Procedural requirements for fake post detection part.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10703",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease",title:"Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease raises awareness about the importance of early recognition and prevention of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors. Some non-modifiable factors, like diabetes, can even be impacted by lifestyle modification (like weight loss) early in the disease. This book also describes cardiovascular risk factors in different patient populations and work settings.",isbn:"978-1-83968-709-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-708-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-710-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94673",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"risk-factors-for-cardiovascular-disease",numberOfPages:228,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ce44a740aa9c4322a02614b2033deceb",bookSignature:"Johnny Chahine",publishedDate:"April 6th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10703.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1268,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 9th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 7th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 6th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 24th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"339234",title:"Dr.",name:"Johnny",middleName:null,surname:"Chahine",slug:"johnny-chahine",fullName:"Johnny Chahine",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339234/images/system/339234.jpg",biography:"Dr. Chahine graduated from medical school in Lebanon in 2016 and moved to Cleveland, USA for his Internal Medicine residency in 2017. He is currently a cardiology fellow at the University of Minnesota, USA. He is well-published in high-impact journals. Dr. Chahine strives for excellence in his medical knowledge and a friendly environment for his colleagues and patients.",institutionString:"University of Minnesota",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Minnesota",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"78255",title:"Sex Differences in Long-Term Trends of Psychosocial Factors and Gender Effect on Risk of Cardiovascular Diseases: Arterial Hypertension, Myocardial Infarction and Stroke",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99767",slug:"sex-differences-in-long-term-trends-of-psychosocial-factors-and-gender-effect-on-risk-of-cardiovascu",totalDownloads:122,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: The study aimed to determine gender differences in the prevalence and dynamics of affective states over a long period, i.e., 23 years, and to establish their effect on the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), i.e., arterial hypertension (AH), myocardial infarction (MI), and stroke among the population aged 25–64 in Russia / Siberia. Methods: Between 1994 and 2017, we conducted 4 screening surveys of representative samples (totalling 4,815 people) under the international programs MONICA and HAPIEE in Russia / Siberia. To determine the sex differences in cardiovascular risk from 1994 to 2010, we observed cohorts formed from the screened individuals without CVD and diabetes mellitus (DM). Results: High levels of affective states in the period from 1994 to 2003, especially in women, were replaced by a downward trend in 2013. At the same time, there was a reduction in the gender gap in terms of frequency of depression lower 1%, and men in the younger age groups reported higher levels of personal anxiety (49.3% vs 46.1% in adults aged 35-44y) and vital exhaustion (16.9% vs 15.6%) than women in 2017. We found that men with unfavourable levels of affective states have a 3–5 fold higher risk of hypertension and stroke, while women have a higher risk of myocardial infarction (p for all < 0.05). Hostility in men is associated with a negative risk of myocardial infarction and stroke (HR=0.3 and HR=0.29, respectively; p for all < 0.05). However, this was levelled out by unfavourable social characteristics. Conclusions: The downward trends in prevalence of psychosocial factors were unstable and associated with reduced gender gap for affective states. It had a significant impact on the gender magnitude of cardiovascular risk.",signatures:"Valery V. Gafarov, Dmitriy O. Panov, Elena A. Gromova, Igor V. Gagulin, Almira V. Gafarova and Eldar A. Krymov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78255",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78255",authors:[{id:"325050",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena A.",surname:"Gromova",slug:"elena-a.-gromova",fullName:"Elena A. Gromova"},{id:"325389",title:"Dr.",name:"Valery V.",surname:"Gafarov",slug:"valery-v.-gafarov",fullName:"Valery V. Gafarov"},{id:"325405",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor V.",surname:"Gagulin",slug:"igor-v.-gagulin",fullName:"Igor V. Gagulin"},{id:"343742",title:"Dr.",name:"Almira V.",surname:"Gafarova",slug:"almira-v.-gafarova",fullName:"Almira V. Gafarova"},{id:"416571",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitriy O.",surname:"Panov",slug:"dmitriy-o.-panov",fullName:"Dmitriy O. Panov"},{id:"416572",title:"Dr.",name:"Eldar A.",surname:"Krymov",slug:"eldar-a.-krymov",fullName:"Eldar A. Krymov"}],corrections:null},{id:"78472",title:"Vascular Calcification and Cardiovascular Risk in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Problem That Is Here to Stay",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99886",slug:"vascular-calcification-and-cardiovascular-risk-in-chronic-kidney-disease-a-problem-that-is-here-to-s",totalDownloads:141,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular disease is the primary cause of morbidity and mortality in chronic kidney disease (CKD) population, particularly in end stage renal disease (ESRD). This could be explained in part due to the presence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors, such as older age, hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes, but is also associated with nontraditional cardiovascular risk factors related to CKD, like inflammation, anemia, abnormal calcium and phosphate metabolism and extracellular fluid volume overload, which may contribute to intimal or medial wall arterial calcification. Vascular calcification (VC) is a dynamic process, resulting from the dysregulation of the balance of molecules that promote and those that inhibit this course. It is important for clinicians to both acknowledge and recognize the pathways and risk factors of VC in order to improve cardiovascular health in CKD patients. This chapter will focus on the biology of VC, the