Risk factors for caustic ingestion in paediatric patients [18, 21].
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5168",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Alkali-ion Batteries",title:"Alkali-ion Batteries",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers selected topics in different aspects of science and technology of alkali-ion batteries written by experts from international scientific community. Through the 9 chapters, the reader will have access to the most recent research and development findings on alkali-ion batteries through original research studies and literature reviews. This book covers inter-disciplinary aspects of alkali-ion batteries including new progress on material chemistry, micro/nano structural designs, computational and theoretical models and understanding of structural changes during electrochemical processes of alkali-ion batteries.",isbn:"978-953-51-2396-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2395-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6655-9",doi:"10.5772/61429",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"alkali-ion-batteries",numberOfPages:200,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2ffb06f3e5dbad9167428c4c443e3a5e",bookSignature:"Dongfang Yang",publishedDate:"June 1st 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5168.jpg",numberOfDownloads:20379,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:24,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:50,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 29th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 20th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 24th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 23rd 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"177814",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongfang",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"dongfang-yang",fullName:"Dongfang Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177814/images/system/177814.jpg",biography:"Dongfang Yang received his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the University of Guelph in 1995. He joined the National Research Council Canada in London Ontario in 2001 and is now a Senior Research Officer. His current research interests include laser materials processing; pulsed laser, sputtering and e-beam deposition of thin films; new materials development for energy storage devices; chemical and optical sensors development; and electrochemical studies of organic adsorption and self-assembly monolayer. He is currently serving as an editor or editorial board member for ten scientific journals and was listed among the top 2% most-cited scientists according to a Stanford study in 2020. He also holds an adjunct professorship at Western University, Ontario, Canada.",institutionString:"National Research Council Canada",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"National Research Council Canada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"756",title:"Power Electronics",slug:"power-electronics"}],chapters:[{id:"50608",title:"Carbon Nanofiber-Based Materials as Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries",doi:"10.5772/63235",slug:"carbon-nanofiber-based-materials-as-anode-materials-for-lithium-ion-batteries",totalDownloads:2593,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Considerable efforts have been devoted to the research of high-performance and long-lifespan lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for their applications in large-scale power units. As one of the most important components in LIBs, anode plays an important role in determining the overall performance of LIBs. Nowadays, graphite has been the most successfully commercialized anode material. However, its limited theoretical capacity (372 mA h g−1) and limited power density seems insufficient for the next-generation LIBs. To overcome these problems, new materials with fundamentally higher capacity and higher power density are urgently needed. Recently, there is an ever-increasing interest in developing novel carbonaceous nanomaterials to replace graphite as the anode materials for LIBs. Such materials have included carbon spheres, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers (CNFs), porous monoliths, and graphene. Among these alternative forms of carbon, CNFs and its morphological-controlled derivatives (such as porous or hollow CNFs) have attracted much attention due to their unique and interesting properties such as one-dimensional (1D) nanostructure, good electronic conductivity, and large surface areas. Moreover, these CNFs can be used to encapsulate various second phases to form some functional composite, meeting further requirements including higher energy density, higher power density or flexible requirements, for the advanced LIB operation.",signatures:"Yunhua Yu, Yuan Liu and Xiaoping Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50608",authors:[{id:"46392",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoping",surname:"Yang",slug:"xiaoping-yang",fullName:"Xiaoping Yang"},{id:"179242",title:"Prof.",name:"Yunhua",surname:"Yu",slug:"yunhua-yu",fullName:"Yunhua Yu"},{id:"185629",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan",surname:"Liu",slug:"yuan-liu",fullName:"Yuan Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"50410",title:"Capacity Optimization Nanotechnologies for Enhanced Energy Storage Systems",doi:"10.5772/62319",slug:"capacity-optimization-nanotechnologies-for-enhanced-energy-storage-systems",totalDownloads:1815,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rechargeable lithium-ion battery (LIB) cathodes consist of transition metal oxide material, which reversibly (de)intercalates lithium at a high potential difference versus a carbon anode. Manganese oxide cathode material offers lower cost and toxicity than the normally used cobalt. However, LiMn2O4 suffers from capacity fading, Mn dissolution at high temperatures, and poor high rate capability. Its ultimate performance, however, depends on the morphology and electrochemical properties. In this work, Au alloyed with Fe, Pd, and Pt, respectively, was synthesized and used to improve the microstructure and catalytic activities by functionalizing LiMn2O4 via a coprecipitation calcination method. The pristine LiMn2O4 and modified materials were examined using a combination of spectroscopic and microscopic techniques along with in-detail galvanostatic charge–discharge tests. Microscopic results revealed that the modified composite cathode materials had high phase purity, highly crystallized particles, and more regular morphological structures with narrow size distributions. Galvanostatic charge–discharge testing indicated that the initial discharge capacities of LiMxMn2-xO4 at 0.1 C for M0.02=PtAu, FeAu, and PdAu were 147, 155.5, and 160.2 mAh g−1, respectively. The enhancement of the capacity retention and higher electrode coulombic efficiency of the modified materials were significant, especially at high C rate. At enlarged cycling potential ranges, the Li(M)0.02Mn1.98O4 samples delivered relevant discharge capacities (70, 80, and 90 mAh g-1) compared to LiMn2O4 (45 mAh g-1).",signatures:"Natasha Ross and Emmanuel I. Iwuoha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50410",authors:[{id:"178638",title:"Dr.",name:"Natasha",surname:"Ross",slug:"natasha-ross",fullName:"Natasha Ross"}],corrections:null},{id:"50231",title:"Cathode Materials for Lithium Sulfur Batteries: Design, Synthesis, and Electrochemical Performance",doi:"10.5772/62439",slug:"cathode-materials-for-lithium-sulfur-batteries-design-synthesis-and-electrochemical-performance",totalDownloads:3292,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the rapid development of electronic devices, portable electronics, and electric vehicles, the energy density and cycle life of LIBs are insufficient for the demands. Based on the reaction mechanisms, lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries have a high specific capacity of 1672 mAh/g, with a theoretical energy density up to 2600 Wh/Kg. However, the sulfur cannot serve as cathode individually because of its isolation nature