\r\n\tRisk management aims to develop an efficient organizational development environment through risk planning, assessment, analysis, and control. This process will apply in all areas of activity, and the evaluation framework is the same regardless of the field. This volume will aim to appeal to chapters that address methods, models, evaluation frameworks, benefits, barriers, and other dimensions of risk management. \r\n\tSustainability and the circular economy are approaches approached by many companies and have become activities of global interest. Protecting the environment, streamlining the consumption of organizational resources, reducing the amount of waste generated, and other activities are objectives of these efforts. The circular economy contributes to the sustainable development of the company or country and the achievement of the global objectives of sustainable development. This book will aim to collect various studies for organizational and global sustainability. \r\n\tLeadership has become a globally desirable approach that can help improve organizational competitiveness and reduce organizational risks. Risks and barriers in risk-free management can be well managed through effective organizational leadership. This book will aim to bring together chapters that explore different areas of leadership.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-218-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-991-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-219-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5d9c14d51cb7e214a9093c454eab1404",bookSignature:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu, Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean and Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11937.jpg",keywords:"Technical Risk, Occupational Risk, Operational Risk Management, Economic Risk, Financial Risk, Thematic Mapping, Global Sustainability, Sustainability Models, Life Cycle Assessment, Critical Raw Materials, Global Leadership, Risks",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ivascu obtained Ph.D. in Management and graduated with an MBA in Production and Transportation from the Faculty of Management, Politehnica University of Timisoara. She is the president of the scientific committee of the Academy of Political Leadership and vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management. Dr. Ivascu has been involved in national and international projects and has published nine books, and contributed scientifically to more than 200 scientific articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean obtained Ph.D. in Political Science and Ph.D. in Theology; he has extensive academic and political experience. He is the author of several books and numerous academic articles. He is highly preoccupied with supporting those in need, helping others to help themselves, and motivating people to live a life of purpose, love, and compassion. 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1. Introduction
Currently, more than 1200 sheep breeds differing in many production features, including fertility, are known globally. Ewes usually give birth to one or two lambs/litter. However, there are certain highly prolific breeds—such as inter alia Cambridge, Thoka, Javanese, Belclare, Lacaune, Woodland, Booroola, Aragonesa, Romney (Inverdale and Hanna), Garole (Bengal), Belle‐ile, small‐tailed Han, Hu and Kendrapada—whose litter size ranges from three to six lambs. Genetically conditioned differences in number of maturing and ovulating follicles in different breeds of sheep have been researched already since 1980 [1], when an attempt was made to explain the genetic basis for multiple births within a litter in various breeds around the world. It has been shown that sheep fertility depending on breed may be determined either polygenic or by a major segregating gene named the Fec gene.
Most mutations increasing ovulation levels and the number of lambs born to an ewe were identified in genes encoding proteins belonging to the family of transforming growth factors TGF‐β: BMPR1B (bone morphogenetic protein receptor‐1B), BMP15 (bone morphogenetic protein 15) and GDF9 (growth differentiation factor 9). In addition, mutations FecLL in Lacaune breed on chromosome 11 and FecX2W (fecundity gene X2) in Woodland sheep were identified. FecXL locus contains two genes IGF2BP1 (insulin‐like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein1) and B4GALNT2 (beta‐1, 4‐N‐acetyl‐galactosaminyl transferase 2). It has been shown that B4GALNT2 is responsible for high prolificacy of Lacaune sheep [2]. The mechanism of action of the gene FecX2 on X chromosome in Woodland sheep is not yet exactly understood [3].
1.1. FecB mutation in the bone morphogenetic protein receptor 1B (BMPR1‐B) gene
Booroola was the first major gene (FecB) significantly influencing level of ovulation and litter size in sheep to be identified [4]. The effect of FecB mutation (Q249R) identified in Booroola Merino breed in the gene of bone morphogenetic protein receptor BMPR1‐B on chromosome 6 is an increase in ovulation level and litter size in carriers of one or two copies of the gene FecB. This mutation was also identified in Asian breeds: Garole, Javanese, thin‐tail Hu and Han. With regard to level of ovulation, the observed increase is additive in nature, while as concerns litter size—it is partly dominant. In ewes with heterozygous FecBB+ ovulation level increased by 1.3 CL (corpus luteum), while in ewes with FecBBB, the observed increase was up to 3.6 CL. The effect on litter size between homozygous++ and BB was +0.8 [6].
Many authors have shown high fertility of carriers of FecBB+ genotype, among others in Garole‐223% lamb production [6], Hu‐210%, Han‐240% [7] and Javanese breeds‐259% [8]. Research results in Indian sheep of Muzaffarnagari breed engendered some discussion, as presence of ewes with FecB gene that still had single births was proven, and share of sheep with genotypes FecBBBand FecBB+ was identified as 3.47 and 41.73%, respectively [9].
In antral follicles of FecBB+ ewes, a decrease in granulosa cell proliferation and premature expression of LH receptors were observed [10]. Appearance of FecB mutation in sheep compared with ewes devoid of mutation is associated with higher number of growing small cavitary (antral) follicles on the ovaries. Both total number of granulosa cells and total secretion of estradiol and inhibins in the ovaries of FecBBB ewes still remain the same as in ewes with FecB++ genotype. Significant impact of gene FecB on development of ovaries during foetal life is also observed, including, inter alia, a reduced number of oocytes from the 35th to the 50th day of gestation, a smaller number of class 1 follicles from 75th to 90th day of gestation and class 2 follicles (on 135th day). A small number of class 2 follicles were also observed in early neonatal life of FecBBB sheep [10, 11]. Significant effect of FecB gene on function of the hypothalamic‐pituitary system has been proven as well. It has been found that it may lead to increased secretion of follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH) in FecBBB homozygotes, although it has not been confirmed in all of the animals investigated. No FecB influence on release of luteinizing hormone (LH) has been found [12].
1.2. Mutations in the gene of bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP15)
1.2.1. Protein BMP15
BMP15 protein together with growth factor 9 (GDF9) plays an important role in folliculogenesis [13, 14]. Its paracrine action affects granulosa cells, theca cells and the oocyte itself [15]. In vitro cultures indicate that recombinant protein BMP15 is a potent stimulator of granulosa cell proliferation, suggesting that both cell growth and their subsequent division and differentiation require BMP15 action [16]. The protein inhibits expression of FSH and LH receptors, as decrease in activity of BMP15 increases cell sensitivity to action of gonadotropins [17]. The conducted experiments showed that BMP15 inhibits expression of StAR protein, responsible for transport of cholesterol—specifically low density lipoprotein (LDL)—into cells. LDL is the substrate for production of steroid hormones. In rats, BMP may modulate the process of steroidogenesis in granulosa cells, modifies biological effects of FSH by inhibition of progesterone‐induced FSH secretion, without affecting production of estradiol [16]. BMP15 mRNA transcripts are observed from the primary follicle stage, in secondary, tertiary and dominant follicles stages, ending with atretic antral follicles [18]. In sheep, BMP15 affects proliferation rate and inhibits baseline and FSH‐mediated secretion of progesterone by granulosa cells of small antral follicles [11]. Presence of BMP15 mRNA was determined in the oocytes (class 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 follicles), but it has not been demonstrated in granulosa cells and follicle theca [19].
1.2.2. Polymorphism in the BMP15 gene
In mammals, formation of BMP15 protein is determined by action of a single gene on chromosome X [20]. An encoded sequence with a length of 1179 bp is contained in two exons separated by an intron of 5400 bp in length. mRNA translation produces a peptide built of 393 amino acids, and the resulting mature protein has a length of 125 amino acids [21]. Mutations identified in the BMP15 locus (FecXI, FecXH, FecXL, FecXG, FecXB and FecXR) result in appearance of the same phenotype in different sheep breeds, and have different molecular basis. Heterozygous ewes give birth to more lambs, while homozygotes with two copies of a gene are infertile. Action of mutations marked FecXO and FecXGr identified in Olkuska and Grivette breeds differs from the above‐mentioned, as in the case of ewes with both one and two copies of the gene, an increase in prolificacy is observed (Table 1).
Mutations identified in sheep at the BMP‐15 gene locus.
* Position of the coding residue in the Ovis aries bone morphogenic protein 15; BMP15 protein GenBank accession number AAF81688.1.
Substitution of FecXH detected in Hanna sheep causes introduction of a stop codon in place of glutamine in position 23 of amino acid residue of mature protein. Transition C>T observed in the case of FecXG in Galoway and Cambridge breeds, also introduces a premature stop codon in place of glutamine at position 31 of the polypeptide chain. As concerns carriers of these mutations, heterozygotes show increased levels of ovulation, while homozygotes with two copies of the gene are infertile [17].
A similar phenotype is observed for FecXI mutation, where hydrophobic valine is substituted for asparagine at position 31 of mature protein. This leads to changes in electrostatic potential of the region involved in formation of dimers—this, in turn, interferes with dimerization and consequently leads to the elimination of biological effects of BMP15. Homozygous ewes are infertile due to folliculogenesis being arrested at initial stage of the process [10].
FecXB mutation found in BMP15 gene locus in Belclare sheep is a result of polar serine being substituted for non‐polar isoleucine at position 99. This substitution has a significant impact on the ability of a protein to bind to type II membrane receptor; it determines the structure of the ligand‐receptor complex with BMP2, BMP7, activin A proteins. This polymorphism abolishes biological activity of BMP15, most likely by prejudicing the binding of protein and receptor [21]. Homozygous ewes are infertile due to hypoplasia of ovaries. Admittedly, presence of antral follicles was observed, but with oocytes of anomalous size, surrounded by a single layer of abnormal granulosa cells. Morphology of ovaries of such sheep is similar to image of ovaries of FecXI Inverdale ewes.
One copy of the allele FecXI (Inverdale) or FecXH (Hanna) results in ovulation level increase of +0.8–1.0 CL, significantly affecting size of the litter by +0.6 lamb. Homozygous FecXII and FecXHH Hanna ewes are sterile; in their small and poorly developed ovaries, follicles are provided with a single layer of granulosa cells [22]. In FecXI+ sheep, follicles were determined to be of a smaller diameter than those produced in ovaries of homozygotes devoid of mutation. However, FecXI+ ewes present a greater number of mature preovulatory dominant follicles of smaller diameter, and therefore do not differ in the level of estradiol and inhibin from non‐mutated ones [23]. Preovulatory follicles are also characterized by early maturation, which determines greater secretion of FSH and early formation of LH receptors [12].
Studies by Bodin et al. [24] on prolific sheep of Lacaune breed showed presence of FecXL mutation, leading to substitution of cysteine for tyrosine at position 53 of the BMP15 chain. Just as observed in the case of polymorphisms (FecXI, FecXH, FecXG and FecXB), also this change in gene structure causes increased level of ovulation in heterozygous ewes and infertility in homozygotes. In vitro studies revealed that the mutation FecXL is responsible for defective secretion of both precursors and active forms of BMP15. It is believed that this may be caused by damage to structure of one of the disulphide bonds whose formation involves cysteine, and that play an important role in stabilizing the structure of BMP15 [24]. In the case of presence of one copy of FecXL in ewes, ovulation level increase of +1.9–2.17 CL is observed [2, 25].
Lacaune sheep are, next to Hanna, Inverdale, Cambridge, Belclare and small‐tail Han breeds, an example where increase in litter size is determined by the presence of two major genes: FecXL and FecL on autosomal chromosome 11 [2].
In Aragonesa FecXR ewes, a 17 bp deletion results in a frameshift and appearance of a stop codon, even before the coding region of mature protein. The consequence of this mutation is an 85% modification in the propeptide sequence, specifically limitation of its size to 45 amino acids out of 245 present in the original propeptide. Heterozygous ewes are very highly fecund, while the presence of two copies of the mutated gene leads to a blockage of follicular development at initial growth state and female infertility. FecXR+ ewes have an average of 2.66 lamb/litter compared to flock average of 1.36. Presence of one copy of the gene resulted in litter size increase of +1.3 lamb [26].
A mutation in the gene BMP15 changing the amino acid sequence in the amino acid chain p.T317I was identified in French Grivette sheep. Ewes of FecXGrGr genotype have 2.5 lamb/litter, while FecX++ and FecXGr+give birth to 1.83 and 1.93 lamb in a litter, respectively. Sterilization of homozygotes with the FecXGrGr mutation has not been identified in the studied population [27].
Recent research in phenomenon of high fertility of ewes of the African breed Barbarine (167% annual lamb crop) showed presence of another substitution in the gene encoding BMP15, resulting in A119T mutation in the coding sequence of mature protein. Frequency of the mutated allele in the population of these sheep, or its impact of prolificacy are unknown [28].