association with CKD, risk factor modification, screening and prevention of VC and cardiovascular disease in CKD patients.",signatures:"Eduarda Castanheiro Esteves Carias, Roberto Calças Marques and Ana Paula Andrade da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78472",authors:[{id:"201700",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Paula",surname:"Andrade da Silva",slug:"ana-paula-andrade-da-silva",fullName:"Ana Paula Andrade da Silva"},{id:"422802",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduarda",surname:"Castanheiro Esteves Carias",slug:"eduarda-castanheiro-esteves-carias",fullName:"Eduarda Castanheiro Esteves Carias"},{id:"425915",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Calças Marques",slug:"roberto-calcas-marques",fullName:"Roberto Calças Marques"}],corrections:null},{id:"78930",title:"Genetic Polymorphisms and Their Interactions with the Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Diseases: Review Chapter",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100486",slug:"genetic-polymorphisms-and-their-interactions-with-the-risk-factors-of-cardiovascular-diseases-review",totalDownloads:92,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have been reported to have a complex pathogenesis by a number of studies. Atherosclerosis and inflammation have been established as the main contributors to CVDs. Furthermore, genetic polymorphisms have been identified and found to have a correlation with an individual’s susceptibility to developing CVD. Some of these polymorphisms and corresponding cardiovascular risk (CVR) factors include: C174G (Interleukin (IL)-6 association), methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) C667T/A1298C (hyperhomocysteinaemia), VII R353Q (coagulation factor VII association) and rs247616/rs1968905/rs1270922 (cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CEPT) - cholesterol metabolism) amongst others. At a time when disease prediction, diagnosis and prognosis are still being investigated, these polymorphisms have the potential for use in these areas as well as opening more opportunities in the understanding of CVD. The objective of this chapter was to review the current knowledge about the relationship between genetic polymorphisms and cardiovascular disease.",signatures:"Joseph Musonda Chalwe, Christa Grobler and Wilna Oldewage-Theron",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78930",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78930",authors:[{id:"337007",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilna",surname:"Oldewage-Theron",slug:"wilna-oldewage-theron",fullName:"Wilna Oldewage-Theron"},{id:"337009",title:"Dr.",name:"Christa",surname:"Grobler",slug:"christa-grobler",fullName:"Christa Grobler"},{id:"435595",title:"Mr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"MusondaChalwe",slug:"joseph-musondachalwe",fullName:"Joseph MusondaChalwe"}],corrections:null},{id:"78781",title:"Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Diseases in Aircrew",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99905",slug:"risk-factors-for-cardiovascular-diseases-in-aircrew",totalDownloads:140,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The relation of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) to not only traditional but also new and emergent risk factors has been assessed in aircrew. Total flight hours (TFH), high altitude and weightlessness exposure have been accounted among traditional risk factors for CVD among the aircrew. The risk factors do not perform in loneliness. To predict the 10 years global CV risk, several scores are being applied either based on traditional CVD risk factors only or also including new and emergent risk factors. To prevent aircrew from developing CVD, one should focus on the control of behavioral and metabolic risks as well as the polymorphe treatment of high CV risk individuals.",signatures:"Nathan B. Buila, Gilbert K. Kabanda, Elysee M-C. Munyoka, Jean-Marc B. Bantu and Jean René M’Buyamba-Kabangu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78781",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78781",authors:[{id:"417444",title:"Dr.",name:"Nathan",surname:"B. Buila",slug:"nathan-b.-buila",fullName:"Nathan B. Buila"},{id:"419134",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean René",surname:"M’Buyamba-Kabangu",slug:"jean-rene-m'buyamba-kabangu",fullName:"Jean René M’Buyamba-Kabangu"},{id:"419135",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilbert K.",surname:"Kabanda",slug:"gilbert-k.-kabanda",fullName:"Gilbert K. Kabanda"},{id:"429256",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Marc",surname:"B. Bantu",slug:"jean-marc-b.-bantu",fullName:"Jean-Marc B. Bantu"},{id:"429257",title:"Dr.",name:"Elysée",surname:"M-C. Munyoka",slug:"elysee-m-c.-munyoka",fullName:"Elysée M-C. Munyoka"}],corrections:null},{id:"78608",title:"Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99729",slug:"cardiovascular-risk-factors-in-children",totalDownloads:129,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality are still increasing in developed countries with emphasis on the obesity epidemic. Children and young adults are no exception. With modern lifestyle, traditional cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, kidney damage, are increasingly present in children leading to premature cardiovascular events in adult life. Cardiovascular risk factor can accelerate naturally progressing atherosclerosis, which should be prevented to facilitate quality and longevity of life. Primary and primordial prevention in the pediatric population are of utmost importance. However, if a cardiovascular risk factor is already present, frequent monitoring of possible development of other cardiovascular risk factors and evaluation of end organ damage should be implemented to intervene in time.",signatures:"Mirjam Močnik and Nataša Marčun Varda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78608",authors:[{id:"415435",title:"M.D.",name:"Mirjam",surname:"Močnik",slug:"mirjam-mocnik",fullName:"Mirjam Močnik"},{id:"415436",title:"Prof.",name:"Nataša",surname:"Marčun Varda",slug:"natasa-marcun-varda",fullName:"Nataša Marčun Varda"}],corrections:null},{id:"78707",title:"Role of Arterial Pressure, Wall Stiffness, Pulse Pressure and Waveform in Arterial Wall Stress/Strain and Its Clinical Implications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100048",slug:"role-of-arterial-pressure-wall-stiffness-pulse-pressure-and-waveform-in-arterial-wall-stress-strain-",totalDownloads:127,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomechanical stress applied to the intima of arteries has long been suspected as a factor in the initiation and localisation of atherosclerotic plaque, and