and soluble compounds, which necessitates a second component as a conducting matrix and sulfur host. Thus, sulfur cathodes have diversified through microstructure designing with various materials, including inorganic compounds, polymers, carbon materials, and their hybrids, which should be satisfied several essential requirements, such as high stable incorporation with sulfur, high electrical conductivity of electrode materials, and loose framework to suffer the volume expansion of cathode during charge-discharge process. These investigations may provide the effective routes to prepare different new cathode materials with unique structures and morphologies for Li-S batteries, which improve cycling stability, coulombic efficiency, and rate capacity of the electrode at higher current density.",signatures:"Lianfeng Duan, Feifei Zhang and Limin Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50231",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50231",authors:[{id:"178385",title:"Dr.",name:"Lianfeng",surname:"Duan",slug:"lianfeng-duan",fullName:"Lianfeng Duan"},{id:"184768",title:"Mrs.",name:"Feifei",surname:"Zhang",slug:"feifei-zhang",fullName:"Feifei Zhang"},{id:"184769",title:"Prof.",name:"Limin",surname:"Wang",slug:"limin-wang",fullName:"Limin Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"50432",title:"Metal Hydride-Based Materials as Negative Electrode for All- Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries",doi:"10.5772/62866",slug:"metal-hydride-based-materials-as-negative-electrode-for-all-solid-state-lithium-ion-batteries",totalDownloads:2052,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The recently developed metal hydride (MH)-based material is considered to be a potential negative material for lithium-ion batteries, owing to its high theoretical Li storage capacity, relatively low volume expansion, and suitable working potential with very small polarization. However, it suffers from the slow kinetics, poor reversibility, and unfavourable cyclability in conventional organic liquid electrolyte systems, which enormously limit its practical application. In this chapter, we describe an all-solid-state battery system consisting of MH working electrode, LiBH4 solid electrolyte, and Li metal counter electrode. The electrochemical properties of MgH2 and TiH2 composites are investigated, which showed much better performances using LiBH4 as solid-state electrolyte than using conventional organic liquid electrolyte.",signatures:"Liang Zeng, Koji Kawahito and Takayuki Ichikawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50432",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50432",authors:[{id:"17495",title:"Dr.",name:"Takayuki",surname:"Ichikawa",slug:"takayuki-ichikawa",fullName:"Takayuki Ichikawa"},{id:"181644",title:"Dr.",name:"Liang",surname:"Zeng",slug:"liang-zeng",fullName:"Liang Zeng"},{id:"185433",title:"Mr.",name:"Koji",surname:"Kawahito",slug:"koji-kawahito",fullName:"Koji Kawahito"}],corrections:null},{id:"50232",title:"Intercalation of Poly[Oligo(Ethylene Glycol) Oxalate] into Vanadium Pentoxide Xerogel: Preparation, Characterization and Conductivity Properties",doi:"10.5772/62441",slug:"intercalation-of-poly-oligo-ethylene-glycol-oxalate-into-vanadium-pentoxide-xerogel-preparation-char",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We report, for the first time, the intercalation of poly[oligo(ethylene glycol) oxalate] (POEGO) and POEGO lithium salt (LiCF3SO3) complex (POEGO-LiCF3SO3) into vanadium pentoxide xerogel (V2O5nH2O). The effect of changing the polymer concentration on the interlayer expansion of the layered host was studied, and the optimal intercalation ratio was determined to be 1:2. The intercalates were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and AC impedance spectroscopy.",signatures:"Evans A. Monyoncho, Rabin Bissessur, Douglas C. Dahn and Victoria Trenton",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50232",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50232",authors:[{id:"30882",title:"Prof.",name:"Rabin",surname:"Bissessur",slug:"rabin-bissessur",fullName:"Rabin Bissessur"},{id:"39937",title:"Dr.",name:"Douglas",surname:"Dahn",slug:"douglas-dahn",fullName:"Douglas Dahn"},{id:"184826",title:"Dr.",name:"Evans A.",surname:"Monyoncho",slug:"evans-a.-monyoncho",fullName:"Evans A. Monyoncho"},{id:"184827",title:"Ms.",name:"Victoria",surname:"Trenton",slug:"victoria-trenton",fullName:"Victoria Trenton"}],corrections:null},{id:"50575",title:"Highly Functionalized Lithium-Ion Battery",doi:"10.5772/63491",slug:"highly-functionalized-lithium-ion-battery",totalDownloads:2132,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Future energy demand is an important issue that requires consideration. Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are one of the most popular types of rechargeable battery for portable electronic devices, such as mobile phones, cameras, and laptop computers, and have led to other applications being commercialized. Distributed power generation using renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic (PV), can efficiently supply electricity according to on-site demand. If the electrodes of a LIB could function as a solar cell, the storage device could provide electricity without an electric power supply.",signatures:"Hiroki Nagai and Mitsunobu Sato",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50575",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50575",authors:[{id:"148259",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsunobu",surname:"Sato",slug:"mitsunobu-sato",fullName:"Mitsunobu Sato"},{id:"148920",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroki",surname:"Nagai",slug:"hiroki-nagai",fullName:"Hiroki Nagai"}],corrections:null},{id:"50515",title:"Stress Analysis of Electrode Particles in Lithium-Ion Batteries",doi:"10.5772/62577",slug:"stress-analysis-of-electrode-particles-in-lithium-ion-batteries",totalDownloads:1833,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter reviews several theoretical models that are used to compute the stress fields inside the electrode particles of lithium-ion batteries during discharging/charging process and provides a guideline for researchers to choose the appropriate models. Due to the limitation of the existing models, a general electrochemo-mechanical framework is presented to model the concentration and stress fields of the electrode during the phase transformation. The interaction between stresses fields and phase transformation is addressed, which is a novel discovery in the research of lithium-ion batteries. The electrodes with different sizes and geometries are compared. The structural and electrochemical advantages of hollow core-shell structure particles are highlighted. The present work could help to accurate predict stress profile in electrode particles with different sizes, geometries, and charging operations and contributes to finding the optimal electrode. Therefore, this chapter is helpful for the material and structure design of electrodes of lithium-ion batteries.",signatures:"Yingjie Liu and Huiling Duan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50515",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50515",authors:[{id:"179267",title:"Dr.",name:"Huiling",surname:"Duan",slug:"huiling-duan",fullName:"Huiling Duan"},{id:"179433",title:"MSc.",name:"Yingjie",surname:"Liu",slug:"yingjie-liu",fullName:"Yingjie Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"50130",title:"High-Voltage Cathodes for Na-Ion Batteries: Sodium– Vanadium Fluorophosphates",doi:"10.5772/62317",slug:"high-voltage-cathodes-for-na-ion-batteries-sodium-vanadium-fluorophosphates",totalDownloads:2763,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter analyses the main advances made in the field of sodium–vanadium fluorophosphates as cathodes for Na-ion batteries and tries to clarify some discrepancies and common errors published about these compounds. The sodium–vanadium fluorophosphate family can be divided in two main members: Na3V2(PO4)2F3 (V+3 extreme phase) and Na3V2O2(PO4)2F (V4+ extreme phase). Na3V2O2x(PO4)2F3-2x, where 0 < x < 1 would correspond to intermediate V3+/4+ mixed valence phases. Among them, the V3+ extreme has demonstrated to be difficult to isolate, whereas the V4+ and mixed valence phases can be more easily prepared by different synthesis methods and from different vanadium sources. In terms of electrochemical performance, mixed valent compound provides good performance, with high specific capacity at moderate/high cycling rates, and long cycle life. The future perspectives for this family of compounds are discussed in terms of raw materials availability, price, and performance relative to other cathode systems for Na-ion batteries.",signatures:"Paula Serras, Verónica Palomares and Teófilo Rojo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50130",authors:[{id:"74085",title:"Dr.",name:"Verónica",surname:"Palomares",slug:"veronica-palomares",fullName:"Verónica Palomares"},{id:"178437",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Serras",slug:"paula-serras",fullName:"Paula Serras"},{id:"184796",title:"Prof.",name:"Teofilo",surname:"Rojo",slug:"teofilo-rojo",fullName:"Teofilo Rojo"}],corrections:null},{id:"50411",title:"Vanadium Pentoxide (V2O5) Electrode for Aqueous Energy Storage: Understand Ionic Transport using Electrochemical, XRay, and Computational Tools",doi:"10.5772/62759",slug:"vanadium-pentoxide-v2o5-electrode-for-aqueous-energy-storage-understand-ionic-transport-using-electr",totalDownloads:2230,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this book chapter, we have discussed the recent results on vanadium oxide-based materials for energy storage applications. Primarily, we present the new results from our own research group on V2O5-layered nanostructures that are made from a facile wet chemistry synthesis. By fine control of the synthetic condition, the morphology, crystallinity, and layer-to-layer distance of V2O5 nanostructures can be tuned. Particularly, highly disordered V2O5 nanolayers which have an interplanar distance up to 1.1 nm, offering a fast transport of K-ion between layers in an aqueous electrolyte and hence the high-energy storage capacity and power density. Uniqueness of our results includes materials characterization and measurements using multiple spectroscopic tools, including synchrotron X-ray pair distribution function (PDF) analyses and in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD). Combined with half-cell and button-cell electrochemical measurements, the complementary results provide insight on the ionic transport of ions between the layers of V2O5 nanostructure.",signatures:"Daniel S. Charles and Xiaowei Teng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50411",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50411",authors:[{id:"24478",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaowei",surname:"Teng",slug:"xiaowei-teng",fullName:"Xiaowei Teng"},{id:"179204",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Charles",slug:"daniel-charles",fullName:"Daniel Charles"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6426",title:"Titanium Dioxide",subtitle:"Material for a Sustainable Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5626c0fe0b53330717e73094946cfd86",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",bookSignature:"Dongfang Yang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6426.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177814",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongfang",surname:"Yang",slug:"dongfang-yang",fullName:"Dongfang 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CI in children and adolescents is an unfortunate event that may lead to significant upper gastrointestinal tract damage manifested in the short term as oesophageal burns and in the long term as oesophageal stricture or acquired motility disorders. A high proportion of these patients may evolve to permanent disability associated to feeding difficulties as well as growth and nutritional impairment. The aim of the chapter is to discuss the experience with our CI paediatric patients treated in a paediatric referral hospital in the context of the published data from other authors.
Although is not a public health problem, CI is a significant issue worldwide, particularly in developing countries in which an unsafe environment is a substantial risk factor for child injury [1]. In 1985, Wasserman reported that approximately 5000 children younger than 5 years ingested lye each year in the United States [2]; in 2008, the USA National Poison Data reported over 200,000 exposures to caustic substances [3]. Unfortunately, the true prevalence regarding this health problem is not known in most developing countries and cannot be extrapolated from publications of series of children with CI treated in paediatric hospitals; however, these publications describe demographic, clinical and treatment characteristics of children from low, lower‐middle and high‐income countries information is scarce specially in lower‐middle income countries [1].
Overall, the paediatric population is the most affected; the highest risk age groups are infants and pre‐schoolers [4–13]. This may be attributed to the fact that children younger than 6 years are not able to make reasonable decisions about what they should or should not drink in the context of their developmental stage of motor and sensory skills [8]. Regarding gender, the higher frequency trend of CI in males could be attributed to both a gender‐related biological and learned gender‐role behaviour of boys different from girls in terms of expressing health and disease and their interaction with risk factors [4–7, 13–15]. A recent publication reveals that children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder had a higher risk to suffer CI than children without this condition [16].
Reports related to the social, economic, and educational characteristics that may play a role in families of children with CI are scarce [17]. In this context, the authors performed a case‐control study in which the aim was to evaluate the association of socio‐demographic factors in a group of 94 children and adolescents with CI; the controls were a random sample of children hospitalized or seen as outpatients in the same paediatric referral hospital and period. The sociodemographic variables were studied using a validated questionnaire. CI occurred at home in 63.8% and at a relative’s home in 23.4%. Alkaline products were the most frequently ingested (85.1%); containers had no warning labels in 72.3% and no childproof safety caps in 92.6% of the cases. The sociodemographic variables associated with CI included higher family income, mother’s lower education, higher proportion of fathers working as independent professionals, extended family, mother’s age < 30 years, and mother’s working outside home. The fact that both parents work outside the home and that the mother has a low educational level may reflect a lack of awareness and knowledge of the hazards of corrosive substances kept in the house. Family organization classified as extended implies crowded living conditions and enables both parents to work outside home while other family members take care of their children [18]. Other authors have reported that unsafe homes where safety rules regarding caustic substances are lacking have been identified as a substantial risk factor for CI in children [1, 9, 13, 17, 21]. Sarioglu‐Buke
The physical form, concentration, and pH of the corrosive agent play a significant role in the location and type of resultant injuries [2]. Acid substances lead to coagulation necrosis that usually limits acid penetration and results in damage to the epithelium and submucosal layer. Their low viscosity and specific gravity result in rapid transit to the stomach, and gastric injury is more common than oesophageal injury. Their bitter taste and development of pain with ingestion may result in lower volumes of ingestion. The gastric injury may result in gastric outlet obstruction o perforation [19]. The ingestion of alkalis causes liquefaction necrosis with damage of the epithelium and the submucosa layer with deep penetration and may result in perforation [2]. Injury most typically involves the oesophagus, but the gastric injury may also occur.