1.2.3. Mutations in the growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF9) gene
1.2.3.1. Protein GDF9
Growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF9) is another protein belonging to TGF‐β family. This peptide regulates development of ovarian follicles in rodents and ruminants (sheep), as well as humans [12, 29]. It has been shown that its synthesis, similarly as in the case of BMP15, occurs in the oocyte [30]. Mice lacking functional protein GDF9 (GDF9KO) were infertile, their follicle growth was arrested at primary follicle stage, with granulosa cells layer not properly formed, and changes in the zona pellucida. Oocytes were excessively enlarged and surrounded by a single layer of deformed granulosa cells, or oocyte was not observed in the follicle whatsoever [30, 31]. Growth differentiation factor 9 as a multi‐functional protein is responsible for follicular growth from its early stage—it initiates and regulates folliculogenesis and oocyte development. It has autocrine effects on oocytes, plays a role in their development and maturation, and paracrine effects on somatic cells, inhibits expression of luteinizing hormone receptor gene and stimulating synthesis of hyaluronic acid [32, 33]. GDF9 gene expression in sheep occurs in oocytes, with the presence of the transcript and protein demonstrated in the oocyte during formation of the follicle, in class 1 primary follicles as well as in follicles in the phase of intensive growth. In vitro experiments demonstrated that GDF9 is also found in degraded oocytes and in malformed follicular structures [34, 35]. In humans, GDF9 plays an important role in pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome and premature ovarian failure [36].
1.2.3.2. Polymorphism in the GDF9 gene
The gene encoding protein GDF9 was found to be located in sheep on chromosome 5 [37]. The gene consists of two exons, with length of 397 and 968 bp, respectively. Its total length is 5644 bp, with coding sequence comprised of 1359 nucleotides [35].
A number of mutations (Table 2) were identified in gene GDF9; it was determined that the mutation FecGH (G8, Ser1184Phe) causes sterility in homozygous ewes. Impact of the mutations G1 (G260A, R87H), G2 (C471T), G3 (G477A), G4 (G721A, E241K), G5 (A978G), G6 (G994A, V332I) and G7 (G1111A, V371M) on fertility of sheep had not been initially analysed, but fertile homozygous animals with G1, G4 and G7 mutations were found [21, 30]. Effects of FecGH mutation are due to lack of active form of the protein, leading to arrest of follicular growth in the early stages of development [38, 39] (Table 2).
Mutations identified in sheep at the GDF9 gene locus.
*Position of the coding residue in the Ovis aries growth differentiation factor 9; GDF9 protein GenBank accession number AAC28089.2.
Mutation FecGH (G8) occurs within the sequence responsible for coupling a protein to the receptor and is a missense mutation. As a result, synthesized protein exhibits less affinity for the cell surface receptor. Ewes with one copy of the gene with FecGH mutation have higher ovulation level. Early maturation of small secondary follicles, inhibition of their growth and earlier ovulation of a larger number of oocytes were noted [21]. Most likely, early maturation of the developing follicles is associated with inhibition of FSH receptor expression at mRNA level due to the absence of biologically active GDF9 [19]. The fact that the FecGH mutation determines the decrease in quantity of active form of GDF9 was confirmed by immunization of ewes, which caused increase in ovulation level [30]. Presence of FecGH resulted in increased litter size in Belclare sheep, from 1.98 in animals lacking the mutation to 2.67 lamb/litter in heterozygotes; for Cambridge sheep, the litter size surged from 2.27 to 4.28 lamb/litter.
Phenotypic effect similar to FecGH was observed for FecGT mutation in Icelandic Thoka sheep breed [40].
The results of research conducted on Brazilian Santa Ines breed indicate that presence of a mutation called FecGE (Embrapa) in GDF9 gene has a completely different phenotypic effect than the mutations in the locus of this gene listed above, because ewes with identified two copies of the gene are prolific [41].
2. Genes determining litter size in Olkuska sheep
2.1. Mutations in the BMP15 gene
Analysing reasons behind high fertility of the prolific Olkuska sheep breed, neither FecXI mutation in BMP15 gene nor FecBB mutation in gene BMPR‐1B was identified [42]. However, a number of new mutations were detected in the BMP15 gene locus: A77A, L110L, P101, V135G [27] and N237K and N337H, defined as FecXO (synonyms: N69H or A1009C or p.Asn69His) (Table 3) [27, 43].
\n\n
Substitution of N237K was identified outside the coding region of mature peptide in most studied ewes, and no connection with their fertility was demonstrated. FecXO was located in exon 2, in the coding sequence of mature protein (position 69 aa), right next to the sites of the mutations FecXI, FecXH, FecXL and FecXB found, respectively, at positions 39, 23, 53 and 99 aa of mature protein.
Two alleles (A and C) and three genotypes (AA, AC and CC) were found for the A1009C mutation identified in the sequence encoding BMP15 mature protein. The C allele (with N337H mutation) had a frequency of 0.55 and ewes with one (AC) and two (CC) copies of the gene constituted 56 (AC) and 27% (CC) of the animals, respectively [43].
2.1.1. Effects of N337H mutation on litter size of Olkuska sheep
Analysis of effects of mutation N337H on litter size of ewes showed a significant impact of polymorphism on prolificacy, which in sheep of genotype FecX++ was 1.74 ± 0.55 lamb/litter, with 2.47 ± 0.77 and 2.98 ± 1.50 lamb/litter for FecX+O and FecXOO genotypes, respectively [43]. Very similar results showed Demars et al. [27] for genotypes FecX++, FecX+O and FecXOO namely, 1.84, 2.46 and 3.05, respectively.
Changes in litter size in subsequent lambings of Olkuska ewes show an increase in fecundity correlated with increasing age of a mother. The maximum size of litter in FecXOO ewes was noted in their third lambing, with ewes giving birth to an average of 3 lambs/litter. However, for mothers with genotype FecX++, litter size continued to increase up to their fourth lambing, when the litter size reached 2.25 lambs [43]. Increase in the number of lambs in the first three consecutive lambings, and then subsequent decrease in litter size has been demonstrated in studies on other highly prolific sheep breeds. Liu et al. [44] showed that average litter size for FecBBB homozygotes in small‐tail Han sheep was 2.47 in the first lambing of an ewe, and 3.17 for older mothers. Increase in litter size as ewes were aging was also observed in Chinese Hu breed. Carriers of FecB gene bore an average of 1.92 lamb/litter in their first lambing, compared to 2.56 lamb in the third lambing [45]. The number of lambs in a litter was also positively affected by the number of prior lambings, an ewe has undergone in hybrids Garole × Marpura; heterozygous mothers gave birth into 1.51 ± 0.06, 1.55 ± 0.07, 1.70 ± 0.09 lamb/litter in their first, second and third lambing, respectively [46].
2.1.2. Litter size in Olkuska sheep population
In all herds of sheep breeds with a segregating major gene, distribution of litter size similar to the one determined in Olkuska sheep, that is, with high proportion of twin births and large share of triplets and larger litters, was determined. Distribution analysis of litters of Olkuska ewes showed that 29% of FecXOO mothers gave birth to four or more lambs in a litter, including sextuplets and septuplets. In the most numerous group of FecX+O ewes, only 14% of animals showed similar litter size, and among sheep of genotype FecX++ no litters of such size were observed (Table 4).
Mutations identified in Olkuska sheep in the BMP15 gene.
Gene/genotype
Litter size of ewes (lambs)
1
2
3
4
5, 6, 7
BMP15 gene‐N337H (%)
FecX++ (AA)
37
51.8
11.2
FecX+O (AC)
15.6
40.8
29.8
8.3
5.2
FecXOO (CC)
18.6
23.9
28.3
9.7
19.4
GDF9 gene‐V371M (%)
GG
20.8
40.6
26.8
6.6
5.2
GA
8.3
20
28.3
15
33.2
GDF9 gene-V332I (%)
GG
17.4
39
28.9
7
7.3
GA
25.7
37
21.9
9
6.7
Table 4.
Percentage of litter types of ewes with N337H (BMP15 gene) and V371M, V332I (GDF9 gene) mutations.
In the case of FecX++, the proportion of triplets was also only 11.2% [43]. A much smaller share of quadruplet and lager litters was found in Javanese FecBBB ewes (16%) [8]. The most common litter sizes in Garole FecBB+ sheep were twins, single births and triplets; accounting for, respectively, 65, 21 and 5% of the total [47]. In turn, share of quadruplet and triplet litters in FecBBB ewes of Javanese breed was, 34 and 20%, respectively, with an average litter size of 2.5 lamb/litter [48]. Interestingly, in the flock of Olkuska sheep, for mothers with genotypes FecXOO and FecX+O singleton births were twice less frequent than for FecX++ ewes (16 vs. 33%). Share of twin births decreased along with appearance of additional alleles with the mutation; among FecX++ewes they accounted for 55% of litters, and for genotype FecXOOonly for 27%. In the population of Olkuska sheep with average annual lamb production of 218%, the distribution of litters of various sizes was: 21.7% of singletons, 41% of twins, 24.6% of triplets and 12.7% of quadruplets and larger. Thus, the share of litters larger than triplet is as high as 37.1%. In Garole sheep, characterized by slightly lower prolificacy (168–187%), the proportion of mothers with twins, triplets and quadruplets was 65, 21 and 5%, respectively [6]. Similar differences in distribution of litter size were observed in a herd of Chevoit‐Thoka sheep [49]. With an average litter size of 2.23 lamb/litter, the authors found similar share of twin litters (56.5%) in this population, but noted a much smaller share of births with quadruplet and larger litters (3.1%). High frequency of twin births, reaching 47% of the studied population, was demonstrated in Thoka‐Chevoit sheep; this breed was also characterized by a high share of singleton births (35%) [50]. A much smaller share of multiple births in comparison with data collected for Olkuska sheep was demonstrated in Aragonese breed with 120–150% fecundity: 66.4% of singleton litters, 28.4% of twin ones, but only 1.9% of triplets. It should be noted that among more than 2000 ewes studied, only three gave birth to quadruplets and only one to quintuplets. For sheep lacking the FecXR mutation, only singleton births were noted [26].
2.1.3. Effect of mutation N337H on litter size
In studies on effects of mutation N337H (FecXO) on litter size, it was shown that the effect on ovulation levels in O+ and OO ewes was an increase of +2 and +3.3 CL [27]. Effect of the O+ copy of the gene was measured at +0.73 lamb, with the effect of two copies of the gene estimated at +1.07 lamb/litter. Analysing litter size over three first lambings of an ewe, the effect on O+ ewes was +0.62 lamb/litter, and +1.07 lamb for the OO genotype (Table 5) [43].
Estimated mutation effect for number of lambs born to ewes.
Comparative analysis carried out on the basis of studies by many authors between litter size for carriers of one copy of the gene versus wild sheep genotypes for populations with a major segregating gene revealed that the data vary depending on breed, age and environment. In the presence of one copy of the gene (FecBB+), effect varies from +0.48 in Booroola × Dorset hybrids in Australia [5] to +1.16 lamb/litter for offspring of Booroola × Romney and Booroola × Perendale hybrids in New Zealand [51]. Ewes with two copies of the gene had litters larger by +0.64 lamb for the Israeli Affec × Awassi hybrids, +1.61 for Chinese Merino meat strain [52, 53]. Garole × Malpura ewes of genotypes FecBB+ and FecBBB gave birth to, on average, 1.73 and 2.17 lamb, respectively, while litter size of FecB++ sheep was 1.03 lamb. Litter size for FecBB+ and FecBBB ewes compared to sheep of FecB++ genotype was higher by +0.70 and +1.14, respectively. The effect of one copy of the gene was increasing in consecutive lambings, from +0.52 in the first lambing to +1.03 in the ewes’ third lambing [46, 54].
2.2. Mutations in the gene GDF9
Identification of variations in the gene sequence of GDF9 revealed presence of point mutations G3, G5, G6 and G7—detected in 2004 in Belclare and Cambridge sheep by a team led by Hanrahan et al. [21]—also in Olkuska sheep (Table 6).
Mutations identified in Olkuska sheep in the GDF9 gene.
Presence of FecGH (G8) mutation was excluded [43]. Thus, the Polish Olkuska breed can be classified as one of the few breeds in the world, where presence of polymorphisms has been confirmed both in the gene BMP15 and the autosomal gene. Next to the N337H mutation in BMP15 gene, missense mutations V371M (G7) and V332I (G6) have been identified in the region encoding mature protein GDF9. It should be noted that in Olkuska sheep, the allele with mutation V371M occurs with very low frequency of 0.06, but GA heterozygotes demonstrate high annual lamb production of 346%, with the same for GG ewes at 236% (Table 7) [43].
Variant
Allele
Genotype
G
A
GG
AG
V371M
0.94
0.06
0.89
0.11
V332I
0.83
0.17
0.69
0.29
Table 7.