it is implicated in the separation of plaque from the underlying arterial wall giving rise to the acute clinical consequences of thrombosis, dissection and embolism. The factors underlying transmural stress were investigated in-vitro using fresh porcine abdominal aortas on an experimental rig in which pulse pressure, pulse waveform, fluid viscosity, pulse rate, vessel wall compliance and systolic and diastolic blood pressure could be varied at will. Vessel wall compliance was progressively reduced by exposure of the artery to formaldehyde vapour for increased periods of time, a saline-treated artery being used as control. Centripetal transmural stress (CTS) and strain were studied by direct observation of the displacement of a compliant false intima (FI) using real-time B and M mode ultrasound, and by measuring the differential pressure between the space beneath the FI and the adjacent vessel lumen. CTS was found to be directly related to pulse pressure (r = 0.907, p < 0.001) and inversely related to vessel wall compliance. It was independently affected by ranked peak pressure waveform (R = 0.93, p < 0.01) being higher with sharp peak pressure and lower when the waveform was rounded, and it peaked in early diastole in untreated vessels, and both in diastole and peak systole in ones stiffened by formaldehyde vapour. Mean arterial pressure exerted a profound effect via its effect on vessel wall stiffness, which was found to rise 7-fold across the mean arterial pressure range 50-130 mmHg and continued to increase in a logarithmic fashion as the upper physiological range of mean arterial pressure was exceeded. There are two potential clinical implications: in mitigating the postulated biomechanical aspects atherogenesis and atherosclerotic plaque detachment, maintaining large vessel wall compliance is important, and the main factor determining this in a healthy artery is mean arterial pressure; if the arterial wall has already become stiffened as a result of disease, and in the absence of critical stenosis, the findings suggest that the appropriate therapeutic targets are modification of pulse pressure and pulse waveform profile. Simply reducing the diastolic pressure in elderly patients may be unwise if the result is a widened pulse pressure and increased transmural strain. The distribution of atheroma at points of focal mechanical strain in the vessel wall may be explicable if the stress induced by an excessive pulse pressure provokes the inflammatory changes seen in repetitive strain injury. Investigation of inflammatory signalling in the vessel wall provoked by repeated mechanical stress may represent a productive area for future research.",signatures:"Thomas K. Day",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78707",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78707",authors:[{id:"414115",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas K.",surname:"Day",slug:"thomas-k.-day",fullName:"Thomas K. Day"}],corrections:null},{id:"78134",title:"Importance of Resistance Training in the Management of Cardiovascular Disease Risk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99710",slug:"importance-of-resistance-training-in-the-management-of-cardiovascular-disease-risk",totalDownloads:167,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Contrary to the longstanding taboo of resistance training (RT) as a therapeutic treatment, RT has been gaining importance as a safe therapeutic option in the management of numerous diseases. Although exercise has well-documented health benefits on cardiovascular disease (CVD), the benefit of RT on CVD risk factors is not yet as widely prescribed as other modes of exercise. Due to its efficacy in the management of CVD, RT should be regarded as a complementary therapeutic treatment rather than a substitute to other modes of exercise therapy. While it is clear that RT can result in an attenuation of CVD risk, the various RT design options related to intensity and volume and how they impact on CVD risk, especially in different populations (i.e. children, elderly, women) is not yet well documented. This chapter will discuss the physiological phenomenon and benefits of RT as a therapeutic intervention aiming to manage CVD risk.",signatures:"Brandon S. Shaw, Gregory A. Brown and Ina Shaw",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78134",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78134",authors:[{id:"415438",title:"Prof.",name:"Ina",surname:"Shaw",slug:"ina-shaw",fullName:"Ina Shaw"},{id:"416529",title:"Prof.",name:"Brandon S.",surname:"Shaw",slug:"brandon-s.-shaw",fullName:"Brandon S. Shaw"},{id:"421864",title:"Prof.",name:"Gregory A.",surname:"Brown",slug:"gregory-a.-brown",fullName:"Gregory A. Brown"}],corrections:null},{id:"78289",title:"The Effects of Linoleic Acid Consumption on Lipid Risk Markers for Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99894",slug:"the-effects-of-linoleic-acid-consumption-on-lipid-risk-markers-for-cardiovascular-disease",totalDownloads:127,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number one contributor to death in the United States and worldwide. Lipid risk markers for CVD include high serum concentrations of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C), lipoprotein (a), and triglycerides, as well as low serum concentrations of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). Additional factors to assess CVD risk include apolipoprotein A (associated with HDL) and apolipoprotein B (associated with LDL). A suggested dietary strategy to decrease these risk factors is to replace a portion of saturated fatty acids with unsaturated fatty acids – especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). One PUFA, in particular, is the essential omega-6 PUFA linoleic acid, which has been demonstrated to affect these CVD risk markers. Therefore, this chapter will discuss the effects of linoleic acid consumption on lipid risk markers for CVD in healthy individuals, the associated mechanisms, and dietary recommendations to decrease CVD risk.",signatures:"Erik Froyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78289",authors:[{id:"415310",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Erik",surname:"Froyen",slug:"erik-froyen",fullName:"Erik Froyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"78748",title:"Residual Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Dyslipidemia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100046",slug:"residual-cardiovascular-risk-factors-in-dyslipidemia",totalDownloads:88,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular disease poses a major challenge for the 21st century. Although good control of blood pressure and type 2 diabetes and reducing low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels can improve cardiovascular outcomes, a substantial residual risk remains existed after treatment in most patient populations. Recently, many efforts have been directed at finding the important role of low high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol, high triglycerides, especially triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and lipoprotein (a) in the metabolism of atherosclerotic plaque formation Therefore, based on the recent evidence, identification and treatment of these risk factors may play a role in optimizing therapeutic strategy, particularly in high risk subjects along with conventional treatment. In clinical practice, adequate attention should be paid when screening and managing residual cardiovascular risk factors in dyslipidemia in term of individualized approach. The ongoing trials will give more answers to elucidate this important area.",signatures:"Van Si Nguyen, Xuan Truong Tran, Thanh Duy Vo and Quang Truong Le",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78748",authors:[{id:"417878",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Van",surname:"Si Nguyen",slug:"van-si-nguyen",fullName:"Van Si Nguyen"},{id:"426384",title:"Dr.",name:"Xuan",surname:"Truong Tran",slug:"xuan-truong-tran",fullName:"Xuan Truong Tran"},{id:"426385",title:"Mr.",name:"Thanh",surname:"Duy Vo",slug:"thanh-duy-vo",fullName:"Thanh Duy Vo"},{id:"429531",title:"Dr.",name:"Quang Truong",surname:"Le",slug:"quang-truong-le",fullName:"Quang Truong Le"}],corrections:null},{id:"79957",title:"Experimental Model of Cardiotoxicity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101401",slug:"experimental-model-of-cardiotoxicity",totalDownloads:135,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The occurrence of heart electrophysiology dysfunction or/and muscle damage is referred to as cardiotoxicity. The heart weakens and becomes less efficient at pumping and hence circulating blood. Cardiomyopathy can be caused by a variety of factors, including viral infections, diseases such as diabetes, ischemia, hypertension, obesity, radiation therapy, antipsychotic drugs, cytotoxic drugs, most notably chemotherapeutic agents; antitumor antibiotics, monoclonal antibodies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, platinum-based compounds, microtubule inhibitors, vinca alkaloids, antimetabolites, proteasome inhibitors, topoisomerase inhibitors, alkylating agents, corticosteroids. This chapter focuses on the mechanisms of cardiotoxicity, animal models and transgenic methods used in studies, and the effects of therapeutic agents on cardiotoxicity.",signatures:"Oytun Erbaş, İlknur Altuntaş, Özge Çağlar, Elif Özyilmaz, Ece Sari, İlayda Üzümcü and Kaan Erbakan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79957",authors:[{id:"345970",title:"Dr.",name:"İlknur",surname:"Altuntaş",slug:"ilknur-altuntas",fullName:"İlknur Altuntaş"},{id:"428475",title:"Prof.",name:"Oytun",surname:"Erbas",slug:"oytun-erbas",fullName:"Oytun Erbas"},{id:"428624",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Ece",surname:"Sarı",slug:"ece-sari",fullName:"Ece Sarı"},{id:"437888",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",surname:"Çağlar",slug:"ozge-caglar",fullName:"Özge Çağlar"},{id:"437890",title:"Prof.",name:"Elif",surname:"Özyilmaz",slug:"elif-ozyilmaz",fullName:"Elif Özyilmaz"},{id:"437894",title:"Dr.",name:"İlayda",surname:"Üzümcü",slug:"ilayda-uzumcu",fullName:"İlayda Üzümcü"},{id:"437896",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaan",surname:"Erbakan",slug:"kaan-erbakan",fullName:"Kaan Erbakan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6209",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction",subtitle:"Old Concepts and New Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6e76bbf7858977527679a6e6ad6a173",slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-old-concepts-and-new-challenges",bookSignature:"Helena Lenasi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6209.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68746",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Lenasi",slug:"helena-lenasi",fullName:"Helena Lenasi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6373",title:"Myocardial Infarction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10bca0bf18d68ec3c1641dbc3a1ae899",slug:"myocardial-infarction",bookSignature:"Burak Pamukçu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7556",title:"Dyslipidemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dfd1faefe925f0f8335c42cdb36256c1",slug:"dyslipidemia",bookSignature:"Samy I. 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Due to their cost and easy access, social media and Twitter, among them, are widely used as sources of news and means of information spreading. Among others, fire bursts are such breaking news that can be initially made known through Twitter posts.
Mega fires often result in significant environmental destructions, major damages on infrastructures, and economic loss. Most importantly, they put at stake the lives, not only of the civilians but also of the forest fire personnel. Thus, technologies that facilitate early fire detection are important for reducing fires and their negative effects.
Our approach proposes the combination of a deep learning architecture along with a more traditional natural language processing (NLP) one. The deep learning component of the system is responsible for filtering out the fake from the valid fire-related posts, so that only posts containing true fire-related information are retained. For this part of the system, we refer to current state-of-the-art systems for detecting fake news and adopt the one that suits the needs of our problem best. Once the fake posts are filtered out, each valid post is afterward fed into the NLP-based subsystem. By converting the unstructured, raw text into a structured one, the NLP-based subsystem is able to extract information, such as the geographical area of the fire reported in the post. In order to draw final conclusions about the possible fire sources, aggregation statistics over the posts containing similar fire-related information are computed, and probability values for each potential fire source are given as output.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 describes and analyzes the deep learning-based architecture to be utilized for detecting valid Twitter posts regarding fire bursts. Section 3 illustrates the typical NLP-based architecture for extracting meaningful information from the unstructured text of a valid Twitter post. Section 4 presents the overall scheme and its final output. Finally, before the conclusions, Section 5 highlights the results of the up-to-date validated part of the overall proposed scheme.