Haemorrhage, thrombosis and a marked inflammatory response with significant oedema are seen within the first 24 h of injury [19]. The tissue repair phase extends from the end of the first week through the second week after injury and if the insult has been relatively minor, oesophageal function returns gradually. The healing phase begins around the third week when fibroblast proliferation replaces the submucosa and
In most series, the most commonly reported corrosive agents are alkaline products as caustic soda, sodium hypochlorite and household chemicals [13]. It is essential to highlight that most of these products ingested by children were kept in containers that had no warning labels and no childproof safety caps. These key risk factors should be taken care by worldwide governments by means of health education and implementation of legislative and preventive strategies on labeling, formulation, and packaging of corrosive substances [1, 21].
The ingestion of acid or alkali substances frequently leads to damage to the gastrointestinal tract. The spectrum damage ranges from mild to severe and may affect the mucosa as well as the muscular layer. In a study performed by the authors in a paediatric referral hospital, the aim was to evaluate the association of clinical data with the oesophageal damage of 94 children who suffered CI. The mean age when the CI occurred was 38.4 months (SD 28.7). Thirty‐five cases (37.2%) were females. The higher frequency was in infants (40.4%) and pre‐schoolers (45.7%). The symptoms recorded were salivation (77.7%), oropharyngeal burns (76.6%), and vomiting (74.5%), oropharyngeal pain (45.7%), and epigastric pain (18.1%). Symptoms of airway involvement included shortness of breath (14.9%) and retrosternal pain (10.6%) [19]; these signs and symptoms are similar to those reported by other authors in paediatric series [3–7, 9, 12, 13, 21].
In a number of cases, CI patients may be symptom‐free on admission; in spite of this, endoscopy is mandatory as an effective tool to identify both oesophageal and gastric damage [22]. Even more, the presence or absence of symptoms does not predict the injury severity to the gastrointestinal tract, supporting the endoscopic procedure [23, 24]. The degree of the mucosal injury should be determined by a standardized classification; most colleagues use the Zargar’s classification: grade 0 = normal; grade I = oedema and erythema; grade II = linear ulcerations and necrotic tissue with whitish plaques; grade II‐a = linear ulcerations and necrotic tissue with whitish plaques and deeper and more circumferential; grade III = circumferential injury which may be transmural with mucosal sloughing, multiple deep ulcerations and areas of necrosis (areas of brown‐black or greyish discoloration of mucosa were taken as evidence for necrosis); grade III‐a = focal necrosis; grade III‐b = extensive necrosis; and grade IV = perforation [25]. A study performed in 206 children reported no complications when the endoscope was advanced beyond the first severe burn; this approach could identify additional oesophageal and gastric lesions that could be missed if the endoscopy is discontinued when finding the first circumferential oesophageal burn, as is usually recommended because of perforation risk [23].
In our series, all cases underwent upper endoscopy within 48 h of CI; in 66 of 78 children (84.6%), we identified moderate or severe oesophageal burns, 76.9% had grade II and 7.7% grade III. An endoscopy plus a barium swallow were repeated after 2 or 3 weeks of the CI to assess mucosal healing and to look for strictures; mucosal healing occurred in all cases but 64.5% had oesophageal stricture [21]. Clinical, endoscopic and image data of our cases are summarized in Table 2.
Age | Below 6 years old |
---|---|
Gender | Boys |
Alkali or acid caustic substances at home | Improper storage |
Food or drinks storage containers | |
Lack of warning labels | |
Lack of security caps | |
Extended families | Both parents working away from home, children cared for other family members and mother with a low education level |
Variable | % | ||
---|---|---|---|
Symptoms and signs | Salivation | 73 | 77.7 |
Oropharyngeal burns | 72 | 74.5 | |
Vomiting | 70 | 70.3 | |
Oropharyngeal pain | 42 | 45.7 | |
Epigastric pain | 17 | 18.1 | |
Shortness of breath | 14 | 14.9 | |
Retrosternal pain | 10 | 10.6 | |
Septic schoka | 4 | 4.2 | |
Dysphagiab | 23 | 24.5 | |
Endoscopy | II or III degree esophageal burnsc | 79 | 84 |
Esophageal strictured | 46 | 48.9 | |
Barium swallow | Esophageal stricture | 46 | 48.9 |
In 2012, Uygun
Acute complications such as mediastinitis and oesophageal perforation may occur and they may represent life‐threating complications; in selected cases, chest and abdominal radiographs are needed to rule out the presence of free air in the mediastinum or peritoneum. Lateral neck radiographs should be obtained in patients with stridor or hoarseness [28].
Long‐term complications frequently include oesophageal stricture and dysphagia [4–9, 11, 13, 18]. In our series, oesophageal stricture occurred in 48.9%; II and III‐degree burns were associated with oesophageal stricture (p = 0.004) and ingestion of alkaline products (p = 0.027). The observation that one‐half of patients with stricture did not complain of dysphagia and that some patients with dysphagia had no oesophageal strictures, points to the underlying complexity of the functional and anatomical oesophageal damage induced by the chemical agent as well as to the individual variation in visceral sensitivity [29].