Allele and genotype frequencies in the population of Olkuska sheep, (mutations V371M, V332I) in GDF‐9 gene.
Analysis of litter size distribution in sheep with GG and GA genotypes in the locus V371M (G7) revealed that the most frequently occurring litter size in GG ewes was twins (40.6%), followed by singletons (20.8%). Litters of quadruplets and larger accounted for 11.8% of all births. Among mothers with identified one allele with the GA mutation, the share of twin litters was twice smaller (20%), while litters with four and more lambs accounted for almost 50%. The share of single births was only 8.3% [43].
Also mutation V332I (G6) was found to be present in Olkuska sheep; with two alleles (G and A) and three genotypes (GG, AG and AA) found (Table 7).
The G allele appeared with a very high frequency of 0.84, and ewes of genotype GG accounted for 70% of all animals. Mothers with the GG genotype did not differ in average litter size from GA sheep, both over total duration of their productive life (2.24 ± 0.87 vs. 2.13 ± 0.91 lamb), and in the first three lambings (2.39 ± 0.90 vs. 2.30 ± 0.87) [43].
2.2.1. Effect of mutation V371M (G7) on litter size
Ewes with one allele with V371M substitution showed an increase in litter size of +0.55 lamb, while those with the V332I mutation showed a decrease of 0.18 lamb/litter [43]. Thus, only in the presence of the A allele, the mutation V371M resulted in an increase in litter size. Mutations described earlier by Hanrahan et al. [21], namely: G3, G4, G5 and G6 were also detected in the case of Olkuska breed. However, impact of these mutations on prolificacy of ewes has not been studied.
In ewes of the Brazilian breed Santa Ines, a mutation that does not cause infertility has been identified in gene GDF9. Melo et al. [55] and Silva et al. [41] identified substitution F345C (FecGE) to a significant degree determining fecundity of sheep. Alleles FecG+ and FecGEof frequencies 0.48 and 0.52, and genotypes FecG++, FecG+E and FecGEE with frequencies 0.17, 0.61 and 0.22, respectively, have been identified. Association between the genotype and level of ovulation and litter size has been confirmed. FecGEE ewes bore an average of 1.78 lambs/litter, FecG+E sheep 1.44 and FecG++ mothers 1.13 lambs/litter. Level of ovulation in FecGEE ewes (2.22 ± 0.12) was 82% higher than that observed for the FecG++ genotype. No statistically significant difference was identified between FecG+E heterozygotes and FecG++ ewes (1.34 ± 0.08 vs. 1.22 ± 0.11). As concerns litter size distribution, share of twin litters for ewes with the identified three genotypes was 44 and 12% for FecGEE and FecG+E ewes, respectively, while no twin litters were noted for FecG++ sheep [41].
Presence of the mutation G1 was also confirmed in Iranian Moghani and Ghezel breeds. Presence of three possible genotypes was identified, and all the ewes were fertile. Infertility was found in only one sheep, carrying also an additional copy of the gene FecXG in gene BMP15. Ewes with heterozygous genotype were more prolific compared to those with wild sheep genotype. Share of twin litters was small (6.3%) also among animals with the wild sheep genotype, while among heterozygotes twin births amounted to as much as 53.8%. Four homozygotic mothers with two copies of the gene G1 were fertile, but gave birth to singletons [56]. Mutation G1 was als identified in Indian Garole sheep, and frequency of the wild allele and of that carrying G1 mutation was, G‐0.82 and A‐0.18, respectively, with respective genotype frequency of 0.64 for GG and 0.36 for AG ewes [57]. Also in this case, presence of genotype with two copies of the AA gene was not detected. Mutation in the gene GDF9 was accompanied by the presence of FecB gene. In Chinese breeds, similar to the case of Olkuska sheep, several mutations in several different genes have been identified. In addition to gene FecB, also presence of mutations G2 (C471T) [58], and G3 (G477A) was revealed. Entirely new mutations G729T (Q243H) and T692C [59] were identified. The authors, however, found no impact of G3 on the number of lambs bore by ewes. While identifying mutation G729T outside the region coding mature protein, the researchers have found the allele T (0.091) as well as genotypes GG and GT (respective frequency of 0.817 and 0.183). In GT ewes, estimated litter size was 2.88 ± 0.19, while for GG sheep, it was only 2.11 ± 0.11. Effect on litter size was also recorded for the T692C mutation, where litters of CC mothers were larger by 0.63 lamb than litters of CG ewes [59]. In Hu sheep, A154G mutation at position 51 of the amino acid located outside the region coding mature protein GDF9 (Asn51Asp) was identified [60].
3. Effect of N337H and V371M (G7) mutations on litter size
Determining effect of simultaneous presence of N337H (A1009C) and V371M (G7) mutations on fertility of Olkuska breed ewes showed that the largest number of lambs was born to FecXOO mothers that were carriers of V371M mutation (3.32 ± 0.26 lamb/litter) (Table 8).
Trait
Combined genotype in BMP15 and GDF9 loci
AABMP‐15/GGGDF‐9
CABMP‐15/GGGDF‐9
CABMP‐15/GAGDF‐9
CCBMP‐15/GGGDF‐9
CCBMP‐15/GAGDF‐9
Litter size of ewes (LSM ± SE) (reproductive life span)
1.64 ± 0.11
2.26± 0.08
2.56 ± 0.19
2.64 ± 0.08
3.32 ± 0.26
Table 8.
Estimated effect of N337H mutation in the BMP15 gene and V371M mutation in the GDF9 gene on number of lambs born to Olkuska ewes (combined genotype) [43].
Effect of presence of both the allele N337H and V371M in ewes was similar to how presence of two copies of gene N337H affected the sheep, and amounted to +0.92 lambs/litter [43].
Studies conducted so far on interaction and potential interdependencies between different mutations within the loci of genes encoding transforming growth factors TGF‐β have shown that presence of one copy of the gene with a mutation in the locus of BMP15 led to an increase in litter size; the result was sterilization in the case of homozygous genotype with two copies of the gene. This issue has thus far been researched only within a very narrow range. Presence of several alleles of various genes in the same animal was demonstrated by Hanrahan et al. [21] and Davis et al. [42], sheep carrying a copy of both FecXB and FecXGor FecXH and FecXI were infertile. Sheep carrying one copy of any of the above mutations on chromosome X and the mutation FecB (BMPR‐1B) had fully functional ovaries and ovulation levels higher than observed when these factors were occurring independently. The effect of simultaneous presence of one copy of FecX in BMP15 and one copy of FecGH (GDF9) was varied. Most observations showed that the effect of these two genes was additive, but in some cases the demonstrated impact of GDF9 was weakened when the FecX mutation was present alongside it. Estimated effect on level of ovulation due to the presence of FecXG in Belclare and Cambridge sheep amounted to 0.77 and 1.18 CL, respectively, while presence of FecXB in Belclare sheep resulted in 2.38 CL. The effect of carrying one copy of FecGH in Belclare and Cambridge ewes was much higher, and amounted to 1.79 and 2.35 CL, respectively. Generally, it can be assumed that the average stimulating effect on level of ovulation in case of mutations FecXG, FecXB and FecGHwas 0.70, 0.97 and 1.39 CL, respectively. Simultaneous appearance of different copies of a gene with a mutation in one animal resulted in a much greater increase in the observed number of corpora lutea in the ovaries. In sheep with genotypes FecGH/FecXG and FecGH/FecXB, the number of ovulatory follicles was 5.8 and 6.09, respectively, while for carriers of only one copy of the gene FecXG it was estimated at 2.69 CL, with 3.26 CL for FecXB ewes, and 2.67 CL for FecGH genotype [21]. Presence of FecXI and FecB genes in ewes resulted in high level of ovulation (4.4 CL), suggesting multiplicative effect of these mutations resulting from interactions between the genes BMP15 and BMPR‐1B [20].
4. Effect of N337H, G6 and G7 mutations on body weight
Mutations N337H, G6 and G7 detected in Olkuska sheep have no effect on body weight at 2, 28 and 56 days after birth [43]. These results are consistent with observations conducted for sheep breeds with the major gene FecB, such as hybrids Rambouillet × Booroola [61]. No effect of FecB on body weight at birth and weaning was identified for this population. Also, Kleemann et al. [62] and Abella et al. [63] found no impact of FecB on body weight and daily gains in the initial period of a lamb’s life. Visscher et al. [64] identified the weak effect of the gene FecB on initial and final body weight of lambs from 7 to 12 weeks of age in Booroola × Texel hybrids. In contrast to these observations, in nine breeds of Chinese sheep with FecB gene, its significant impact on litter size, body weight and body size has been identified. On day 90 after birth, the body weight of lambs with genotypes FecBBB and FecBB+ was higher than those of lambs with the genotype FecB++. However, these differences were age dependent and have not been detected with respect to weight measured at 2 and 120 days of age [45]. Gootwine et al. [65] have demonstrated lower body weight in lambs that were carriers of FecBB+ gene compared to FecB++ lambs that did not carry the mutation. Body weight at birth for lambs with various genotypes, but from the same birth type differed significantly; FecBBB lambs compared to FecB++ and FecBB+ ones had lower body weight. Comparing weight of Assaf breed sheep with different genotypes, lower body weight was identified in the case of lambs with two copies of the gene FecB [66]. Studies on Garole‐Malpura sheep aimed at assessing the impact of FecB genotype on body weight have shown that this gene significantly affects body weight at birth and at 12 months of age, as well as weight gains up to 3 months of life of a lamb. There was no effect on body weight at 3 and 9 months of age [46].
5. G617A polymorphism in inhibin‐α gene (INHA)
Proteins encoded by the genes GDF9 and BMP15, necessary for an oocyte to gain cytoplasmic maturity, are a group of more than 35 proteins in the transforming growth factor β family. Inhibin A and B is one of these proteins. A missense‐type substitution 617G > A—not causing amino acid substitution of proline—was identified in Olkuska sheep in exon 2 of the inhibin‐α gene (INHA) [43]. The highest frequency was found for allele G (0.86) and genotype GG (0.71), and no ewes with genotype AA were identified. No effects of the mutation on litter size were determined; while the difference between mothers of GG and AG genotypes did indeed amount to +0.3 lamb/litter, it was not statistically significant. The impact of the mutation was dependent on the age of the animals, and for an ewe’s first litter was only +0.1 lamb. This result confirms conclusions from other studies, which demonstrated the association among INHA, INHBA and INHBB and litter size of sheep [67]. Influence of variation in the inhibin gene on litter size of Merino and Friesian sheep at the level of, respectively, +0.04 and +0.09 lamb had been demonstrated previously [68]. The effect of TaqI/INHA polymorphism on the number of offspring has also been confirmed for Merino, East‐Friesian and Romanowska breeds [69]. After comparing frequency of allele A in sheep with varying prolificacy, the above authors found that with increasing fertility, an increase in the frequency of allele A could be observed as well. Ovis ammon and Ovis vignei presented only allele B, while high frequency of allele A (0.65) has been determined in romanowska sheep. Studies in fecund small‐tail Han and Hu breeds, as well as in low fecundity breeds Dorset, Texel and German Mountain Merino showed presence of polymorphism in the locus of inhibin βB A276G, in the untranslated region 3′‐UTR, only in Hu sheep. Presence of genotypes AA, AB and BB with respective frequencies of 0.636, 0.046 and 0.318, as well as alleles A (0.659) and B (0.341), has been identified. Evaluation of genotype influence on litter size of Hu ewes showed that sheep with genotype BB gave birth to +0.58 lambs more than sheep with AA genotype [59].
6. Conclusions
To summarize, Olkuska sheep are among the few breeds with significant polymorphisms in genes coding proteins of the TDF‐beta family. Fecundity of this breed is determined not only by the presence of major gene FecXO (N337H,1009 > C) in BMP15 locus, but also by the presence of a missense mutation V371M (1111G>A) in the gene locus of GDF9. Considerable polymorphism in GDF9 locus —where three other, low‐frequency mutations G3, G5 and G6 can be found—is particularly noteworthy. Ewes of Olkuska breed are highly prolific, both in the case of carriers as well as FecXOO animals, in contrast to sterilization observed in the majority of known homozygotes with mutations in the BMP15 gene. Research in genes determining prolificacy is an important factor for increasing fecundity of ewes and thus profitability of sheep production as well.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by projects DS/KBZ/3242/2017.