Social media are low-cost and easy-to-access means of information sharing and, thus, nowadays are widely used as source of news and information. However, getting informed from social media is not always safe, as posts expressing fake news (i.e., news containing false information) are exponentially widespread, simultaneous to the boosting development of online social networks. In fact, fake news tends to outperform the valid ones in the near future [1].
In case of fire burst news, deciding whether a Twitter post is fake or not can be proven of crucial twofold importance. On the one hand, the required time and money for purposeless activation of the firefighting mechanisms are saved. On the other hand, timely confrontation of mega fires is facilitated. This will, in turn, make it less likely for human lives, the environment, and infrastructures to be jeopardized.
Thus, before extracting the crucial fire burst information at a later NLP-based stage, a preprocessing step, deciding whether a Twitter post that declares a fire burst is fake or not, is necessary. To this end, a deep learning-based architecture is to be implemented. The purpose of this architecture is to filter out the posts that will be characterized as “fake” and provide the sequential NLP procedure only with the “valid” posts.
In this subsection, the candidate state-of-the-art deep learning architectures for the detection of fake posts are described. The purpose of the subsection is to illustrate the most recent and modern approaches that have appeared from 2017 onward and have been examined. The input data, used by all architectures, is the text provided by social media posts, especially focused on Twitter. The output is the decision whether the input text corresponds to a “valid” or “fake” post.
The 3HAN architecture [2] utilizes a three-level hierarchical attention network. Each of the three levels corresponds to words, sentences, and headline analysis. The three-edge analysis results in the construction of a news vector which represents the input post. The latter vector is used for classifying the reliability of the post.
The architecture presented in [3], namely, ConvNet, uses a convolutional layer to capture the dependency between the text and its metadata. For the case of the metadata, a standard max pooling and a bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) auto-encoder layer follow. For the case of the text, only a max-pooling layer is implemented. Finally, the max-pooled text representations are concatenated with the metadata representation from the bidirectional LSTM. The merged concatenations are fed to a fully connected layer with a softmax activation function. This generates the final prediction.
The work in [4] presents the FakeNewsTracker architecture. This is a deep learning architecture which is divided into two sub-schemes. The first sub-scheme uses an LSTM deep network [5] in order for the system to be trained on the post representation context. The second sub-scheme utilizes a recursive neural network (RNN) in order to be trained on the context of social engagements. The output features of the aforementioned sub-schemes are fused together to perform a binary classification procedure which labels the input news as “fake” or “valid.”
The DeClarE architecture [6] is based on bidirectional LSTMs in order to result in a credibility score related to the input post. The scheme also considers post source and claims information, which is processed within the bidirectional LSTM dense layers. The concatenated output is also processed by two dense layers and a softmax layer before the prediction of the credibility score.
The work in [7] introduces a hybrid architecture approach which combines an LSTM and a convolutional neural network (CNN) model. Throughout this chapter, the aforementioned architecture will be called Hybrid LSTM-CNN. The LSTM was adopted for the sequence classification of the data. The 1D CNN was added immediately after the word embedding layer of the LSTM model. A max-pooling layer is also recruited to reduce dimensionality of the input layer, thus avoiding training over-fitting of the training data. This also helps in reducing the resources for the training of the model.
The FakeDetector architecture [8] relates post creators to posts and subjects. It contains a Hybrid Feature Vector Unit (HFLU) which extracts the feature vector based on a specific input. The feature vector is fed to the gated diffusive unit (GDU) model for effective relationship modeling among news articles, creators, and subjects. Formally, the GDU model accepts multiple inputs from different sources simultaneously. The GDU applies softmax operation on the output vector before assigning a credibility label. For a more explicit sight on deep learning architectures, the reader is referred to [9].
Before deciding which architecture fits best in our specific case, the direct requirements of the overall procedure should be recorded.
To begin with, detecting fake posts in real time is an essential requirement of the process. Rapid decision whether a fire-bursting declaration post is fake or not leads to fast implementation of the NLP procedure (as described in Section 3). The latter, in turn, facilitates the timely detection of the geographical areas threatened by fire as soon as possible which helps toward the prevention of the majority of negative effects caused by mega fires. Therefore, the proposed architecture of [3] is not suitable for our use case, as it is not implemented in a fully automated manner.
Fake news detection accuracy is very important. High detection accuracy guarantees that the great majority of the posts that fed to be processed in the sequential NLP phase (see Section 3) express sincere fire burst claims. Thus, the final resulting fire-threatened geographical areas are much more likely to be actually threatened. Furthermore, the aforementioned accuracy needs to have been achieved in publicly available datasets and benchmarks. This windows the performance of the architecture much more reliable than others, tested on proprietary datasets. To this end, the FakeNewsTracker architecture [4] is not suitable for our use case, as it is tested on a proprietary dataset.