Several studies have reported oesophageal dysmotility after a CI; oesophageal manometry has revealed hypoperistalsis, with normal upper and lower oesophageal sphincter [30, 31]. Rana et al. showed that patients with corrosive injury have prolonged oro‐cecal transit time using the lactulose hydrogen breath test, even in the absence of gastric symptoms; this transit time was maximally prolonged in patients with lower third oesophageal scars [32]. Gastric emptying time assessed by radionucleotide scintigraphy after a CI was significantly prolonged in patients with oesophageal stricture, even in the absence of gastric symptoms [33]. Another study reported that oesophageal transit time assessed by scintigraphy was prolonged in one‐third of patients with corrosive induced oesophageal strictures, despite having achieved adequate oesophageal dilatation; these authors found that the prolongation of oesophageal transit time correlated with the length of the stricture and that the severity of the dysphagia correlated with the prolongation of total oesophageal transit time [34].
CI with stricture has been associated with increased risk of oesophageal carcinoma with an incidence of 1000 times the expected in normal population; this important finding points the need for endoscopic surveillance 15–20 years after the caustic injury [28, 35].
The severity of the oesophageal damage that occurs frequently in children with CI may limit the normal feeding process leading to malnutrition and growth impairment [18, 22, 36]; it is surprising that there is very little published information regarding the nutritional status. In France, Ganga‐Zandzou
All patients who suffered a CI should be hospitalized and evaluated comprehensively. The clinical history must emphasize the type and amount of caustic and if possible get the product package. Hemodynamic stabilization and adequacy of the patient’s airway are priorities. The induction of vomiting or gastric lavage is contraindicated following CI because a re‐exposure of the oesophageal mucosa to the caustic agent with further injury may occur [35]. An endoscopic evaluation with an adequate paediatric endoscope performed within the first 24–48 h is essential to evaluate the type and extent of injury to the oesophagus and stomach.
The information about the efficacy of proton‐pump inhibitors and H2 blockers to minimize the oesophageal injury in subjects whom ingested caustic is scarce. Cakal
The use of corticosteroids is controversial; two meta‐analyses did not demonstrate benefits of steroid administration in terms of stricture prevention [40, 41]. In a recent study on 83 children with II-b oesophageal burns, one group received methylprednisolone (1 g/1,73 m/day/3 days), ranitidine, ceftriaxone, and total parenteral nutrition; the control group received the same regimen except methylprednisolone. The outcome variable was oesophageal stricture and it was more frequent in the control group (p = 0.038). The duration of total parenteral nutrition was shorter in the steroid intervention group compared with the control group (p = 0.001). The authors concluded that high doses of methylprednisolone used for the management of grade II‐b oesophageal caustic burns may reduce the risk of stricture [40–42].
The use of antibiotics is controversial and should be considered in each particular case according to the clinical situation, laboratory inflammation values, the extent and type of mucosal damage and the concomitant use of steroids. The indications, dosages, duration and type of antibiotics are usually included in the protocols of each hospital serving this type of patients [19].
During the course of treatment, some patients may require oesophageal dilations and gastrostomy either for retrograde oesophageal dilations or trans‐gastrostomy feeding. Topical mitomycin C application has been used recently to improve the results of endoscopic dilatation for short oesophageal strictures and is a promising agent in the management of the long‐segment caustic oesophageal strictures, although long‐term follow‐up is needed to prove its efficacy and to evaluate potential long‐term side effects [43]. The use of oesophageal stents and balloon dilators are known options for treating strictures [5, 28, 35].
A small number of cases with strictures refractory to dilation may require oesophageal replacement by a colonic graft or stomach’s plasty to set up a gastric tube. Ezemba
Special attention should be placed on growth, nutritional status and the emotional situation of the affected children and their families. A limited oral intake, decrease in growth velocity and low‐fat reserves or muscle mass may require special dietary regimens with adequate energy and micronutrient intake by means of blended or polymeric diets. A CI is a traumatic event that may shake families emotionally, and in some cases, they may require emotional support by family therapists.
Drought and soil salinity are two of the world’s dominant abiotic stresses that severely restrict crop production, and it is expected that these challenges, along with accelerating climate change, will drive universal food insecurity [1]. In parallel, the 933 million people affected by the water crisis in 2016 are expected to increase to 1.693–2.373 billion people in 2050 [2] as a consequence of the global increasing population and an additional rise in water demand [3]. Despite the fact that agriculture receives more than 70% of water supplies [4], most governments lack precise irrigation water usage statistics [5]. Irrigation processes waste 25–30% of fresh water, resulting in a loss of $14 billion. Therefore, proper water management is critical [6, 7]. Otherwise, growers are compelled to use saline water for irrigation owing to water shortages that lead to soil salinity expanding [8]. Soil salinity is one of the most damaging agents to cropland in more than 100 countries [9, 10]. Salinity affects more than 25% of the world’s terrestrial lands and a third of the world’s irrigated fields [11]. The total area of saline soils is reported to be 1060.1 million hectares, with climate change driving this estimate to rise [12].
The factors that cause natural or primary salinity include parent materials and saline minerals in the soil. Anthropogenic factors, such as conventional irrigation techniques and weak drainage systems, cause secondary salinity [13]. Complications of the accumulation of excess soluble salts, specifically chloride sulfate [14] in the root zone of plants [15], include reducing plant growth, groundwater pollution, and diminishing soil fertility, ultimately degrading farmlands [11, 16]. High soil salinity decreases crop productivity, especially vegetables, which are extremely sensitive during the ontogeny stage. The salinity tolerance of most vegetables is low [17]. Castanheira et al. [18] observed that along with increasing the salinity of irrigation water to 5 ds.m−1, the average solute concentration in the root zone reaches a level higher than the corn tolerance. Moreover, high salinity negatively impacts the physicochemical and biological traits of soils, such as the diversity and abundance of microbes and animals [19], consequently leading to adverse consequences for farmers’ livelihoods, and the regional and national economy [20]. The financial loss caused by salinity-induced land degradation in 2013 was estimated at $441 per hectare, equivalent to $27 billion annually [21]. Hence, improper water management and subsequent salinization threaten the sustainability of agriculture [22]. Many investigations have been carried out to cope with the obstacles of water deficit and salinity. Irrigation water management strategies and drainage techniques as the most prevalent solutions [23, 24], specifically in arid and semiarid regions, can face numerous challenges such as high costs and inefficiency [11, 19, 25]. Notwithstanding investments in countering the salinity spread, farmers are still challenged by the consequences of soil salinity [26]. Food security is threatened whenever efficient management actions are not exerted to maintain agricultural production [27]. Figure 1 shows the salinity and water stress situations in various regions of the world.
