism parameters and cardiovascular parameters (heart rate variability). Furthermore, the only trial with an exercise test administered an amaranth drink, while most of the clinical literature addresses the functional properties of amaranth oil—without a single clinical trial with exercise tests in athletic population to our best knowledge. Due to the small amount of exercise test-related data, it is not feasible to obtain strong conclusions of the contribution of amaranth products to sports, according to various guidelines to assess the level of clinical evidence [3, 4].
Title | N | Trial design | Test | Supplementation protocol | Outcome/s |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
The influence of an amaranth-based beverage on cycling performance: a pilot study [28] | 6 trained cyclists (5 men and 1 woman) | Randomised, counterbalanced, cross-over trial | 2 time trials (TT): 10 minutes of warm-up, 32.20 km, 10 minutes of recovery, and 5 km | Periodic intake of 150 ml of an amaranth based (52.48 kcal/100 ml) or commercial drink (24 kcal/100 ml) rich in carbohydrates, every 10 minutes through the first TT and recovery time | ↓ Time to complete 1st TT Trend to decreased time to complete 2nd TT (p = 0.06) No significant changes in rate or perceived exertion (RPE), muscular power during the TT or haematocrit |
Activation of aerobic metabolism by amaranth oil improves heart rate variability both in athletes and patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus [15] | 36 patients with diabetes mellitus type 2 (DM) (20 male and 16 female) 24 national level athletes (16 male and 8 female) | Comparative study | Heart rate variability (HRV) (standing and orthostatic test) Aerobic metabolism (by lipid peroxidation/antioxidant activity and blood haemoproteins) | 1 ml of concentrated amaranth oil ( | In the athlete group: ↑ HRV Haemoglobin ligands were redistributed ↑ levels of oxidative destruction products Moderate strength correlations of HRV with aerobic metabolism found |
Study of aerobic metabolism parameters and heart rate variability and their correlations in elite athletes: a modulatory effect of amaranth oil [12] | 68 (36 competitive male athletes and 32 healthy males) | Comparative study | HRV and autonomic profile Oxidative stress (catalase activity, superoxide dismutase, oxidatively modified proteins) Middle mass molecules Haemoglobin (Hb) and its ligands (oxyHb-, carboxyHb, sulfHb and metHb) | 1 ml of concentrated amaranth oil ( | ↑ HRV in both groups ↓ HbO2 percentage ↑ HbCO, HbS and MetHb Moderate correlation of HRV with some aerobic metabolism and oxidative damage markers was found |
Summary of studies that used Amaranth in physically active population. Search was conducted through Google Scholar and PubMed search engines.
There is a good
Among amaranth products, the most studied by its functional properties is perhaps amaranth oil. Amaranth oil possesses large quantities of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) especially linoleic acid (LA) (38.2%) (the most important FA in the omega-6 family) and oleic acid (33.3%) [5]. Action of PUFAs on heart rate variability was previously linked to omega-3 fatty acids (FAs) [6] translated in heart rate recovery after exercise partly attributed to incorporation in myocardial cells, affecting cardiovascular performance [7, 8, 9]. However, amaranth oil has a small quantity of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) (compared to other seeds like walnuts and flaxseed oil [10] which are the one addressed to improve performance in sports [11]).
In spite of this fact, amaranth oil was studied in athletes showing activation of aerobic metabolism (important in long distances and low- to medium-intensity sports), concomitant with clinical biomarkers showing an improved utilisation of oxidation waste products (lipid peroxidation products), showing improved heart rate variability (HRV) [12], which is related with a better physical performance condition [13, 14]. This happened also in another study also for the group patients with diabetes mellitus 2 [15] later confirmed by studies in unhealthy subjects (duodenal peptic ulcer patients) [16].
Another mechanism in which amaranth can contribute to aerobic performance is through participation in the nitric oxide pathway, thanks to its nitrate and nitrite composition. Dietary nitrate is firstly converted to nitrite by the oral microflora [17, 18] and then can enter into the system. A study with healthy human subjects supplemented with 2 g of amaranth extract showed a significant increase in plasma nitrate and nitrite, lasting up to 8 hours after administration [19].