\n',keywords:"fecundity, genes, litter size, Olkuska sheep",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/55769.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/55769.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55769",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55769",totalDownloads:1472,totalViews:256,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:64,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 6th 2016",dateReviewed:"April 13th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2017",dateFinished:"June 1st 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Major genes increasing litter size were identified in certain sheep breeds. These genes include BMPR‐1B, BMP15, GDF9 and B4GALNT2, FecX2. Polish Olkuska sheep is a high‐fecundity sheep breed; while some animals might give birth to just one or two lambs, there are Olkuska ewes which have six or even seven lambs/lambing. Fertility of this breed is caused by mutation in the major gene FecXO (BMP15 gene), but analysis of polymorphism at the locus GDF9 revealed presence of four polymorphisms: G447A (L159L), A978G (G326G), G994A (V332I) and G1111A (V371M). Substitutions V371 and V332I are missense mutations found in the sequence encoding active GDF9 protein. V371 polymorphism has also an effect on litter size in Olkuska breed ewes. Study of genes associated with litter size in Olkuska sheep is of high importance, as they could be used in breeding programmes as selection markers for increasing production efficiency.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/55769",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/55769",book:{id:"5977",slug:"genetic-polymorphisms"},signatures:"Urszula Kaczor",authors:[{id:"203390",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Urszula",middleName:null,surname:"Kaczor",fullName:"Urszula Kaczor",slug:"urszula-kaczor",email:"rzkaczor@cyf-kr.edu.pl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture in Krakow",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. FecB mutation in the bone morphogenetic protein receptor 1B (BMPR1‐B) gene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Mutations in the gene of bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP15)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"1.2.1. Protein BMP15",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_4",title:"1.2.3.1. Protein GDF9",level:"4"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"Table 2.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9",title:"2. Genes determining litter size in Olkuska sheep",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.1. Mutations in the BMP15 gene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.1.1. Effects of N337H mutation on litter size of Olkuska sheep",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"Table 5.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.2. Mutations in the gene GDF9",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.2.1. Effect of mutation V371M (G7) on litter size",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"3. Effect of N337H and V371M (G7) mutations on litter size",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Effect of N337H, G6 and G7 mutations on body weight",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"5. 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Recombinant growth differentiation factor‐9 (GDF9) enhances growth and differentiation of cultured early ovarian follicles. Endocrinology. 1999;3:1236–1244'},{id:"B33",body:'Gilchrist RB, Ritter LJ, Cranfield M, Jeffery LA, Amato F, Scott SJ, Myllymaa S, Kaivo‐Oja N, Lnakinen H, Mottershead DG, Groome NP, Ritvos. Immunoneutralization of growth differentiation factor 9 reveals it partially account for mouse oocyte miogenic activity. Biology of Reproduction. 2004;71:732–739'},{id:"B34",body:'Bodensteiner KJ, McMNatty KP, Clay CM, Moeller CL, Sawyer H. Expression of growth differentiation factor‐9 in the ovaries of fetal sheep homozygous or heterozygous for the Inverdale Prolificacy Gene (FecXI). Biology of Reproduction. 2000;62:1479–1485'},{id:"B35",body:'McNatty KP, Moore LG, Hudson NL, Quirke LD, Lawrnce SB, Reader K, Hanrahan JP, Smith P, Groome NP, Laitinen M, Ritvos O, Juengel JL. The oocyte and its role in regulating ovulation rate: a new paradigm in reproductive biology. 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Biology of Reproduction. 2002;66: 1869–1874'},{id:"B43",body:'Kaczor U. 2011. Identyfikacja markerów plenności owiec olkuskich na podstawie polimorfizmu genów kodujących białka z rodziny TGF‐β [tesis]. Uniwersytet Rolniczy w Krakowie. Zeszyty Naukowe 479; 2011'},{id:"B44",body:'Liu SF, Jiang YL, Du LX. Study of BMPR‐IR and BMP15 as candidate gene for fecundity in little tailed Han sheep. Acta Genetica Sinica. 2003;30(8):755–760'},{id:"B45",body:'Guan F, Liu SR, Shi GQ, Ai JT, Mao DG, Yang LG. Polymorphism of Fec B gene in nine sheep breeds or strains and its effects on litter size, lamb growth and development. Acta Genetica Sinica. 2006;33(2):117–124'},{id:"B46",body:'Kumar S, Mishra AK, Kolte AP, Arora AL, Singh D, Singh VK. Effects of the Booroola (FecB) genotypes on growth performance, ewe’s productivity efficiency and litter size in Garole x Malpura sheep. Animal Reproduction Science. 2008;105(3–4):19–31'},{id:"B47",body:'Kumar S, Mishra AK, Kolte AP, Dash SK, Karim SA. Screening for Booroola FecB and Galway FecXG mutation In Indian sheep. Small Ruminant Research. 2008;80:57–61'},{id:"B48",body:'Roberts VJ, Barth S, El‐Roeiy A, Yen SSC. Expression of inhibin/activin subunits and follistatin messenger ribonucleic acids and proteins in ovarian follicles and the corpus luteum during the human menstrual cycle. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1993;77:1402–1410'},{id:"B49",body:'Adalsteinsson S, Jonmundson JV, Eythorsdottir E. The high fecundity Thoka gene in Icelandic sheep. Proceedings of the 40th Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production; 27–31 August 1989. Dublin, Ireland: EAAP; 1989;1.pp. 61–62'},{id:"B50",body:'Walling GA, Bishop SC, Pong‐Wong R, Russel AJF, Rhind SM. Detection of a major gene for litter size in Thoka Cheviot sheep using Bayesian segregation analyses. Animal Science. 2002;75:339–347'},{id:"B51",body:'Meyer HH, Baker RL, Harvey TG, Hickey SM. Effects of Booroola merino breeding and the Fec(B) gene on performance of crosses with long wool breeds. 2. Effects on reproductive performance and weight of lamb weaned by young ewes. Lives Production Science. 1994;39:191–200'},{id:"B52",body:'Gootwine E, Reicher S, Rozov A. Prolificacy and lamb survival at birth in Awassi and Assaf sheep carrying the FecB (booroola) mutation. Animal Reproduction Science. 2008;108:402–411'},{id:"B53",body:'Guan F, Liu SR, Shi GQ, Yang LG. Polymorphism of FecB gene in nine sheep breeds or strains and its effects on litter size, lamb growth and development. Animal Reproduction Science. 2007;99:44–52'},{id:"B54",body:'Kumar S, Kolte A, Mishra AK, Arora AL, Singh V. Identification of Fecb mutation in Garolex Malpura sheep and its effect on litter size. Small Ruminant Research. 2006;64:305–310'},{id:"B55",body:'Melo EO, Silva BDM, Castro EA, Silva TASN, Paiva SR, Sartori R, Franco MM, Souza CJH, Neves JP. A novel mutation in the growth and differentiation factor 9 (GDF9) gene is associated, in homozygosis, with increased ovulation rate in Santa Ines sheep. Biology of Reproduction. 2008;78:371'},{id:"B56",body:'Barzegari A, Atashpaz S, Ghabili K, Nemati Z, Rustaei M, Azarbaijani R. Polymorphism in GDF9 and BMP15 associated with fertility and ovulation rate in Moghani and Ghezel sheep in Iran. Reproduction in Domestic Animals. 2010;45:666–669'},{id:"B57",body:'Polley S, De S, Brahma B, Mukherjee A, Vinesh PV, Batabyal S, Arora JS, Pan S, Samanta AK, Datta TK, Goswami SL. Polymorphism of BMPR1B, BMP15 and GDF9 fecundity genes in prolific Garole. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 2010;42:985–993'},{id:"B58",body:'Chang JT, Luo YZ, Hu J. Polymorphism of GDF9 as a candidate gene for fecundity in sheep. Journal of Gansu Agricultural University. 2009;44(2):30–33'},{id:"B59",body:'Chu M, Zhuang H, Zhang Y, Jin M, Di X, Cao G, Feng T, Fang L. Polymorphism of inhibin βB gene and its relation sheep with liter size in sheep. Animal Science. 2011;82:57–61'},{id:"B60",body:'Li BX, Chu MX, Wang JY. PCR‐SSCP analysis on growth differentiation factor 9 gene in sheep. Yi Chuan Xue Bao. 2003;30:307–310'},{id:"B61",body:'Willingham TD, Wardon DW, Thompson PV. Effect of FecB allele on birth weight and post‐weaning production traits of Rambouillet‐Booroola cross wethers. Texas Agriculture Experimental Station Research Report. Sheep and Goat, Wool and Mohair CpR; 2002. pp. 1–6.'},{id:"B62",body:'Kleemann DO, Ponzoni RW, Stafford JE, Cutten IN, Grimson RJ. Growth and carcass characters of South Australian Merino and its crosses with the Booroola and Trangie Fertility Merino. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 1985;25:750–757'},{id:"B63",body:'Abella DF, Cognie Y, Thimonier J, Seck M, Blank MR. Effects of the FecB gene on birth weight, postnatal growth rate and puberty in Booroola x Merinos d’Arles ewe lambs. Animal Research. 2005;54:283–288'},{id:"B64",body:'Visscher AH, Dijkstra M, Lord EA, Suss R, Rosler HJ, Heylen K, Veerkamp RF. Maternal and lamb carrier effects of the Booroola gene on food intake growth and carcass quality of male lambs. Animal Science. 2000;71:209–217'},{id:"B65",body:'Gootwine E, Braw‐Tal R, Shalhevet A, Bor A, Zenou A. Reproductive performance of Assaf and Booroola‐assaf crossbred ewes and its association with plasma FSH levels and induced ovulation rate measured at prepuberty. Animal Reproduction Science. 1993;31:69–81'},{id:"B66",body:'Gootwine E, Rozov A, Bor A, Richer S. Carring the FecB (Booroola) mutation is associated with lower birth weight and slower post‐weaning growth rate for lambs, as well as a lighter mature body weight for ewes. Reproduction Fertility and Development. 2006;18(4):433–437'},{id:"B67",body:'Hiendleder S, Lewalski H, Jaeger H, Pracht P, Erhardt G. Nucleotide sequence of ovine α‐inhibin (INHA) gene and evaluation of RFLP marker effects on reproductive performance. Animal Genetics. 1996;27(2):91–92'},{id:"B68",body:'Hiendleder S, Lewalski H, Jaeger H, Pracht P, Erhardt G. Genomic cloning and comparative sequence analyses of different alleles of the ovine βA inhibin/activin INHA gene as a potential QTL for litter size. Animal Genetics. 1996;27(2):119'},{id:"B69",body:'Leyhe B, Hiendleder S, Jaeger C, Wassmuth R. Pronounced differences in the frequency TaqIβA inhibin allele between sheep breeds with different reproductive performance. Animal Genetics. 1994;25(1):41–43'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Urszula Kaczor",address:"rzkaczor@cyf-kr.edu.pl",affiliation:'
Department of Animal Biotechnology, Agriculture University in Krakow, Poland
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1. Introduction
Tectonic and volcanic activities are intimately related to the interaction of different lithospheric plates and crustal blocks. In the study region of this paper, the tectonics and volcanic activity are directly related to the interaction of the Caribbean, South America, Nazca and Cocos plates, with the smaller North Andean, Maracaibo, Choco and Panama blocks wedged in between, as has been pointed out by various authors [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. This highly complex tectono-dynamic configuration of intense intraplate deformation is manifested in a high density of faults, most of which are considered active or potentially active over northwestern South America and southeastern Central America. In addition, seismicity is spread over a broad area across the wide plate boundary in northwestern South America, Central America, and southwestern Caribbean. Also, several countries in this region present intense volcanic activity, such as Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador, as well as on many of the islands of the Lesser Antilles.
There is no doubt that space geodesy has contributed significantly to the study of the kinematics of the Earth’s crust, allowing to improve the understanding of the tectonics complexity at a global, regional and local level. The analysis and comprehension of the Earth’s crust strain in several places of the world, with a variety of different characteristics and tectonic styles, has gradually been supported by the results obtained from the geodetic networks, initially composed of field stations of data gathering under episodic campaigns type, and later by continuously operating reference stations (cGPS). Several authors have pointed out the extensive applications of space geodesy for scientific purposes, e.g. [14, 15, 16], among others. In the study area, despite the restrictions due to the limited coverage of the national GNSS/GPS networks, its impact is already being observed in studies of the Earth dynamics. The data from the stations have allowed the generation of high precision products such as geodetic time series, velocity fields and estimation of tectonic plate motion rates, seismic cycle analysis, estimation of the magnitude and spatial variability of the plate coupling, among other aspects. In addition to tectonic studies, its use has been extended to the volcano deformation monitoring in several countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Nicaragua), subsidence studies; the use of data for ionosphere and troposphere studies as well as its inclusion, still in its initial state, in tsunami warning systems. Progress has also been made in the conception of multi-parameter stations, based on the joint installation in the same site of diverse equipment such as geodetic, seismological, strong motion and meteorological instruments, among others. It is also important to note that there is a good data availability, although not from all stations due to particular restrictions, that allows its use for various scientific purposes. However, in some cases, through agreements or by formal request of data to national institutions, these can be obtained.