Last but not least, the architecture needs to be domain invariant. In other words, it needs to be generally applicable to any domain, other than the one(s) used for conducting training and testing procedures. More precisely, the accuracy of a system, detecting fake post that deal with fire burst, should not be significantly altered in the case of post that deal with any other domain (politics, sports, etc.). This makes the system architecture much more flexible and adoptable. From the remaining architectures analyzed in this section, only DeClarE [6] and the Hybrid LSTM-CNN [7] claim to be domain invariant. DeClarE has been tested on PolitiFact dataset [10] achieving accuracy 67.32%, while the Hybrid LSTM-CNN has been tested on PHEME dataset [11, 12] achieving 82.00% accuracy. Both datasets are publicly available. PolitiFact is a respected fact-checking website releasing a list of sites manually investigated and labeled. It mostly contains posts of political content. PHEME is also another EU-funded project whose results include collecting and annotating rumor tweets which are associated with nine different breaking news contents. Therefore, PHEME is a richer dataset with a wider variety of themes that makes the Hybrid LSTM-CNN system architecture [7] it has been tested on more suitable for our use case.
The procedural requirements for the fake post detection scheme with respect to the architectures analyzed in Section 2 are summarized in Table 1.
Based on the aforementioned requirements, the baseline of the architecture selected to be implemented follows the Hybrid LSTM-CNN architecture [7]. The overall architecture is illustrated in Figure 1. The
Suggested fake post detection architecture.
Each sentence is then consumed by the
The
This component consists of two sub-modules: (a) the fire incident report detection sub-module and (b) the fire incident report analytic sub-module. The first one is responsible for acquiring reports made by civilians on the Twitter platform and detects reports that refer to a potential fire incident. These reports are stored in a structured way. The fire incident report analytic sub-module is responsible for aggregating the detected fire incident reports, and based on the number of these reports and the location these reports refer to, it concludes to a probability that there was a significant amount of people that reported a fire incident at a specific location. The final output is the result along with a geographic area and a reliability score of each location and the coordinates of each location.
Natural language processing (NLP) is a field of computer science responsible for the study and analysis of raw text. The purpose of this field is to enhance human-computer communication by constructing systems that are capable of understanding raw text and incorporate interaction interfaces based on textual messages. Some of the main topics of NLP are learning syntactic and semantic rules and determining concept, topics, and sentiment from a document, automatic summarization, machine translation, natural language generation, information extraction, etc. [14].
Information extraction corresponds to the section of NLP which is responsible for the analysis of unstructured textual pieces and conversion to a structured form. For example, the conversion of the following unstructured text (raw text):
“Yesterday, New York based Foo Inc. announced their acquisition of Bar Corp.”
to the structured form:
MergerBetween(‘Foo Inc’, ‘Bar Corp’, date …)
The above-structured form corresponds to a relation of various entities that were embedded in the initial unstructured raw text. The benefit of this conversion is that structured relations can be manipulated by computer algorithms and finally be exploited by computer algorithms. Apparently, for a given unstructured text, many structured forms correspond each one holding different knowledge and representing different relations. As a result, the algorithm designer has the responsibility of selecting the appropriate structured form.
The information extraction procedure consists of the following steps:
The above procedures make use of text processing algorithms, knowledge representation, and information retrieval algorithms. In order to achieve text segmentation (sentence segmentation or tokenization), each text should be treated as an array of characters. Segmentation is based on the a priori knowledge of special characters that in most cases are used for splitting. For example, sentences usually end with a period mark “.” or exclamation mark “!” or question mark “?” and begin with a capital letter. As a result a general rule for segmenting sentences would be to search for pairs: (special character
Tagging procedures are usually based on knowledge databases and information retrieval algorithms. For this task, there is a need of having a lexical and syntactic and semantic database, which we call a corpora (of course different for each language!), which holds characterizations of several words to conceptual entities, and their relations in a structural way. Consequently, segmented texts (tokenized texts) are used as key vectors in order to retrieve from the corpora the corresponding characterization set. The most common approaches for this task are:
Finally, relation extraction procedures demand from the algorithm designer to predefine either directly by specifying relation rules and use matching algorithms in order to detect word patterns corresponding to specific rule or indirectly by providing to the system several examples of annotated tagged sentences and then use classification algorithms in order to specify the corresponding relations.
In this section, a real-case scenario of a system that was realized and evaluated for the purposes of real-time automatic fire detection as demanded by the EU-funded research project “AF3” is presented [15]. The suggested solution comprises a training phase where, via surveys, a variety of tweet samples for various predetermined occasions were collected. These samples were used in order to create a language model (template) that refers to fire incident report.
Training comment platform: declaration of fire burst.
Training comment platform: tricky “fire” word usage.