Nitric oxide (NO) is important in physiological processes that may enhance exercise performance [20, 21, 22]. Some studies showed amaranth extract capacity to increase nitrite and nitrate in plasma, which is expected to increase the production of nitric oxide [19] (previously seen in cell cultures [23] and animal models [24]). Nitric oxide has been linked to improved endurance performance by reducing the oxygen cost during exercise, increasing the efficiency of energy production [25] (through an increase in mitochondrial efficiency [26] and ATP turnover functions [27]). Nitric oxide dietary supplements are widely consumed among athletes, and therefore future employment of amaranth extracts in new powder sports products (like pre-workouts) could be enticing if its efficacy is clinically validated.
Amaranth components and ingredients can be used both as an ergogenic aid or a healthy food depending on the glycaemic index (GI) (the speed at which glucose appears in the bloodstream). High-glycaemic index foods have been attributed to higher conversion in triglycerides (fat) but may be of interest when, after a workout, our aim is to provide a fast source of carbohydrates to quickly restore muscle glucose stores (glycogen). Previous work stated that after exercise, a transitory physiological phenomenon called “metabolic window” (also referred as “anabolic window”) occurs, so that utterly every carbohydrate (glucose) is synthesised to muscle glycogen and therefore stored the “healthy way” (not converted into fat).
A study with women showed that a snack with extruded amaranth presented a significantly higher GI (107) and insulinemic response than white bread, which can be recommended to athletes with this purpose as a post-workout snack [29]. amaranth starch has low viscosity and high solubility, greater than wheat and corn starches, with little content in resistant starch which provides a high glycaemic ingredient that can be dissolved in high concentrations in water, with high digestibility [30] which can be used efficiently in post-workout drinks to quickly restore glycogen stores. However, outside this metabolic window, the interest could be to avoid high GI foods, so they are not concomitantly synthesised as lipids, which can increase our fat stores (mainly as fat tissue under the skin).
Replacement of some traditional products with amaranth-based products can represent a healthier option, when they present a low GI, as in amaranth-based breakfast cereals. However, the format employed is the most determinant factor for its GI, showing higher values for a popped amaranth (105.2) than a regular cereal (74.1) but significantly lower for amaranth cereals (45.9) [31]. This is in line with a study with diabetic patients in which a diet with different amaranth proportions (grain, popped amaranth and amaranth-wheat flour) showed that its employment can represent a low or high GI [32]. This should be taken in consideration by athletes to decide when to use each product.
Apart from amaranth nutritional properties as an ingredient, amaranth oil can also improve carbohydrate metabolism as a food supplement. Previous studies with animal models showed that amaranth grain and oil can exert a hypoglycaemic effect in diabetic [33, 34] and in postmenopausal women (n = 90) when administered with amaranth leaf powder [35], showing a decreased fasting blood glucose level. However, further research is needed to clarify its role in athletic population and if these clinical markers are translated in improvement of physical and/or biochemical markers and health condition.
The main benefit associated with amaranth in cardiovascular health is through amaranth oil (very likely its high squalene content). Squalene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon ranging from 2.4 to 8.0% [36, 37], which has a similar structure to beta-carotene, and is an intermediate metabolite in the synthesis of cholesterol [38].
Animal models showed a decrease in total level of cholesterol by amaranth grain [39, 40] and also of triglycerides, LDL cholesterol [41] and VLDL [33] in addition to the fatty acid composition of the membranes of erythrocytes by amaranth oil [42] later confirmed in human patients after taking 600 mg of squalene [43]. This was also found in a study with a larger number of patients (n = 125) with amaranth oil intake from 3 to 18 ml daily (3 ml provides 100 mg of squalene) for 3 weeks, showing a dose-dependent relation with also reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure [44].
In addition to its oil, other bioactive peptides have been found in amaranth with interesting applications to cardiovascular health. For example, globulin 11S [45] showed a potential to modulate the angiotensin system [through inhibition of angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE)] tested to be resistant to gastrointestinal hydrolysis in a simulated digestive environment [46], suggesting resistance to peptic hydrolysis by human digestion. Seed protein hydrolysates also showed antihypertensive effect in vivo [47], which was also the case for amaranth oil in pulmonary arterial hypertension, although a lot of clarification is required to this respect [48]. Other in vitro studies showed that the pure peptides of amaranth inhibit cellular markers associated with the development of atherosclerosis [49] (a disease strongly linked to coronary artery disease [50]).