2. Tectonic setting
Gathering of geologic, tectonic, seismologic and geodetic data through the last decades has led to a better understanding of the Caribbean plate, its margins and adjacent regions, progressively bringing in more complexity to the once drawn “drawer-like” Caribbean plate model [17]. In fact, the Caribbean plate borders are actually “plate boundary zones”, PBZ, in the sense of [18], “wide deformation zones” in the sense of [19], particularly transpressional along the southern Caribbean PBZ, or “wide plate margins” in the sense of [10]. These margins amalgamate tectonic blocks of diverse size, composition, origin and geometry (Figure 1), somehow surrounding the Caribbean Sea, cored by the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP) or plateau.
Figure 1.
Tectonic frame. Tectonic blocks: PB (Panama B.), CB (Chocó B.), NAB (North Andean B.), TMB (Triangular Maracaibo B.), BB (Bonaire B.). Other features: CAVA (Central America Volcanic Arc); CCRDB (Central Costa Rica Deformed Belt), EPGFZ (Enriquillo-Plantain Garden Fault Zone), LAS (Leeward Antilles Subduction), MP (Mona Passage), MPFS (Motagua-Polochic Fault System), NHDB (North Hispaniola Deformed Belt), NLAF (Northern Lesser Antilles Forearc). Modified from [13].
The recognition of such tectonic blocks started first along the southern Caribbean margin and northwestern South America corner, because being poorly defined by a disperse infrequent and moderate-in-magnitude (instrumental) seismicity, as well as by a poor surface/sea-bottom expression of the active tectonic features in comparison with the other Caribbean PBZs (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Seismicity. Earthquake epicenters larger than 3 of magnitude recorded in the study area by the National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) of the USGS and the National Seismic Network operated by the Geological Survey of Colombia for the period of time 2000–2020.
The study of this very complex but subtly expressed southern PBZ was enhanced by the fact that a large portion of the features are on land (Figure 1). Conversely, the northern Caribbean plate boundary became a natural laboratory for numerous space geodesy studies due to its apparent structural simplicity, although the first of all GPS studies worldwide, GPS CASA (Central And South America) Project was carried out in the complex southern Caribbean PBZ between 1988 and 1998 [10, 20]. Not as expected, GPS networks have not fully resolved the posed kinematic questions along this northern Caribbean PBZ, since the networks are mostly installed in rather small islands that are within the plate margin themselves that also resulted to be a complex PBZ with several active features lying offshore (Figure 3). As a matter of fact, the larger islands, such as Jamaica and Hispaniola, exist as a proof of such PBZ compressional or transpressional processes. A similar situation happens along the eastern border of the Caribbean plate, where the Atlantic plate subducts beneath an arc of active volcanic islands sitting on the Caribbean plate. Stable GPS stations inside the Caribbean, such as on San Andrés and Providencia islands and Serranilla Cay (Colombia), and Aves Island (Venezuela), will provide a reliable answer as to the relative motion between the Caribbean and surrounding plates. In addition, longer time span comparisons between these internal sites to the plate should confirm any internal deformation or fragmentation of the Caribbean plate itself, as proposed by [13].
Figure 3.
cGPS stations located on the study zone. Table 1 lists the cGPS stations by country.
Besides, strain partitioning at different scales is common to the four Caribbean plate PBZs (Figure 1). In Central America, a coastal sliver, bounded by the Central America trench on the southwest and the active Central America volcanic arc (CAVA) on the northeast, escapes to the north-west (NW), taking advantage of the weakening of the continental crust by the CAVA volcanic activity [21, 22, 23, 24]. A similar situation is reported in the northern Lesser Antilles arc, where the forearc in this region, limited by the active arc on the west-southwest (WSW) and the Atlantic trench on the north-northeast (ENE), moves northward with respect to the arc [25, 26]. Along the northern Caribbean PBZ, the northernmost sliver of the Hispaniola Island, bounded by North Hispaniola and Septentrional faults on the north and south respectively, displaces west faster than most of the island. In the southern Caribbean PBZ, the Bonaire block as well as the block containing the Caribbean nappes overriden onto South America along northern Venezuela (outcropping in the Coastal and Interior ranges), accommodate shortening while slipping dextrally along the large west–east (W-E) trending Oca-Ancón, San Sebastián and El Pilar fault system (Figure 1).
In addition, block indentation and extrusion, and occasional induced oceanic subduction processes at the opposite side of indenters, are also present and rather common to the Caribbean PBZs. Indentation (collision) by submarine relieves or ridges (e.g. Carnegie and Cocos), as engine of tectonic block escape, has been invoked along the Pacific border of South America against the Nazca plate, as for the Pacific coastal sliver of Central America extending between Costa Rica and Guatemala, respectively. In other cases, such strain partitioning has been attributed to the oblique convergence of the subducting plate beneath the overriding one, such as along the northern sector of the Lesser Antilles arc and northernmost block of Hispaniola Island. So has the Ecuadorian-Colombian trench at the southern tip of the North Andes Block –NAB- [27], in the sense of [3]. However, the best regional example of indentation-extrusion is the collision and latter northward-prograding suturing of the Chocó block (originally a constitutive piece of the Cenozoic Panamá arc) against the north–south trending western coast of South America. Some authors as early as early 90’s, e.g. [28, 29, 30], propose that such collision and diachronic suturing process induces the NNE-directed tectonic escape of a large portion of northwestern South America, extending from the Guayaquil Gulf-Tumbes basin –GGTB- in SW Ecuador to the Dutch Leeward Antilles (Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao islands lying north of Venezuela, in the southern Caribbean), and incorporating most of Ecuador territory, the 3 main mountain chains (Western, Central and Eastern) of Colombia and all western mountainous Venezuela. This escape takes place along a major plate boundary named as the Eastern Frontal Fault System –EFFS- by [3]. Much precision has been gathered through the years as to the geometry of that NAB southeastern boundary (e.g., [31, 32, 33, 34, 35], among many others). This tectonic escape is probably young in age, starting in the late Miocene (e.g., [12, 36]), with a tectonic paroxysm in the Pliocene (last 5–3 Ma, [21]), when most of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia [37] and Mérida Andes of Venezuela [12] have actually started elevating to their present heights. A significant fraction of the time delay for the effective coupling (suturing) of the Chocó block against South America, besides the obliquity between the confronting plates, may be explained by the low rigidity exhibited by the Panamá arc at the latitudes of Panamá, which is intensely deformed internally by oroclinal bending and NW-SE trending en-echelon left-lateral faulting (e.g. [13, 24, 38]). The effective collision/accretion of the Chocó block drives the extrusion of NAB (in the sense of [3]), which in the sense of [39] already comprises several NE-escaping blocks, such as Chocó, Maracaibo and Bonaire and others; NAB for this author was already an amalgamation of tectonic blocks. The subduction along which Caribbean plateau floor disappeared into the mantle and drove this indentation-extrusion process, is today partly fossilized between the Chocó block and South America, in association with or running near to the Romeral fault system. This collision has surface expression down to latitude 4°N in Colombia, up to an ENE-WSW-trending alignment of surface tectonic features running across the three Colombian chains at the latitude of Santa Fé de Bogotá, such as Garrapatas, Río Verde and Ibagué faults, and the change of structural style of the front of the Llanos foothills of the Eastern Cordillera, where a dominant dextral strike-slip style on the south (e.g. Algeciras fault) shifts to a much more compressional style on the north (e.g. Guaicáramo, Cusiana and Yopal faults. [39]). Also, the latter author underlines that the Eastern Cordillera becomes much wider across, north of this imaginary line. [40] proposes a broken indenter model for the Panamá-Chocó arc, in which the Chocó arc has been recently accreted to the NAB, resulting in a rapid decrease in shortening in the Eastern Cordillera. At depth, such a change of structural style roughly coincides with the Caldas tear, as described by [41]. In fact, it is not a plate tear but the confrontation of two different oceanic slabs [13]. On the north, the oceanic-plateau-affinity Caribbean plate sinks to the ESE, as a flat slab lying under the Triangular Maracaibo block and Mérida Andes and reaching depths of almost 700 km further east. This subducted piece of Caribbean plate was the one carrying the Panamá arc on its trailing edge and its consumption into the mantle conducted to the collision of the Panamá arc against South America. Meanwhile on the south, the Nazca plate which is a typical oceanic plate at these latitude, subducts under western South America. [42] propose that buoyant Caribbean crust has been amagmatically subducting under the North Andes for 75 Ma.
Finally, the Caribbean plate itself can be considered as a single unit, at least at the current resolution level of the GPS results in the order of 2–3 mm/a [43]. However, the Hess escarpment is seismically active towards its southwestern end [13] and is moving left-laterally in that order of magnitude. In addition, this major submarine tectonic feature juxtaposes two very different Caribbean entities at naked eye. And it lies in the southern prolongation of an imaginary northeast-southwest (NE–SW) striking line passing over the southern tip of the Bahamas platform, where transpression north of it is dominant, building up the Island of Hispaniola. This author proposes that such accident may have played a major role in the faster eastward migration of the Southern Caribbean, the one carrying the LIP or oceanic plateau, in the late and middle Miocene. This author further indicates that a modern reactivation could be starting in the recent geologic time, also with dominant sinistral and subordinate normal components, but this time related to the push of the floating Cocos ridge when being subducted.
3. Regional and national geodetic networks
In the study area, it is observed that the number of installed cGPS stations has gradually increased, some of them as part of global networks as well as international networks as a benefic consequence of catastrophic natural events, and others that correspond to different countries to meet the needs of geospatial information and definition of national reference frames in some countries, as well as to carry out studies with various purposes such as tectonic, volcanic, subsidence, among others. cGPS stations established in North America, Central America and the Caribbean are described by [44]. For this paper, a survey of the cGPS stations currently in operation is made, including those of some national networks, which allows establishing that there are about 307 stations with data availability; the location of these stations is displayed in Figure 3. Twelve of the stations are part of the International GNSS Service (IGS) global network, installed in 10 countries, three of them in Ecuador.
On January 12, 2010, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti, causing more than 316,000 people dead or missing, 300,000 injured and more than 1.3 million homeless [45]. Due to this disaster, with the purpose of advancing in the knowledge of the geodynamics of the Caribbean plate and strengthening national and regional capacities for the hazards identification and risk mitigation of geophysical and meteorological origin, the National Science Foundation (NSF) of USA sponsored the establishment of the Continuously Operating Caribbean GPS Observational Network (COCONet) project, operated by UNAVCO, conceived as the appropriate strategy to complement existing national geodetic networks [46]. The COCONet network reached a number of 135 stations, incorporating stations owned by several national networks. Figure 3 shows the location of 54 of these stations corresponding to 22 countries. We have only used these stations in order to have a wide spatial coverage, and because some stations have experienced problems in their operation, limiting the continuous availability of data.
In Colombia, the Geological Survey began in 2007 the development of GeoRED, a research and development project based on space geodesy technology that relied on a multifaceted approach to cataloging and defining the geodynamics of northwestern South America [47]. GeoRED is a Spanish acronym for Geodesia: Red de Estudios de Deformación. The general purpose of the GeoRED Project is to improve the technical, scientific and operational capabilities in Colombia for analysis, interpretation and policy formulation regarding phenomena related to crustal deformation in Colombia, using GNSS satellite technology. The GNSS GeoRED project is being executed under the operations framework of the Space Geodesy Research Group-SGRG of the Geohazards Directorate [48]. The current cGPS network has 153 stations installed as December 2020. Among these stations, 117 are GeoRED stations, 5 GNSS stations as part of the COCONet Project, and the Bogotá IGS GNSS station. Under a collaborative partnership with local Colombian institutions, thirteen stations have been installed with the Geographical Institute under a joint initiative named GNSS Colombia; eight with the Sugar Cane Research Institute (CENICAÑA); seven with the Bogota City Water Supply Company; and two stations installed with the Universidad Nacional and the Universidad Distrital, respectively. These stations have been fixed to the ground, following mainly UNAVCO’s directions for the installation of permanent stations for the study of crustal deformation. Additionally, the Geological Survey of Colombia –GSC- has deployed another geodetic network composed of 70 permanent stations installed in three volcanic regions for the surveillance of the active volcanoes of the country, where the monitoring is carried out from three volcanological and seismological observatories.