Map of global soil salinity and water stress status. Adapted from [
The uninterrupted monitoring of soil moisture and salinity in agriculture is accepted in order to limit water and salinity crises. After sea level temperature, soil moisture as a significant climatic determinant is the second prominent factor influencing evapotranspiration, sensible surface heat, and latent heat flux, as well as water, carbon, and energy cycles on a global scale [30, 31]. Changes in soil moisture alter both agricultural and municipal soils [32]. This essential variable is employed in order to improve weather forecasting, rainfall estimation, drought monitoring, and landslide and flood prediction [31]. There are multiple methods to measure soil moisture, which is directly correlated with irrigation efficiency [33]. Indirect methods estimate soil moisture using a gravimetric, gamma-radiation probe, neutron probe, and porous blocks based on gravitational sampling or time-domain reflectometry (TDR) in a small soil bulk. Direct methods also evaluate soil moisture using weighted moisture
The soil mapping of spatial and temporal variations in soil properties is presumably the most affordable and beneficial approach to front salinity and watering issues. In this regard, Mashimbye et al. [47] evaluated the role of hyperspectral or satellite data in soil mapping potential applications. Satellite technologies make it easier to measure salinity and moisture variables, and as a result, they can provide soil characteristic data instantly, quantitatively, and affordably [48]. For instance, the launching of Sentinel satellites upgraded free data access for users [49], including advanced facilities for earth monitoring [50]. Though the remote sensing of soil properties presents extensive coverage for spatial distribution, multispectral data have limited capabilities, such as low spatial resolution due to spectral and spatial division [35, 50]. A spatial description of soil salinity is essential for salinity management in agriculture [51]. On the other hand, conventional techniques for evaluating soil characteristics are costly and time-consuming [52] (Figure 2); the question of whether proximal sensors or aerial sensors are more efficient for controlling soil moisture and salinity levels in farmlands arises.
Positive and negative attributes of proximal and aerial sensors.
Facing the growing demand for food and sustaining water resources needs irrigation optimization employing advanced technologies such as soil moisture sensors [53]. Technologies such as drip watering, proximal sensors, and remote controllers for water management have joined the farming sector owing to agricultural development and subsequently rising demand for freshwater [54]. Considering that implementing a systematic irrigation plan for farmers is practically complicated, digital instruments effectively assist in accurate irrigation planning [55]. Furthermore, the proximal platform can be used to evaluate plant health [56]. Recent advances in electromagnetic moisture sensor technologies have facilitated automatic irrigation scheduling [57], which enhances water-use efficiency. These sensors are divided into active and passive instruments, which are applied for crop yield assessment and watershed management in digital agriculture [58]. In another classification system, soil sensors can be divided into resistive or capacitive sensors. Resistance-based sensors are easy to use and inexpensive. However, error sources affect their accuracy and efficiency [59]. Jusoh et al. [60] reported that the resistive sensor operates defectively in sandy loam and clay loam soils owing to low bulk density and high organic matter.
As efficient machines, capacitive soil moisture sensors are affordable for reducing water costs and wastage and computerized scheduling of irrigation [57, 61]. Capacitive probes and electronic TDR soil moisture sensors with
Instances of different soil moisture sensor probes that are used for digital farming applications.
Calibration of soil moisture sensor for different types of soil. Source: SunBot.de.
Significant advances have been made in technologies for assessing, mapping, and spatiotemporal monitoring of salinity on a field, regional, and national scale [10]. Generally, there are five methods for estimating salinity on a farm: (1) observing salts on the soil surface, (2) estimating EC in saturated soil extracts, (3) measuring
Instances of different portable pH and EC meters used for measuring soil salinity.
Summary of the soil moisture measurement process by the proximal sensor and models of soil sampler robots. Adapted from [
The integrated wireless sensor network (WSN) is designed to measure soil salinity and support automated irrigation systems [83]. With the WSN, numerous facilities are provided such as remote monitoring of soil fertility, crop water situation, and assistance to the irrigation system with reasonable costs, low energy consumption, and extended life [84, 85]. In a study by Sui and Baggard [86], WSN sensors automatically recorded soil condition data over the Internet every minute. The combination of WSN with the GIS in a study by Zhang et al. [87] proposed a soil moisture distribution map for accurate irrigation control. This system improves irrigation efficiency by decreasing freshwater loss and watering costs [88]. The precision of the data retrieved by the WSN depends on the system’s capability to hold the input voltage constant and the dependability of the calibration curves [89]. Though the WSN with fast data retrieval capability is a promising strategy in precision agriculture, barriers such as soil and canopy interference can affect data validity [79].
Monitoring soil conditions with remote sensing systems is a new approach that enhances productivity in digital agriculture [90]. Through the development of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technologies [91, 92], it is now possible to retrieve soil property data with high resolution and low cost for mapping. UAVs reliably transfer soil characteristic data to computers, thereby playing an important role in precision agriculture [93]. When compared to satellites, UAVs have superior control and high spatial resolution [94]. Hu et al. [95] reported that UAVs using 62 hyperspectral bands afforded more reliable data for soil salinity prediction models than satellites, making UAVs a valuable machine for small-scale soil mapping. UAVs are also useful for assessing soil moisture in heterogeneous landscapes [96]. In addition to soil moisture, multispectral images of UAVs can be applied to map the distribution of water stress in crops (Figure 7) [98]. Although UAVs play a prominent role in precision agriculture, further attempts should be made to derive from data processing techniques and vegetation calibration in the future [99]. Moreover, UAVs face other challenges, such as limited flight time and stabilization, so future studies should concentrate on addressing these problems [100].