Apart from its regular edible parts, amaranth leaf powder also showed a different action to cardiovascular markers by increasing haemoglobin levels after administration of 9 g daily (for 3 months) in postmenopausal women [35], in line with the effect of amaranth oil, which showed a shift in haemoglobin ligands in athletes [15]. A combination of amaranth edible parts (seeds, oils and flours) as part of the diet, combined with supplements of its bioactive compounds (as per its leaves and peptides), seems to be linked to the cardiovascular physiology to some extent.
The cardiovascular system is also comprised of the blood vessels, whose inner tissue (endothelium) health status is a determinant and plays an important factor in the energetic chain, due to its role in the interchange of nutrients and oxygen. To this respect, NO is an important signalling molecule that can improve endothelial function and, as previously discussed, can be enhanced by the dietary intake of nitrite present in amaranth extracts [19]. It should be noted that NO is usually produced during exercise in absence of dietary supplementation [51] and that improvements in endothelial function are not only dependent on the cells of the arteries but also by the bone marrow whose main stimulator is also the NO produced by exercising [52]. However, the growth factor which is important during the first stages of training adaptation becomes significantly reduced after significant angiogenesis has occurred [53], and therefore, external sources (like in amaranth extracts) that can improve the endothelial function are of high value to preserve its health integrity.
Probiotics and gut microbiota health are becoming popular among athletes and general population. Intense and strenuous exercise can impact gastrointestinal health status [54], while on the other hand, recent publications suggest that probiotics and gut microbiota are related to improved exercise performance [55]. Probiotics are an early field of study in sports nutrition, which can directly interact with gut microbiota and interact with the mucosal immune system and immune signalling to a variety of organs and systems [56].
Dietary fibre can serve as food for the microbiota, and to this respect, amaranth is a good source. Fibre from amaranth seeds is 78% insoluble (mainly composed of pectic substances: galacturonic acid, arabinose, galactose, xylose and glucose) and 22% soluble (mainly xyloglucans and arabinose-rich pectic polysaccharides) [57].
While clinical studies in humans are still missing to prove the effects of amaranth fibre to human microbiota, an in vitro study (emulating human intestinal ecosystems) suggests it has a probiotic effect, as it exerts some properties to specific culture of probiotic cultures [58], and a prebiotic effect (by increasing
In addition, amaranth protein is surprisingly a source of dietary fibre with prospective applications to sports nutrition, since protein concentrate powders are widely used among athletes in protein shakes, being the main product consumed by muscle builders. The soluble dietary fibre content or amaranth protein concentrate powder is notably higher [12.90 g/100 g on dry weight (dw)] than in its flour (4.29 g/100 g dw) also with higher content of insoluble fibre (20.69 g/100 g dw against 5.54 g/100 g) [62]. This kind of amaranth product would provide large amounts of fibre for the development of gut microbiota, being also a source of vegetable protein. Clinical studies with protein and probiotics (whey + probiotics) showed improved recovery (diminished exercise-induced muscle damage) in recreationally trained males [63], as well as an improved strength restoration [64], compared to only protein (whey: probably the most widely used protein powder). Further research should be carried to study if this behaviour is mimicked when vegetal proteins (like amaranth’s) are used, compared to that of milk (whey).
Polyphenols (the most abundant antioxidants in plants) have shown to improve athletic performance from large improvement to moderate impairment [65], while a meta-analysis showed an average improvement of 1.90% (95% CI 0.40–3.39) when at least supplemented by 7 days. They also have been blamed to impair training adaptations due to its antioxidative effects by chronic supplementation [66, 67, 68] which may hamper the development of antioxidant endogenous enzymes, while a recent review states that acute administration just before or during exercise can have beneficial effects [69]. Different parts of amaranth contain fractions of a variety of antioxidants which could be employed.
Amaranth sprouts are rich in red-coloured betacyanins—a subclass pigment belonging to the betalain family (and therefore a polyphenol)—with known antioxidant [68] and anti-inflammatory properties [70] in vitro [35], which at the same time can be applied to improve performance in sports. Betacyanins are also present in other red-coloured plants like beet [71, 72] still requiring studies in humans to clarify its bioavailability, which suggests being low [73].