In Ecuador, The Geophysical Institute of the National Polytechnical School of Quito began installing in 2006 a network of GPS stations on the edifices of the most active volcanoes in the country. At the end of 2008, it started to implement a country-wide CGPS network of 70 stations [49]. At present, RENGEO (Spanish acronym for Red Nacional de Geodesia) is a geodetic network composed of 85 permanent stations, of which 30 are located in potentially active volcanoes [50]. The GPS receivers acquire data at different data tracking intervals, of 15 seconds and 1 second for volcanoes, and 30 seconds, 1 second and 0.2 seconds for tectonic studies, which are transmitted to the Monitoring Center in Quito through different ways such as radio links, internet, microwaves and satellite system. After the occurrence of the 2016 Pedernales earthquake, in order to improve the capacity of monitoring and generation of early warning information, especially due to tsunami hazards, a geodetic cGPS network in the province of Esmeraldas was implemented in real time. The data from this network are integrated with the seismic data to improve the rapid determination of the magnitudes and better characterize the source of the rupture.
The deployment of the GPS geodetic network in Costa Rica has been the result of actions carried out by institutions such as the OVSICORI, Spanish acronym for Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Costa Rica (Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of Costa Rica), an institute that belongs to the Universidad Nacional, in coordination with foreign entities and researchers (UNAVCO, universities of South Florida, Central Washington, Georgia Tech, among others), as well as the contribution of National real estate institution. For geodynamic purposes, by the end of 2009, 19 cGPS stations had been established in the Nicoya Peninsula [51]. At present, the geodetic network of Costa Rica is composed of 55 cGPS stations [52].
In Venezuela, [53] points out that there are currently six cGPS stations that are part of COCONet (Figure 3), and two stations of the VENCREEP project funded by the French National Research Agency. Initial efforts by FUNVISIS since 2003 have focused on the installation of 2 local campaign networks (western and eastern Venezuela) of more than 70 benchmarks. These data is complementary for tectonic studies.
Table 1 indicates the number of stations installed in each country that are part of the study area, which are represented in Figure 3. It is possible that there are additional stations in some countries, but we have considered that these stations will improve, in a short-term, the understanding of the geodynamics of the study region.
COUNTRY
N° of Stations
COUNTRY
N° of Stations
COUNTRY
N° of Stations
Anguilla
1
El Salvador
4
Montserrat (Antilles)
1
Antigua & Barbuda
2
Grenada
1
Netherlands Antilles
1
Aruba
1
Guadeloupe
1
Nicaragua
4
Belize
1
Guatemala
3
Panama
12
British Virgin Is.
1
Haiti
1
Puerto Rico
4
Cayman Is.
4
Honduras
4
Dominican Republic
8
Colombia
141
Jamaica
3
St. Lucia
3
Costa Rica
55
Las Bahamas
1
Trinidad & Tobago
1
Cuba
2
Martinique
1
Venezuela
6
Ecuador
37
Mexico
2
Virgin Islands
1
Table 1.
Number of cGPS stations discriminated by country in the study region and depicted in Figure 3.
In terms of instrumentation, Figure 3 depicts that cGPS station distribution is rather homogenous throughout the Caribbean region and adjacent areas, except for 3 countries (Colombia, Costa Rica and Ecuador). Such homogeneity is a result from the COCONet project implementation, trying to reduce large gaps of data availabilty. Conversely, the concentration of stations in the 3 abovementioned countries responds to national policies, as already mentioned (Nicoya experiment in Costa Rica, post-Pedernales 2016 earthquake instrumentation in Ecuador and GeoRED project in Colombia).
4. Data processing and velocity field
The Geological Survey of Colombia received a grant to host a Regional Data Center headquartered in Bogotá that serves the entire circum–Caribbean community and functions as a mirror for COCONet data and metadata [54]. From the existing stations in the study area and displayed in Figure 3, the International Geodesy Lab of GeoRED currently processes 214 stations located on the Caribbean, South America, Nazca and Cocos tectonic plates across many country borders (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
cGPS stations processed at GeoRED-GSC.
All GPS data obtained in the own format of each receiver are converted to RINEX format using the TEQC (Translating. Editing. Quality Check) tool developed by UNAVCO [55]. GPS data processing is carried out using the scientific software GIPSY-X/RTGx v 1.3 developed by JPL-CALTECH-NASA [56], and made available to GeoRED under a cooperation agreement. Final orbits are used in the processing, which include satellite orbits of the GNSS constellations, satellite clock and Earth orientation parameters that are provided in the appropriate format for Gipsy-X by JPL-NASA as contribution to the International GNSS Service (IGS). For the estimation of the tropospheric delay of the GNSS signals, the numerical model known as the Vienna Mapping Function (VMF1) is used, which is an update of the previous model known as VMF [57]. The ocean loading corrections are obtained from the Onsala Space Observatory, and are applied to eliminate the land and ocean tides. The amplitudes and phases of the main oceanic tidal loading terms are estimated by applying the FES2014b model [58]. The processing includes ionospheric models generated regularly by the IGS.
GIPSY-X/RTGx v 1.3 software uses the Precise Point Positioning (PPP) data processing strategy which is based on obtaining precise reference satellite orbit and clock products using the IGS GNSS global network.
Site coordinates for each day are computed in the non-fiducial frame and transformed to the ITRF2014 frame using a 7-parameter Helmert transformation [59]. The ECEF coordinates have been transformed into topocentric coordinates, which allow daily changes in the coordinates to be expressed in terms of local displacements in the North, East and Up (NEU) components with respect to a position in an initial epoch.
GPS time series have been generated using the HECTOR software v 1.7.2 [60] developed by SEGAL (Space & Earth Geodetic Analysis Laboratory), a center formed by the cooperation between the University of the Interior of Beira (UBI) and the Geophysical Institute Infante D. Luiz (IDL) from Portugal. HECTOR is a specialized software for the study of geodetic time series, which allows estimating the time series trend with temporal noise correlations. It is a dynamic software that only accepts stationary noise with constant noise properties, which allows fast matrix operations, benefiting the reduction in processing time.
For the estimation of geodetic velocities, GeoRED has adopted the recommendation of [61], who consider that the period of time of data required to estimate a trend in geodetic stations should be at least 2.5 years, in order to avoid that the estimated motion rate can be affected by various types of noise, including seasonal noise. Thus, the period of observations used in the processing extends to the time range from 2.5 to 20 years. January 1, 2010 is used as the reference epoch for all velocities estimation rather than the midpoint of each individual time series. For the time series estimation, it was used a combined model of power law plus white noise, and power spectrum predicted and observed plots were generated, to verify that the appropriate noise model has been used.
We present a new horizontal velocity field using data from 105 cGPS stations located in the study region. Figure 5 shows the velocities with respect to ITRF2014. Figure 6 shows the velocities with respect to the South American plate (SOAM), Table 2, following the procedure described by [40], who determined the velocity field using only 60 cGPS stations. These new velocity vectors allow observing the strain partitioning at different scales at the four PBZs of the Caribbean plate.
Figure 5.
GPS horizontal velocity field wrt to ITRF 2014.
Figure 6.
GPS horizontal velocity field wrt to SOAM, ITRF2014. Table 2 provides the actual values of all GPS site velocities depicted here.
ID
LON
LAT
Vel E
Vel N
Sig E
Sig N
ID
LON
LAT
Vel E
Vel N
Sig E
Sig N
ABCH
−73.722
4.638
4.8
2.7
0.3
0.2
INTO
−76.043
4.642
8.1
4.2
0.4
0.2
ABMF
−61.528
16.262
16.1
3.9
0.3
0.3
INVE
−74.232
11.188
15.7
4.9
0.4
0.1
ACHO
−80.173
7.415
36.7
2.4
0.9
0.4
ISCO
−87.056
5.544
55.4
65.1
0.7
0.4
ACP1
−79.950
9.371
22.0
2.0
0.2
0.2
LMMF
−60.996
14.595
18.5
3.9
0.4
0.2
ACP6
−79.408
9.238
22.1
2.6
0.2
0.2
LUMB
−77.328
0.137
1.1
−1.0
0.7
0.3
AJCM
−74.885
5.210
8.7
4.7
0.3
0.2
MALO
−81.606
4.003
53.0
4.5
0.5
0.3
ALPA
−72.918
11.528
15.9
4.0
0.5
0.5
MANA
−86.249
12.149
13.2
1.0
0.4
0.3
ANCH
−76.870
3.535
9.3
3.2
0.3
0.3
MECE
−73.712
7.107
9.7
4.6
0.3
0.2
AOPR
−66.754
18.347
14.4
2.4
0.3
0.2
MIPR
−66.527
17.886
15.0
2.6
0.2
0.1
AUCA
−76.883
−0.641
0.5
−0.9
0.4
0.2
MITU
−70.232
1.261
0.5
0.7
0.2
0.1
BA3E
−75.234
0.742
−1.2
−0.5
1.2
0.2
MOME
−80.047
0.492
6.6
3.8
2.6
0.9
BAAP
−73.554
4.072
0.4
−0.1
0.3
0.1
MOPR
−67.931
18.077
14.3
0.9
0.4
0.2
BAEZ
−77.887
−0.459
2.3
−0.1
0.8
0.3
MORA
−73.683
8.959
13.1
4.0
0.3
0.3
BAME
−74.565
4.236
6.1
3.7
0.3
0.3
OCEL
−71.616
4.271
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.1
BAPA
−74.658
5.466
8.0
4.5
0.2
0.2
OVSC
−77.257
1.210
3.3
2.1
0.3
0.2
BASO
−77.393
6.203
12.0
5.1
0.8
0.4
PAL2
−73.184
7.131
9.0
3.7
0.3
0.3
BIEC
−78.502
−1.447
−1.2
0.8
0.4
0.5
PASI
−76.499
0.513
0.2
−0.3
0.5
0.2
BOBG
−73.358
8.312
12.3
4.4
0.4
0.2
PLTR
−75.332
5.044
8.4
4.8
0.4
0.4
BOGT
−74.081
4.640
4.6
4.8
0.3
0.2
POVA
−76.615
2.449
9.2
2.9
0.4
0.2
BUGT
−76.996
3.826
10.6
4.1
0.3
0.2
PUIN
−67.903
3.851
−0.1
0.1
0.3
0.2
CAYS
−79.846
15.795
16.4
−3.3
0.5
0.2
QSEC
−85.357
9.840
17.0
13.9
1.4
1.3
CCAN
−76.300
3.360
8.3
3.6
0.4
0.4
QUIL
−77.291
1.394
7.3
2.9
0.5
0.3
CCPA
−76.085
4.325
8.5
4.8
1.0
0.5
RDSD
−69.911
18.461
13.4
−2.5
0.4
0.3
CCSQ
−76.474
3.063
8.2
1.9
0.8
0.3
RIOP
−78.651
−1.651
3.2
−2.0
0.5
0.5
CIOH
−75.534
10.391
17.8
0.2
0.8
0.2
ROA0
−86.527
16.318
17.6
0.0
0.7
0.2
CN01
−61.765
17.048
16.7
3.8
0.5
0.4
SALF
−78.155
−0.233
2.7
1.9
1.3
0.2
CN05
−68.359
18.564
12.1
−0.2
0.2
0.2
SAN0
−81.716
12.580
18.5
−2.5
0.2
0.2
CN06
−70.656
18.790
11.0
−3.4
0.4
0.3
SCUB
−75.762
20.012
1.0
−5.4
0.2
0.2
CN10
−75.971
17.415
15.2
−1.5
0.3
0.2
SEL1
−75.529
6.191
9.3
4.6
0.3
0.2
CN11
−77.784
17.021
15.8
−1.9
0.3
0.2
SGCG
−73.064
6.992
10.5
4.0
0.3
0.7
CN12
−76.749
18.004
12.7
−2.5
0.5
0.3
SNLR
−78.847
1.293
14.0
0.2
0.5
0.2
CN14
−73.678
20.975
−1.2
−4.2
0.3
0.3
SSIA
−89.117
13.697
12.7
−1.4
0.4
0.4
CN19
−70.049
12.612
18.4
2.2
0.2
0.2
TEAT
−73.539
5.422
5.9
3.4
0.5
0.3
CN20
−82.256
9.352
22.5
0.8
0.6
0.5
TICU
−69.939
−4.187
0.2
0.0
0.4
0.2
CN28
−79.034
8.625
23.9
3.5
0.4
0.3
TONE
−76.139
6.324
9.6
5.2
0.2
0.2
CN29
−83.375
14.049
16.9
−2.4
0.5
0.4
TUCO
−78.748
1.815
18.4
1.9
0.4
0.2
CN35
−81.363
13.376
16.9
−2.4
0.6
0.3
URR0
−76.210
8.012
18.8
1.7
0.3
0.3
CN36
−75.821
8.820
23.6
0.9
1.4
1.7
UWAS
−72.391
6.451
5.4
2.3
0.3
0.2
CN38
−71.988
12.222
17.1
3.4
0.5
0.2
VBUV
−73.859
5.533
8.0
4.8
0.4
0.2
CN39
−70.524
10.206
13.3
1.7
1.8
1.1
VDPR
−73.248
10.436
14.0
4.9
0.2
0.2
CN40
−68.958
12.180
18.1
1.9
0.2
0.2
VEDE
−75.765
4.460
7.6
3.9
0.4
0.3
CN41
−68.042
8.943
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.3
VMER
−77.153
1.785
7.4
3.0
0.2
0.2
COEC
−77.787
0.716
7.1
0.9
0.6
0.2
VNEI
−75.255
3.062
4.7
3.4
0.3
0.3
CORO
−75.288
9.328
17.5
1.5
0.3
0.2
VORI
−77.672
0.863
6.8
2.2
0.3
0.3
CRO1
−64.584
17.757
16.1
2.1
0.3
0.1
VOTU
−74.710
7.019
11.0
5.2
0.4
0.3
CUC1
−72.513
7.932
11.2
2.9
1.2
0.4
VPIJ
−75.107
4.397
6.4
4.2
0.3
0.1
ESMR
−79.724
0.935
17.6
6.2
1.1
0.3
VPOL
−74.861
10.794
14.0
5.2
0.4
0.2
FLFR
−79.843
−0.357
11.7
2.2
1.2
0.3
VPOM
−73.382
4.068
−0.3
0.4
0.5
0.2
GGPA
−78.594
−0.180
5.1
1.5
1.4
0.2
VQUI
−76.642
5.692
9.0
4.8
0.5
0.2
GLPS
−90.304
−0.743
54.8
2.1
0.2
0.2
VROS
−74.323
4.847
6.0
3.6
0.2
0.2
GUAP
−77.895
2.574
13.0
2.2
0.3
0.2
VSJG
−72.639
2.533
−0.4
−1.1
0.7
0.9
GUAT
−90.520
14.590
10.5
−5.7
0.4
0.2
VTAM
−71.753
6.452
1.6
0.2
0.7
0.2
INRI
−75.897
4.909
8.3
4.0
0.6
0.4
Table 2.