The results of the training phase were passed through (a) sentence segmentation, (b) tokenization, (c) part of speech tagging, and (d) name entity detection algorithms, so consequently each report was converted to a tagged sentence form:
E.g. <‘I’> <‘think’> <‘there’> <‘is’, DEFINING VERB> <‘fire’, FIRE RELATED WORD> <‘at’><‘Immitos’, LOCATION>
As a result, this procedure concluded to a set of tagged sentences that we know that they refer to fire incident report. Next, these reports were aggregated based on their similarity. Finally, the most common aggregated ones were kept in a regular expression form in order to represent the variations. These aggregated rules correspond to the relation rules that will be used by the relation recognition step of the information extraction module. The selected rules are the following:
1. <FIRE RELATED WORD> <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <TIME> + EXCLAMATION MARK> * <VERB LOCATION DEFINITION> + <PREPOSITION> + <HASHTAG> + <LOCATION>
2. <FIRE RELATED NOUN> <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <FIRE RELATED VERB>
3. <FIRE RELATED NOUN> <EXCLAMATION MARK> *<VERB RELATED TO SMOKE> + <PREPOSITION> + <HASHTAG> + <LOCATION>
4. <LOCATION> <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <SENSITIVE AREA> + <FIRE EXPRESSION>
5. <LOCATION> <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <SENSITIVE AREA> + <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <HASHTAG> + <FIRE RELATED NOUN>
6. <LOCATION> <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <FOREST> + <EXCLAMATION> * <FIRE RELATED VERB> <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <HASHTAG> + <FIRE RELATED NOUN>
7. <SENSITIVE AREA> + <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <FIRE EXPRESSION> <EXCLAMATION MARK> * <HASHTAG> + <LOCATION>
where
FIRE-RELATED NOUN: ‘fire’, ‘flames’, ‘smoke’, etc.
VERB LOCATION DEFINITION: verbs that define location (‘exists’, ‘is located’, ‘is’, etc.)
FIRE LOCATION VERB: ‘burn’, ‘fire’, etc.
VERB-RELATED TO SMOKE: ‘covering’, ‘smoke’, etc.
SENSITIVE AREA: forest, trees, park, etc.
In the previous section, the procedure of fire incident report acquisition was presented. The result is the gathering of various fire incident reports on different locations with different timestamps. Despite the fact that these reports may seem reliable, due to the severity of the situation, there would be cases, however, that a report may indeed refer to a false fire incident, either because of false fire incident detection from the information extraction component or because of a false report by a civilian [17]. It should be highlighted here that a false report is not made intentionally (like fake news, e.g., as examined in Section 2), but it is an outcome of misunderstanding or a tricky usage of the word fire and its derivatives (i.e., pants on fire). In order to ensure that fire incident notification alerts correspond to a noteworthy event, such reports should be checked of their validity before they are reported to the ingestion server. Consequently, the system consists of an analytic process responsible for the confirmation of the reports based on the number and the location of them. The analytic process implements a reliability model which aggregates the reports and concludes to a fire incident event report along with a reliability score. The reliability score corresponds to the level of how many trustful reports of fire incidents refer to a specific location. The reliability model is presented in more detail in the next section.
Initially, the analytic process clusters incident reports based on their geo-coordinates (longitude, latitude). Due to the fact that fire incident reports usually are distributed densely along the fire locations, DBSCAN algorithm [18] was used for report clustering, which is a very efficient dense-based unsupervised classification algorithm for two-dimensional spaces and Euclidean distance as proximity measure and is able to detect accurately various cluster shapes. Then, for each cluster, the reliability model is applied where, finally, a geographical area that it is suspected of being threatened by fire incident is estimated, along with a reliability score.
The reliability model was designed by assuming that very few reports for specific location probably would mean that these reports are probably false alarms, but above a specific threshold, it is almost clear that there is a significant number of people reported a fire incident. In other words if, for example, there emerges one tweet referring to a great fire at the center of Athens, apparently there would be doubts about the validity of this report. Probably, we would say that either this report was a joke or the author of this comment might mean something different that of the literal meaning of a fire incident. On the other hand, if 100 tweets reported a fire incident, probably a real fire incident in the center of Athens is very likely. Apparently, some more tweets would not do the difference. As a result, an exponential model was selected which is parameterized by:
The reliability score is given by
The term
Thus:
Similarly:
Let:
Then:
Moreover:
Based on the system architectures presented in Sections 2 and 3, we propose a hybrid architecture for detecting fire bursts in real time based on Twitter posts. The proposed architecture can be divided into two parts: a deep learning scheme for distinguishing false from valid Twitter posts and a typical NLP scheme for extracting the crucial information with respect to the declared fire burst post. The overall combined scheme is illustrated in Figure 4. The deep learning network part represents the scheme presented in Section 2, while the information extractor of the typical NLP part represents the scheme presented in Section 3.
Proposed overall architecture.
For the fake post detection part, we are to recruit the aforementioned deep learning scheme as it performs twice as good as the related NLP-based methods [19]. Thus, Twitter post processing is expected to work much faster than in the case of implementing a typical NLP-based procedure of the state of the art. In addition, the availability of large posts/news datasets [10, 11, 12] facilitates the reliable training of such systems.
Despite the current trend of massively turning to deep neural networks, we designed and constructed a rather typical NLP-based architecture for the information extraction part of our system. This is highly related to the prerequisites that the training procedure of a deep neural network sets, as well as the nature of the problem itself. To begin with, due to lack of a publicly available (i.e., dataset containing a large number of fire burst-related Twitter posts), appropriate dataset for this task, a deep learning approach would be one of only few chances of success. More importantly, the nature of the task itself points to the direction we followed; fire-related posts on a social media platform are reasonably expected to have some common characteristics that make it suitable for a human to model them in order to obtain the desired information. For example, such posts are expected to be short in length, declaring the area of the fire source while containing words and phrases from a fire-related expression set of manageable size. So, our NLP-based subsystem is human and not machine modeled, is proven to be efficient, and is human intuitive and understandable, something that makes it easier to manipulate and expand, if needed.
The system was tested during the AF3 pilot exercise in Skaramagas naval base in two scenarios: (a) fire incident indication based on reports coming from mobile app and (b) fire incident indication based on reports coming from Twitter posts (tweets) containing the hashtag #af3EUprojectFireDetection_TRIAL.