The measurement process of soil moisture using UAVs. Adapted from [
High spatial resolution is necessary for analyzing soil moisture [101]. Thereby, satellites are the principal instruments for characterization and monitoring soil moisture with an accuracy of approximately 5 cm [102]. Ahlmer et al. [103] demonstrated that using satellite data enhances the reliability of flood forecasting. The microwave brightness temperature is sensitive to soil moisture content due to water affecting the dielectric constant [104]. In recent years, digital agriculture has made enormous progress in estimating soil moisture by applying microwave sensors. In contrast, advancements have been restrained owing to heterogeneities between satellite data resolution and hydrological scales, vegetation, and low microwave infiltration [105]. Satellite sensors are potentially designed to monitor vast regions; however, their spatial resolution depends on the microwave frequency, antenna size, and elevation. Most passive radiometers have a spatial resolution of 10 km, which is inapplicable for hydrological aims. Although microwave remote sensing drives many algorithms for calculating large-scale soil moisture, their low resolution is not appropriate for small scale [106]. Presently, the passive microwave retrieved resolution of soil moisture is about 25 km [107], and the low spatial resolution outputs, unreliable rainfall, and evaporation-transpiration data can make it challenging to estimate irrigation water demand [5]. Moreover, soil moisture data may not be available regularly. The spatial distribution of soil moisture is a prerequisite for agricultural and ecological management, while retrieving soil moisture data in heterogeneous landscapes is a significant challenge [108]. Heterogeneous landscapes generate irregularities in moisture measurements [109]. Consequently, merging surface reflectance data and auxiliary geospatial data can accurately estimate soil moisture, supporting precision agriculture strategies efficiently. Table 1 summarizes some investigations that measured soil moisture using a combination of proximal and satellite data.
Satellite | Application | Location | Result | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
ASCAT | Estimating soil moisture | Arizona (USA) | The geostatistical approach is beneficial to estimate soil moisture for network cells without data from satellite imagery. | [110] |
Envisat | Hydrological modeling | Okavango (Southern Africa) | Remote sensing improves the hydrological model for unsuccessfully evaluated watersheds. | [111] |
MODIS | Estimating soil moisture | Henan (China) | Applying meteorological data to missing pixels of the satellite can enhance the accuracy of estimation and afford a comprehensive map of soil moisture in broad regions. | [112] |
Landsat | Mapping water consumption | Tensift Al Haouz (Morocco) | There is a correlation between the satellite NDVI index, soil evaporation, and cover fraction variables. | [113] |
SMOS | Assessing soil moisture for drought monitoring | Iran | It was reported that the central and southeastern regions had experienced the most severe drought in 2000–2014. | [114] |
MODIS | Monitoring soil and vegetation moisture | Kansas and Oklahoma (USA) | The drought sensitivity was significantly improved by combining several infrared bands of the satellite. | [115] |
SMOS | Monitoring drought for agricultural purposes | Remedhus (Spain) | SWDI reflects the soil water balance dynamics and can monitor drought in agriculture. | [116] |
MODIS | Monitoring drought for agricultural purposes | Korean peninsula | The High-resolution Soil Moisture Drought Index (HSMDI) was significantly correlated with crop yield data. | [117] |
Some studies on the merged application of ground-based and satellite sensors to estimate soil moisture.
Remote sensing data can be applied to map surface soil salinity in broad regions [39], and the Landsat satellite has made it attainable to study soil salinity at different scales [118]. Wu et al. [119] reported that the overall accuracy of Landsat in soil salinity detection from 1973 to 2006 was approximately 90.2%. Combining proximal instruments with remote sensing systems is advantageous in precision evaluating soil salinity [120]. Bouaziz et al. [121] extracted 18 indicators from MODIS Terra data to improve salinity prediction patterns in northeastern Brazil and recognized a moderate correlation between EC and spectral indices. However, the limitations of using remote sensing data to map salt-affected areas include salt spatial distribution, temporal changes, and vegetation interference [122]. Moreover, it is challenging to estimate soil salinity through single-factor models [123]. Although remote sensing has numerous advantages over conventional proximal systems for mapping and predicting soil salinity [124], it is possible to determine the spatial variability of soil EC by local proximal sensor EM38 connected to GPS [125]. Casterad et al. [126] applied a combination of soil experiment data, proximal sensors, and satellites to investigate how soil salinity develops and distributes. Corwin [127] used proximal sensors and remote imaging to assess soil salinity at different scales; furthermore, Douaoui et al. [128] demonstrated that the regression-kriging approach combines remote sensing systems and ground network monitoring stations, thereby providing well-defined spatial and temporal monitoring of soil salinity. Eldeiry and Garcia [129] similarly reported that the modified kriging model presents the most reliable estimate of soil salinity by combining satellite and proximal data.
In a study by Fourati et al. [52], ordinary kriging with an average of 1.83 squares and a standard error of 0.018 had the most reliable performance for identifying and classifying saline soils. In an investigation by Fan et al. [130], the partial least squares regression model was applied to retrieve soil salinity from multispectral sensors, allowing salinity mapping with low cost and significant accuracy. Yahiaoui et al. [131] analyzed the topographic characteristics of the study area using Landsat 7 satellite data; accordingly, they created a multiple linear regression based on height and an adjusted soil salinity index that could predict soil salinity by 45%. Soil salinity modeling by satellite and proximal data in central Iraq revealed that models could reliably forecast salinity with 82.57% precision [119]. Therefore, modeling spatial soil salinity changes based on remote sensing data regression analysis is an economical, simple, and promising approach [132].
The precision agriculture approach employs new technologies to optimize farming inputs and ameliorate agricultural systems [133]. As one of the newest Internet-based technologies to have joined the agricultural sector, IoT is a type of intelligent sensor with software based on a web connection, applied to proposed purposes on farms. It drives modern agriculture toward the automatization of manual operations [134, 135], and its architecture is shown in Figure 8. The Wi-Fi module forwards the soil parameter data assembled by the sensors to the controller and processor [136]. Growers can inspect soil moisture, temperature, and pH data on an Android mobile phone using IoT technology [137]. Automated irrigation can also minimize human mediation [138] as an incentive to save more water [139]. Yamin et al. [140] demonstrated that a digital soil test kit connected to the IoT system could be used to dynamically evaluate changes in soil elements. Moreover, IoT can help optimally control greenhouse conditions [141]. Shamshiri et al. [142] applied a systematic approach to automatically retrieving and processing greenhouse condition data in order to enhance tomato yield. Divyavani and Rao [143] could receive moisture sensor data using the Android mobile phone. Payero et al. [144] controlled soil moisture in a field through a mobile-based IoT system. The WSN system proposed by Shylaja and Veena [85] dispatched soil fertility circumstances to the mobile phone that are beneficial for fertilizer recommendation.
Deployment of hybrid data logger with Wi-Fi connectivity for IoT monitoring of soil moisture in berry fields. Source: SunBot.de.