GPS site velocities (mm/yr) relative to SOAM in ITRF2014.
The ISCO station, Costa Rica, located on the Cocos plate, subducts beneath Central America, and shows the highest velocity in the study area, 86 mm/yr. wrt SOAM; similar value was obtained by [40] in ITRF2008. The importance of continuous geodetic instrumentation for the seismic cycle monitoring in this zone is indicated by [62] analyzing the occurrence of the Mw 7.6 September 5, 2012, Costa Rica earthquake, recorded in the network installed in the Nicoya Peninsula [51]. The ISCO station, installed in 2011, is the only place that allows estimating the motion of the Cocos plate using GNSS geodetic instruments [63]; these authors estimated the Cocos-Caribbean convergence by comparing the baseline between ISCO and the SANO station, located on the island of San Andrés on the Caribbean plate, obtaining a value of 78 ± 1 mm/yr expressed in ITRF2008. We have made the same comparison, but expressed in ITRF2014, obtaining a value of 76.8 ± 0.5 mm/yr. This result is in agreement with the MORVEL estimate of [43] mentioned by [63] of 76.4 ± 2.5 mm/yr.
Six stations, located on islands in the western sector of the Caribbean plate, show an east-southeast general direction of motion, in a range of 96° to 101° of azimuth, and velocities with respect to SOAM of 18.7 ± 0.3 mm/yr (SAN0), 17.1 ± 0.3 mm/yr (CN35), 16.7 ± 0.5 mm/yr (CAYS), 15.9 ± 0.4 mm/yr (CN11), 15.3 ± 0.3 mm/yr (CN10), and 12.9 ± 0.3 mm/yr (CN12). On the other hand, three stations located on the eastern side of the Caribbean plate on islands of the Lesser Antilles, show velocity values with respect to SOAM about 17.1 ± 0.7 mm/yr (CN01), 16.6 ± 0.5 mm/yr (AMBF) and 18.9 ± 0.4 mm/yr (LMMF), in a general east-northeast direction, with azimuth values in the range of 76° to 78°.
MALO (Malpelo Island) and GLPS (Galapagos Island) stations confirm the rapid motion of the Nazca plate wrt to SOAM. The estimated velocity values in ITRF2014 are not so different from those estimated by [40] in ITRF2008. The ITRF2014 velocities are 53.2 ± 0.5 mm/yr with an azimuth of 87.8° for MALO, and 54.9 ± 0.2 mm/yr and azimuth 87.8° for GLPS.
The GPS stations located on the Colombian coast of the Pacific Ocean show similar values to those obtained by [40], increasing the velocity to the south. However, the ESMR station, located in Ecuadorean coast shows variation in the northern component of velocity, which can be attributed to the effect of the 2016 Pedernales earthquake [64, 65]. It is important to note that the velocity field of [40] is estimated based on data until March 2016, prior to the aforementioned earthquake. The new velocity field contains the offsets associated to the coseismic displacements for the generation of the respective time series and velocity estimation.
At regional scale, wrt to SOAM, we can clearly see how NAB (in the sense of [3]) is detached from SOAM, and is moving at around from few mm/yr to a ten of mm/yr in the ENE-NE direction. In a general manner, slip rates within NAB tend to decrease from west to east, from the pacific border towards inland, and from south to north, implying coupling at the over-ridding plate-slab interface (e.g. [27]). Meanwhile, the Caribbean plate seems to exhibit a more similar (more homogenous) slip rate across the plate, trending E-ESE. The herein obtained values across the Caribbean plate tend to confirm the ≈20 mm/yr of eastward motion of this thickened oceanic plate already known per years now. However, it is very clear now that the Panamá block probably is not part of the Caribbean plate, because exhibiting a higher slip rate to the E-ENE than the rest of the Caribbean plate (e.g. [12, 39, 40]). It appears that such higher slip rate is transferred to NAB located to the east, confirming the indentation-extrusion mechanism responsible for the tectonic escape of NAB, as a consequence of collision and later suturing of the Chocó block against SA (and directly to NAB; e.g. [13, 28, 29, 30, 39, 40]).
5. Conclusions
A new horizontal geodetic velocity field wrt SOAM is presented, expressed in ITRF2014. With respect to the previous estimate, the spatial coverage of the study area has been increased, as well as the number of stations and the observation time at each station used in the solution.
The precision of the ISCO motion estimation, located on the Cocos plate, has been improved with respect to previous estimation, using data from 7.6 years of observation.
Although there are no substantial differences in the station velocities processed in this study, located on islands both west and east of the Caribbean plate, except for that shown by one station, it can be concluded that the Caribbean plate probably does not behave uniformly as a unit, as one might conclude from the difference between the directions, about 21°, changing in the general direction from east-southeast to east-northeast.
The study region shows examples of the importance of GNSS geodetic instrumentation for the study of the seismic cycle.
Acknowledgments
To the Geological Survey of Colombia for supporting the Space Geodesy Research Group which has allowed the implementation and development of the GeoRED project, first between 2007 and 2016, funded by the grant 0043000220000 from the National Planning Department, and second, 2018-2021 funded under the institutional code 1000810 as part of the Research, Monitoring and Evaluation of Geological Hazards in the national territory. TO UNAVCO for its permanent support and for facilitating our participation in the COCONet project as well as the installation of stations in several countries, including in our countries of Colombia and Venezuela; also for the grant that permitted the implementation of the Regional Data Center in Bogotá, Colombia. To the Geophysical Institute of the Polytechnic School of Quito, Ecuador, for cooperation and joint work, as well as the exchange of data with the GSC. To JPL-NASA for the license to use the GIPSY-X software, and to SEGAL for providing the HECTOR software. To the members of the SGRG for all their support to advance the GeoRED project.
\n',keywords:"GNSS, Plate tectonics, North Andean Block, Caribbean region, South America plate",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76166.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/76166.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76166",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76166",totalDownloads:339,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 6th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 13th 2021",datePrePublished:"April 8th 2021",datePublished:"June 30th 2021",dateFinished:"April 8th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"For several years, under the framework of national and international projects, the number of GNSS geodetic stations has been increasing in countries located in the area comprised by the Caribbean, northwestern South America and Central America. Data from these geodetic stations have made it possible not only to meet the needs for geospatial information in each of the countries, but also to get a better understanding about the geodynamic interaction of the Caribbean, South American, Nazca and Cocos plates, as well as tectonic blocks wedged in between these plates. This article presents a brief description of the tectonic framework, the existing geodetic networks and the results obtained using data from some stations in the study area.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76166",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76166",signatures:"Héctor Mora-Páez and Franck Audemard",book:{id:"9870",type:"book",title:"Geodetic Sciences",subtitle:"Theory, Applications and Recent Developments",fullTitle:"Geodetic Sciences - Theory, Applications and Recent Developments",slug:"geodetic-sciences-theory-applications-and-recent-developments",publishedDate:"June 30th 2021",bookSignature:"Bihter Erol and Serdar Erol",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9870.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-767-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-763-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-768-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"75478",title:"Dr.",name:"Bihter",middleName:null,surname:"Erol",slug:"bihter-erol",fullName:"Bihter Erol"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"334555",title:"Dr.",name:"Héctor",middleName:null,surname:"Mora-Páez",fullName:"Héctor Mora-Páez",slug:"hector-mora-paez",email:"hmora.sgc@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"351437",title:"Dr.",name:"Franck",middleName:null,surname:"Audemard",fullName:"Franck Audemard",slug:"franck-audemard",email:"faudemard@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central University of Venezuela",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Venezuela"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Tectonic setting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Regional and national geodetic networks",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Data processing and velocity field",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Case J. E., Durán L., López A., Moore W. Tectonic investigations in western Colombia and eastern Panama. Bulletin Geological Society of America. 1971: 82 (10): 2685-2712. DOI: 10.1130/0016-7606(1971)82[2685: TIIWCA]2.0.CO;2'},{id:"B2",body:'Dewey, J. Seismicity and tectonics of western Venezuela. Bulletin Seismological Society of America. 1972: 62 (6): 1711-1751'},{id:"B3",body:'Pennington W. D. Subduction of the Eastern Panama Basin and Seismotectonics of Northwestern South America. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1981: 86 (B11): 10753-10770. DOI: 10.1029/JB086iB11p10753'},{id:"B4",body:'Kellogg J., Bonini W. 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Revista de Biología Tropical, 2012): 60(3) 33-41'},{id:"B64",body:'Nocquet J.M., Jarrin P., Vallée M., Mothes P. A., Grandin R., Rolandone F., Delouis B., Yepes H., Font Y. C., Fuentes D., Régnier M., Laurendeau A., Cisneros D., Hernandez S., Sladen A., Singaucho J. C., Mora H., Gomez J., Monte L., Charvis P. Supercycle at the Ecuadorian subduction zone revealed after the 2016 Pedernales earthquake. Nature Geoscience. 2017:10, 145–149. DOI: 10.1038/ngeo2864'},{id:"B65",body:'Mothes P. A., Rolandone F., Nocquet J.-M., Jarrin P., Alvarado A. P., Ruiz M. C., Cisneros D., Mora-Páez H., Segovia M. Coseismic Surface Slip Recorded by Continuous and High Rate GPS during the 2016 Pedernales Mw 7.8 Earthquake, Northern Andes, Ecuador-Colombia, Seismological Research Letters 2018: 89(2A), 534-541, DOI: 10.1785/0220170243'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Héctor Mora-Páez",address:"hmora@sgc.gov.co",affiliation:'
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All publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his/her institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click here.
\n\n
For Editorial Policies for journals please consult individual journal pages.