In addition, amaranth seeds and sprouts showed antioxidant flavonoids (such as rutin) and phenolics (like gallic acid,
Clinical studies showed that supplementation with amaranth leaf powder in postmenopausal women showed a significant increase in the endogenous antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase with decrease in the marker of oxidative stress malondialdehyde [35]. These are developed as a consequence of oxidation provoked by training in physical exercise, but more research is required to assess any possible contribution of the described antioxidants of amaranth ingredients to trained athletes (which presumably have developed this endogenous antioxidant system to its highest) and its link to sports performance outcomes.
Early studies suggested that amino acid composition of amaranth grain protein had leucine as the limiting amino acid [75] (later confirmed in post-prandial analysis of children [76]), while it is pretty rich in lysine [62] and tryptophan [76] being suitable to combine with other cereals and provide a more balanced amino acid profile [77]. On the other hand, latter studies suggest that they are especially rich in the essential amino acids threonine and tryptophan [78] and that leucine and lysine are not the limiting amino acids in pseudo-cereals [79] (contrary to cereals) which are not true cereals from a botanical view and have nutritionally been considered as a mix of rice and beans. Protein in amaranth seeds is mainly in the embryo (instead of the endosperm) [80] showing also variation in their composition between species [81, 82]. Proteins have been appointed as the macronutrient with the most satiating effect [83] which can cause an improvement in body composition thanks to an increased satiety [84].
Protein powders which are popular among athletes can also include diverse forms like concentrates (the most common and cheap) or isolates (with virtually no carbohydrate fraction) and additionally be hydrolysed (with its proteins partly broken into smaller peptides and even amino acids). Protein hydrolysates of whey have shown to increase the insulin concentration due to a mechanism independent of gastric emptying, which can improve muscle repair by its accentuated anabolic response. Amaranth protein hydrolysate releases biopeptides which were investigated for its antihypertensive properties [47]. Studies in humans warrant further research in this field to study the same response in insulin of blood pressure in healthy and physically active population.
Nutritional strategies through special diets are a common resource used by athletes to reduce fat mass, increase muscle mass and improve health [85]. Among these diets we find raw food diets, gluten-free diets and vegan diets [86].
To this respect, amaranth is a gluten-free alternative source of carbohydrates which can be used in gluten-free diets [87]. Amaranth can be cooked in water, extruded (appearance is of pellet form, which could be used as breakfast cereals (for a picture see [88])), toasted, incorporated into flakes [89, 90] or pastas and baked into bread, biscuits and cookies, resulting in gluten-free bakery foodstuffs [91]. Some work has been done to try to develop grain amaranth-based nutrient-rich snack bars [92]. In Mexico,
On the other hand, amaranth protein is suitable for vegan diets of athletes, whose requirement in protein can be markedly high [86, 95] and whose nutritional value was previously discussed (see
Nutraceuticals are an area of recent research in which substances not traditionally associated with nutrients or drugs show physiological effect on the body [96]. The nutraceutical era is an emerging opportunity to find the inherent nutritional value in biology (like the functional value of amaranth discussed in this book) and requires an additional effort in its research to conduct robust and controlled clinical trials to throw light on the knowledge field. Compared to the research conducted in pharmacy, nutrition, nutraceuticals and dietary supplements in the sports nutrition field require clinical studies with good trial design and standardised products and ingredients. Uncontrolled factors, as the regular diet of subjects participating in a clinical trial, can contain one or different functional molecules that can affect the results of the trial, so its study as stand-alone substances is not so easy (and in fact is better controlled in clinical trials with patients staying in a hospital room). The following section focuses on some of the aspects that should be taken in consideration to conduct further high-quality research with amaranth.
Natural ingredients and by-products from plants are subject to a natural fluctuation in their composition and nutritional value (which can affect their functional effect) due to external factors or conversions until they are manufactured a final ingredient or product. These are some of the empirical data found in the literature when assessing the functional value of amaranth products used in clinical trials:
External factors during the growth of the crop, its manufacturing and conversion until a final product is created can affect the nutritional value of amaranth:
The lipidic content (which includes squalene) shows great variations depending on the species and genotype [37, 97] as well as the different parts of the seed [98].
Stress and other external crop factors can influence their nutritional value [99] and in consequence its clinical outcomes.