Figure 9 demonstrates a solar-powered hybrid (Wi-Fi, LoRa, data logger) soil moisture and salinity sensors that were deployed in commercial berry fields in Germany. This device benefits from an onboard memory module for logging the measurements before transmitting the data via Wi-Fi and LoRa. It should be noted that due to the rising salinity trend caused by climate change, these devices are required for the precision monitoring of soil salinity in small and large scales [128]. Evaluating salinity-affected zones combats global climate change and prevents water resource loss [145]. Soil mapping is crucial for determining positional salinity levels and promoting appropriate management strategies for saline land restoration [146]. Therefore, combining remote sensing systems and EM38 sensors has provided an accurate soil salinity assessment approach, which is necessary to prevent further land salinization [76]. Future studies should concentrate on advancing remote sensing technologies for soil properties and the integration of salinity maps [147]. The measurement of soil moisture is critical in predicting drought and warning of natural disasters. Recently, many attempts have been made to address the development of soil moisture measurement facilities [148]. Launching advanced satellites promotes new innovative research approaches and encourages the development of new systematic empirical techniques for measuring soil moisture [149]. Non-cost-effectiveness plus inaccessibility to soil characteristics is one of the most significant constraints of precision agriculture [150]. Future soil moisture sensors should have high precision, low cost, and nondestructive features. Prospective research should also include the creation of specialized sensors for specific situations [33]. Using soil probes is critical for the most efficient and cost-effective use of water and chemical fertilizers; thus, numerous experiments on soil health indicators, such as water-holding capacity, salinity, temperature, pH, and soluble gas concentrations, are carried out [151]. However, high costs and the complex protection of sensors prevent the development of digital farming technologies, especially in rural regions [152].
Wireless monitoring of soil moisture with solar-powered modular sensors.
For the purpose of downloading data from multiple sensors, a standalone software application shown in Figure 10 was developed by Adaptive AgroTech to interface with the sensors’ controllers via multiple serial COM ports as well as to execute commands and set custom configurations. The software also provides users with other features such as downloading log files of the sensor performance (i.e., battery and clock status, or historical parameters) or uploading the stored data to a cloud server. In addition, users can set labels to each node for simultaneously reading and writing log files from multiple devices and store the data on local memory cards. The Adaptive AgroTech Port Logger was developed in C# programming language environment and the Microsoft dot Net Core technology and can be operated on Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, and Linux operating system. It should be noted that the MS-DotNet is a free open-source software for cross-platform development that supports various languages, such as C#, C++, and VB.NET. These features have provided a cost-effective and flexible solution for the future improvement of the Port logger. To have the best result and optimum performance, the software uses multithreading technology to execute parallel routines such as listening to multiports and executing more than one task at a time. Each thread defines a unique flow of control. As soon as the port logger engages in complicated and time-consuming parallel operations, it automatically sets different execution paths or threads, with each thread performing a particular task.
Adaptive AgroTech Port Logger software for simultaneously downloading data from multiple sensor nodes under windows and Linux operating system.
For the purpose of a visual comparison between air temperature, soil temperature, and soil surface moisture, sample data from the hybrid data logger shown in Figure 9 that were collected every 10 minutes for 13 days in March 2021 are plotted in Figure 11. These plots validate the sensitivity of the sensor for the continuous monitoring of agricultural field and for planning precision irrigation practices in arid areas. The measurements of the hybrid data logger can be used as the feedback data for a decision support system or controller that activates the irrigation pumps based on air and soil temperature, soil moisture, hours of the day, and other field parameters. It can be seen from the plots of Figure 11 that during early morning hours, soil surface experiences more moisture (due to the morning dew) in the entire 13 days of the experiments compared to the mid-day hours. It can also be seen that the hybrid data logger did not miss a single measurement during the experiments, even when the air temperature was below the freezing point.
Plots of air temperature, soil temperature, and soil surface moisture during 13 days of experiment for performance evaluation of an adaptive AgroTech hybrid data logger.
As two global challenges without national borders, soil salinity and the water crisis endanger sustainable agricultural production through decreasing farmland productivity and crop yield [153, 154]. These principal abiotic stresses significantly restrict crop productivity by inhibiting metabolic activities and disturbing the ionic balance. Water deficits caused by osmotic stress severely reduce the crop yield, which drives considerable economic losses for farmers. Hence, monitoring their changes in farmlands using sensors is crucial due to the significant regional or national financial loss caused by drought and salinity. Despite soil moisture and salinity probes effectively measuring soil parameters, inefficient performance in broad fields plus the high cost and low accuracy have accelerated the application of new remote sensing technologies. Satellites and UAVs have the possibility of monitoring these variables on a broad scale. However, low spatial resolution, difficulty of use, the need for technological operators, and lengthy data processing make them unpopular with farmers, particularly in rural regions. In addition to remote sensing, IoT technology combines sensor systems and web-based software that transfers soil moisture and salinity data to a computer or mobile phone. While precision agriculture is gradually developing new technologies in farmlands, more extensive investigations are needed to address the challenges of agricultural digitalization.
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The determination of U is held from the Nusselt’s number, which is related to the dimensionless Reynolds and Prandtl’s, and from the fluid’s viscosity relation that is being agitated in the bulk temperature and the viscosity in the wall’s temperature of heat exchange. The aim of this chapter is to present a summary for the literature concerning heat transfer in agitated vessels (equipped with jackets, helical coils, spiral coils, and vertical tube baffles) and also the many parameters of Nusselt’s equation for these surfaces. It will present a numerical example for a project in an agitated vessel using vertical tube baffles and a 45° pitched blade turbine. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa is a Full Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Alicante, Spain, and has been the vice president of International Relations and Development Cooperation at this university since 2010. She created the research group in applied biochemistry in 2017 (https://web.ua.es/en/appbiochem/), and from 1999 to the present has made more than 200 contributions to Spanish and international conferences. Furthermore, she has around seventy-five scientific publications in indexed journals, eighty book chapters, and one patent to her credit. Her research work focuses on microbial metabolism (particularly on extremophile microorganisms), purification and characterization of enzymes with potential industrial and biotechnological applications, protocol optimization for genetically manipulating microorganisms, gene regulation characterization, carotenoid (pigment) production, and design and development of contaminated water and soil bioremediation processes by means of microorganisms. This research has received competitive public grants from the European Commission, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, the Valencia Region Government, and the University of Alicante.",institutionString:"University of Alicante",institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. 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