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\n
Conflicts of Interest Policy
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In line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
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\\n\\t
A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
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Participation in drafting or revising the work
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Approval of the manuscript version to be published
All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\n
In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\n
Translation Policy
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IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\n
Online First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
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Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\n
You are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\n
If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
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Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
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Access policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\n
Conflicts of Interest Policy
\n\n
In line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\n
\n\t
A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\n\t
Participation in drafting or revising the work
\n\t
Approval of the manuscript version to be published
All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\n
IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\n
In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\n
Translation Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\n
Online First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\n
Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\n
You are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\n
If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\n
Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\n
Access policy
\n\n
IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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However, it can only be activated under ultraviolet light irradiation due to its wide bandgap, high recombination, and weak separation efficiency of carriers. Doping is an effective method to extend the light absorption to the visible light region. In this chapter, we will address the importance of doping, different doping modes, preparation method, and photocatalytic mechanism in TiO2 photocatalysts. Thereafter, we will concentrate on Ti3+ self‐doping, nonmetal doping, metal doping, and codoping. Examples of progress can be given for each one of these four doping modes. The influencing factors of preparation method and doping modes on photocatalytic performance (spectrum response, carrier transport, interfacial electron transfer reaction, surface active sites, etc.) are summed up. The main objective is to study the photocatalytic processes, to elucidate the mechanistic models for a better understanding the photocatalytic reactions, and to find a method of enhancing photocatalytic activities.",book:{id:"5139",slug:"semiconductor-photocatalysis-materials-mechanisms-and-applications",title:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis",fullTitle:"Semiconductor Photocatalysis - Materials, Mechanisms and Applications"},signatures:"Fei Huang, Aihua Yan and Hui Zhao",authors:[{id:"178389",title:"Dr.",name:"Fei",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"fei-huang",fullName:"Fei Huang"},{id:"185126",title:"Dr.",name:"Aihua",middleName:null,surname:"Yan",slug:"aihua-yan",fullName:"Aihua Yan"},{id:"185127",title:"Ms.",name:"Hui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"hui-zhao",fullName:"Hui Zhao"}]},{id:"17184",doi:"10.5772/17039",title:"Polymer Nanocomposites: From Synthesis to Applications",slug:"polymer-nanocomposites-from-synthesis-to-applications",totalDownloads:17338,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:70,abstract:null,book:{id:"1045",slug:"nanocomposites-and-polymers-with-analytical-methods",title:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods",fullTitle:"Nanocomposites and Polymers with Analytical Methods"},signatures:"S. 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This chapter aimed at providing some basic and fundamental properties of ceria, the importance of oxygen vacancies in this material, nano‐size effects and various synthesis strategies to form diverse structural morphologies. Finally, some key applications of ceria‐based nanostructures are reviewed. 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The two physical effects are the quantization of electronic states apparent leading to very sensitive size-dependent effects such as optical and magnetic properties and the high surface-to-volume ratio modifies the thermal, mechanical, and chemical properties of materials. The nanoparticles’ unique physical and chemical properties render them most appropriate for a number of specialist applications.",book:{id:"9109",slug:"engineered-nanomaterials-health-and-safety",title:"Engineered Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Engineered Nanomaterials - Health and Safety"},signatures:"Takalani Cele",authors:[{id:"305934",title:"Dr.",name:"Takalani",middleName:null,surname:"Cele",slug:"takalani-cele",fullName:"Takalani Cele"}]},{id:"72636",title:"Nanocomposite Materials",slug:"nanocomposite-materials",totalDownloads:2283,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Nanocomposites are the heterogeneous/hybrid materials that are produced by the mixtures of polymers with inorganic solids (clays to oxides) at the nanometric scale. Their structures are found to be more complicated than that of microcomposites. They are highly influenced by the structure, composition, interfacial interactions, and components of individual property. Most popularly, nanocomposites are prepared by the process within in situ growth and polymerization of biopolymer and inorganic matrix. With the rapid estimated demand of these striking potentially advanced materials, make them very much useful in various industries ranging from small scale to large to very large manufacturing units. With a great deal to mankind with environmental friendly, these offer advanced technologies in addition to the enhanced business opportunities to several industrial sectors like automobile, construction, electronics and electrical, food packaging, and technology transfer.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Mousumi Sen",authors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}]},{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:4067,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3784,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"71346",title:"Application of Nanomaterials in Environmental Improvement",slug:"application-of-nanomaterials-in-environmental-improvement",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"In recent years, researchers used many scientific studies to improve modern technologies in the field of reducing the phenomenon of pollution resulting from them. In this chapter, methods to prepare nanomaterials are described, and the main properties such as mechanical, electrical, and optical properties and their relations are determined. The investigation of nanomaterials needed high technologies that depend on a range of nanomaterials from 1 to 100 nm; these are scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffractions (XRD). The applications of nanomaterials in environmental improvement are different from one another depending on the type of devices used, for example, solar cells for producing clean energy, nanotechnologies in coatings for building exterior surfaces, and sonochemical decolorization of dyes by the effect of nanocomposite.",book:{id:"10072",slug:"nanotechnology-and-the-environment",title:"Nanotechnology and the Environment",fullTitle:"Nanotechnology and the Environment"},signatures:"Ali Salman Ali",authors:[{id:"313275",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"ali-salman",fullName:"Ali Salman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"208",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81495",title:"Enzyme-Like Property (Nanozyme) of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",slug:"enzyme-like-property-nanozyme-of-iron-oxide-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102958",abstract:"Iron oxide nanoparticles perform biological activity under physiological conditions. They exhibit enzyme-like properties that catalyze redox reactions mediated by natural enzymes of oxidoreductase and are classified into a typical of nanozymes that are defined as nanomaterials with enzyme-like activities. In addition, iron oxide nanoparticles widely exist in biological system, such as magnetosome and ferritin that not only regulate iron metabolism, but also regulate ROS homostasis. The enzyme-like properties of iron oxide nanoparticles render them with broad biomedical applications including immunoassay, biosensor, antimicrobial, anti-tumor, antioxidant. Taken together, iron oxide nanoparticles are bioactive materials and may perform particular biological function in life activity.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Lizeng Gao"},{id:"82277",title:"Application of Iron Oxide in Supercapacitor",slug:"application-of-iron-oxide-in-supercapacitor",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105001",abstract:"Iron oxide nanostructures have been considered very promising material as electrode in electrochemical energy storage devices because of their lower cost of synthesis and high theoretical charge storage capacity. Iron oxide nanoparticles and their nanocomposites have performed excellent in supercapacitor. Iron oxide as negative electrode has extended the working voltage window of a supercapacitor. The main problems associated with iron oxide based electrodes are their poor electrical conductivity and cycle stability. Therefore, a conductive carbon matrix has been added to the iron oxide based electrodes to improve the electrochemical performance. In this chapter, recent progress on iron oxide and its composite with different materials as electrode in supercapacitor is summarized. The various synergistic effects of nanocomposites and compositional engineering to enhance the electrochemical performance of iron oxide are also discussed.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Rajan Lakra, Rahul Kumar, Parasanta Kumar Sahoo, Sandeep Kumar and Ankur Soam"},{id:"82030",title:"Magnetite Nanoparticles (Fe3O4) for Radio-Frequency and Microwave Applications",slug:"magnetite-nanoparticles-fe3o4-for-radio-frequency-and-microwave-applications",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104930",abstract:"The size and shape dependent tunable electromagnetic (EM) properties of magnetite – Fe3O4 nanoparticles makes them an attractive material for various future electronics and biomedical device applications such as tunable attenuators, miniaturized isolators and circulators, RF antennas, EM shielding, and biomedical implants etc. The strategic design of RF devices requires specific dielectric and magnetic properties according to the applications, which in turn depends on the size and shape of the particles. At nanoscale, iron oxide’s magnetic and dielectric properties are very different from its bulk properties and can be tuned and enhanced by utilizing different synthesis approaches. In this chapter, we summarize electromagnetic properties of magnetite (Fe3O4) nanomaterials such as, complex permeability, complex permittivity, magnetic and dielectric loss tangents, saturation magnetization, temperature dependence, and ferromagnetic resonance; and how these properties can be optimized by varying different synthesis parameters. Finally, Fe3O4 nanocomposites will be explored by using different synthesis approaches for implementation of RF and microwave applications and we will conclude the chapter with future recommendations.",book:{id:"10824",title:"Iron Oxide Nanoparticles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10824.jpg"},signatures:"Poonam Lathiya and Jing Wang"},{id:"79274",title:"Molecular Simulation of Cholesteric Liquid-Crystal Polyesteramides: Conformational and Structure Analysis by Rietveld Refinement",slug:"molecular-simulation-of-cholesteric-liquid-crystal-polyesteramides-conformational-and-structure-anal",totalDownloads:77,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100388",abstract:"Molecular modeling techniques are applied to polyesteramides designed as PNOBDME (C34H38N2O6)n and PNOBEE (C26H22N2O6)n, synthesized and characterized as cholesteric liquid crystals -through the condensation reaction between 4 and 4′-(terephthaloyl- diaminedibenzoic chloride (NOBC) and racemic glycol: DL-1,2 dodecanediol, or DL-1,2-butanediol, respectively, being chemical modifications of precursor multifunctional cholesteric LC polyesters, adding new properties but holding their helical macromolecular structures. Although the starting raw materials were racemic, these cholesteric LC polymers exhibit unexpected optical activity and chiral morphology. For that reason, conformational analysis is studied on the monomer models of PNOBDME and PNOBEE. Four helical conformers models, experimentally observed by NMR, are proposed for each cholesteric polyesteramide: Rgg, Rgt, Sgg, Sgt. Polymerization of the monomeric conformers, with minima energies, have been simulated and used to reproduce the crystalline fraction observed by x-ray diffraction. Three orders of chirality are observed in the structure of the polymer chains: One due to the asymmetric carbon atoms, a second chirality due to the two successive rotations of the benzene groups, along the main chain, within the monomer which implies the formation of helical molecules, for both R and S chirality and still, a third chirality corresponding to the twisting of the rigid/semirigid cholesteric LC polymer chains. All these factors contributing to the net optical activity observed in these materials. Crystal packing is simulated in triclinic primitive P1cells, with molecular chains oriented parallel to the z-axis (c lattice parameter equal to the pitch length of each simulated polymer helix) and parameters a, b, α, β and γ, obtained by Pawley refinement from the known structures of precursor polyesters. The simulated x-ray diffraction patterns of the proposed crystal models fit, after successive Pawley and Rietveld refinement cycles, the experimental WAXS. Powder Quantitative Phase Analysis applied to an ideal mixture with the four possible helical conformers, for each degree of polymerization, allows to refine their relative weight and determine the major phase relative amount. These results would confirm the theory of a preferable recrystallization, among the four possible helical diastereoisomers, depending on the synthetic conditions.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Mercedes Pérez Méndez, José Fayos Alcañiz and Marc Meunier"},{id:"80636",title:"The LCD Interfacing and Programming",slug:"the-lcd-interfacing-and-programming",totalDownloads:203,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102408",abstract:"This chapter will discuss 10 subchapters that will make it more detailed and easier for the reader to master and implement them in their project. Before discussing the subchapters in detail the author discusses the wide use of LCD in various equipment that needs display and the superiority of it compared to the conventional existing displays especially in the low energy consumption of it compare to the rest of the displays, then the author ended this general discussion by mentioning the type of LCD known in the market right now (passive matrix and active matrix). After discussing the LCD in general, the author starts discussing the detailed 10 subchapters. The 10 subchapters are 1. 2 × 16 LCD; 2. LCD controller; 3. LCD instructions; 4. LCD initialization; 5. More instructions; 6. LCD initialization subroutine; 7. Displaying a character on the LCD; 8. Displaying more than 1 character on the LCD; 9. A 4-bit mode 2 × 16 LCD module. To give the readers with a succinct overview of important details or interesting information, the author provides the summary of this chapter in subchapter 10. The author also provided the glossary to enable the readers to quickly study the general terms used in this chapter. Finally, the author provides some questions to enable the reader to test their own knowledge of this chapter. The references is also provided to enable the readers to refer to some articles as the sources of this subchapter and to enable them to enrich their knowledge of this chapter.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Dahlan Sitompul and Poltak Sihombing"},{id:"80473",title:"Overview of Liquid Crystal Research: Computational Advancements, Challenges, Future Prospects and Applications",slug:"overview-of-liquid-crystal-research-computational-advancements-challenges-future-prospects-and-appli",totalDownloads:93,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101417",abstract:"Liquid crystal (LC) is a fascinating state of matter that combines order and mobility at multiple hierarchical levels, spanning from nanoscale to the macroscale, or from molecular to the macroscopic, and is composed of molecules and layers as thin as of a few nanometer in size. This unique combination allows such a system to adapt to a wide range of external stimuli, including temperature, magnetic field, electric field, mechanical stress, light, chemical reaction, and electrochemical response, by determining a new lowest energy configuration. Liquid crystalline nanostructures efficiently transmit and amplify information and attributes over macroscopic sizes due to their dynamic nature. The responsiveness and diversity of LCs provide enormous potential and challenges for fundamental scientific insights as well as opening the door to countless applied applications. Recent breakthroughs in nanotechnology have boosted the discipline, both in terms of theoretical simulations and the ability to fabricate nanoscale structures such as sub-wavelength gratings, nanoporous materials, and nanoparticles. Because LC materials are switchable, a new family of active plasmonic and nanophotonic devices is emerging, describing fascinating basic research processes as well as the creation of upgraded devices. This chapter discusses the fundamentals, computational advances, future prospects and challenges, as well as potential applications of LCs.",book:{id:"10957",title:"Liquid Crystals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10957.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Malik, Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Wajeehah Shahid, Syed Zaheer Ud Din, Mujtaba Ikram, Nadia Anwar, Samiah Shahid and Faryal Idrees"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:10},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:{name:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. 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Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"81972",title:"The Submicroscopic Plasmodium falciparum Malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa; 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