Enrichment with selenium of
Sunlight exposure of
Stress like climate changes and harsh conditions can affect seed’s morphology and nutritional value, which showed globulins paralogs and precursors in wild species, which could be a genetic source for improving the nutritional quality of amaranth seed [102].
Amaranth sprouting showed increased vitamin content (significantly in biotin, folic acid and especially riboflavin (vitamin B2) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) [103]) and decreased lipid and phytic acid content, which also is specie dependent [104].
Amaranth contains varying amounts of vitamin C depending on the species and part used, with around 69–288 mg/100 g in the grains and 62–209 mg/100 g [105], which is suggested to have an important role in the defence of exercise-induced oxidative stress [106].
Manufacturing of amaranth to final product is also an important stage in the consecution of a dietary supplement for administration in clinical trials. Amaranth oil is extracted by squeezing amaranth grain, which can be extracted by cold extraction (considered as a gold standard in the manufacture of virgin oils)—which should be a well-controlled process to assure integrity maintenance of the oil—or solvent extraction (which requires further purification). On the other hand, amaranth flours can be converted to breakfast cereals by puffing or extruded, both processes that can affect its integrity, which is also affected by heat if, for example, used in bakery.
These are some of the facts found in literature which found how extraction technologies can affect amaranth bioactives and their functionality:
Processing of amaranth may result in losses in protein content [107] as later confirmed by a study which abolished the sensitization potential of albumins with hypoallergenic properties in rats [108].
Heating can affect antioxidant capacity [109], and phytic acid content has shown to be significantly decreased after undergoing a low-cost extrusion process.
Storage conditions, as shown in a study which stored amaranth leaves, showed a reduction in beta-carotene of up to 85.0% [110] and a decrease in lysine of 4.8 and 9.6% in cracker and biscuits, respectively, after 4 months of storage [111].
Extrusion improved anti-inflammatory effect of bioactive peptide hydrolysates studied afterwards in rat models [112], while other studies state that antioxidant capacity (phenolic content) decreased on the favour of an improved digestibility (tested in vivo) [113].
Puffing to convert amaranth seeds into popped amaranth (breakfast cereal-like product)—probably the most popular breakfast amaranth product [114]—can influence its nutritive value by decreasing the unsaturation of PUFAs, mainly linoleic acid (from 46.8 to 27.0%) with increased squalenes (by 15.5%) [115].
In children, post-prandial amino acid analysis after the intake of toasted, popped or flaked amaranth consumption caused significant falls in leucine and threonine, suggesting that these were first- and second-limiting essential amino acids [76].
Natural fluctuation is difficult to control, but there is an alternative solution to control the active ingredients in a dietary ingredient or supplement: Standardisation
Standardisation consists with describing a set of technical standards to guarantee constant qualitative and quantitative parameters and therefore its safety, quality and efficacy [116]. According to the same authors, these are some of the problems associated with nutraceuticals (not happening in synthetic drugs):
They are a mixture of many constituents.
The active ingredient/s is/are in some cases unknown.
Selective analytical methods or reference compounds (standard samples) may not be commercially available.
Plant materials are chemically and naturally variable.
Chemo-varieties and cultivars exist.
The source and quality of the raw material are variable.
Therefore, further research should focus on proper analysis of the composition of the product used for the trials, and pursue to guarantee, that the target compound is found in enough amounts, and not other compounds which might affect the outcomes of its experiments. Application of manufacturing processes to isolate active compounds like squalenes (by fractionation and distillation), as shown in a study [117], may allow the isolation of them for its further clinical study.
Amaranth still requires further investigation in athletes and physically active healthy subjects to study its functional effect on sports performance. The few results suggest it can activate the aerobic metabolism.
Clinical results with human and animal population and in vitro assays suggest physiological mechanisms that can contribute to aerobic performance through activation of NO pathways, as a source of high and low glycaemic index carbohydrate, possible activation of gut flora (probiotic) which can be translated to athletic performance, antioxidant effect and employment of its protein and/or biopeptides.
Maintenance of athlete’s health can be obtained through amaranth properties on cardiovascular health, as a probiotic for gut microbiota, as a source of dietary antioxidants and as a suitable ingredient for special diets like gluten-free diets (of its flours) and vegan diets (as a vegetal protein).
Further research should consider amaranth natural fluctuation of its nutritive value by external factors and control its composition by thorough analysis or employment of standardised products and supplements.
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I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"