During the first scenario test, a controlled fire was set at an open area inside the naval base. After a while actors, members of the pilot exercise, pretending to be citizens passing by, started posting reports about the fire incident they witnessed. These posts were analyzed by the fire incident detection module and return a notification of a potential of fire incident along with the estimated location and a reliability score. The results were visualized by the public information channel, where fire incident notifications were presented on the map as an area that it was estimated that the fire was located along with the post comments of the reports, photos attached with the reports, and the reliability score (see Figure 5).
Validating the scenarios.
During the second scenario test, a controlled fire was set at an open area near the military airport in Aktio [20]. After a while actors, members of the pilot exercise, similarly with the first scenario, committed posts about the fire incident on the Twitter instead of the mobile app. These tweets were collected by the fire incident detection component, analyzed, and distinguished the ones that refer to the fire incident. These reports were gathered by the analytic module and, as described above, clustered, and finally the corresponding notifications were sent to the ingestion server. The results, similar to the first case, were visualized by the public information channel and exploited by the data fusion component in order to enhance its estimation. Table 2 illustrates the validation results.
Source | Expected results | Validation |
---|---|---|
Fire incident indication based on reports coming from Twitter posts (tweets) |
| Done successfully |
Validation results of the NLP-based scheme.
Fire bursts are a dangerous problem of great importance worldwide. Mega fires often result in significant environmental destructions, major damages on infrastructures, and economic loss. Most importantly, they put at stake the lives, not only of the civilians but also of the forest fire personnel. Thus, technologies that facilitate early fire detection are important for reducing fires and their negative effects.
This chapter aims to provide an alternative view for early fire detection based on twitter posts, instead of expensive sensors and other infrastructures. A hybrid system architecture is introduced which combines a deep learning process for the detection of valid twitter posts regarding fire bursts and a NLP process which extracts the crucial information (place, time, etc.) from the valid tweets. Finally, risk assessment, based on analytics, is performed which derives the geographical places threatened by fire at the current time.
Part of the architecture is already validated under real-world conditions, and the results are promising. The overall system performance is expected to be further improved once the deep learning scheme is entirely utilized.
This work was performed within the AF3 Project (Advanced Forest Fire Fighting), with the support of the European Commission by means of the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7), under Grant Agreement No. 607276.
There are no “conflict of interest” issues regarding this chapter.
The mathematical definition of the convolution process between two one-dimensional signals
Apomixis provides a method for cloning plants through seeds, so that it is of value for agriculture used to fix hybrid vigor and other hopeful breeding materials that are positioned in the middle breeding process [1, 2]. Apomixis is usually classified into three major mechanisms, apospory, diplospory and adventitious embryogeny [1]. Among the three mechanisms, apospory is considered as the most important one in agriculture because it does not undergo meiosis to propagate through the seed. Bahia grass (
Recently, some challenges using differential interference-contrast microscopy (DIC) technology have been conducted in all organs of plants. For example, in the meiotic chromosome [10], in petal development and ethylene biosynthesis [11], in nucleolus morphological changes [12], in pharmacology and cell biology [13], in xylem differentiation [14], in single microtubules [15]. In particular, near field DIC provides the ability to illuminate two neighboring points on the sample simultaneously, which shows that by modulating the two wavelengths employed in exciting such a probe, phase difference information can be retrieved through measuring the near field photoinduced force at the difference of the two modulation frequencies [16]. And more, two phases (cell structure and fluorescence) that appeared concurrently in the same sample and could be observed in
We choose bahia grass as a monocotyledons species as that would be particularly amenable to a molecular study of apomixis. It is shorter a plant and easily to cultivate among the important forage grasses. Recently, the somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration system of bahia grass has been established in developing gene introduction techniques [18]. To clarify the molecular process controlling apomixis in
In this study, the major objectives were, using the microscopy method of DIC I) to make it clear the cytological and quantitative observations of AIC appearance and its development in bahia grass, and to estimate the period of AIC appearance using ovary length as an index; and II) to clarify the process of polyembryonic seed set in facultatively apomictic ovules, and to provide information for estimation of the degree of apomixis or sexual of
Four apomictic bahia grass varieties and two obligate sexual varieties were chosen for this study. These materials were kindly provided from Osumi breeding branch, Kagoshima Prefecture Agricultural Experiment station, Japan. For the 2 obligate sexual materials, Nangoku and C 1, the former is a diploid (2n = 20) variety [31], and the latter is a diploid (2n = 20) trace. About four apomictic varieties, they are tetraploid [32].
One hundred to over 300 buds or flowers before and at anthesis were collected for each variety for embryo sac analysis. The buds and flowers were fixed in FPA50 (formalin propionic acid: 50% ethanol = 5: 5: 90) for 5–7 days at 4°C [20, 21, 33, 34]. Ovaries were picked out carefully from fixed buds or flowers under microscope by using needle and tweezers, placed in 70% ethanol followed dehydration series (70, 80, 90, 100% ethanol), and cleared in Herr\'s benzyl-benzoate-four-and-a-half fluid [35] for over 2 h at 0–4°C. The observations were conducted using DIC.
The frequencies of apospory and sexual were calculated at anthesis according to the schematic of Figure 1 [36]. Here, apospory was classified into two types,
Schematic representation of embryo sac development during sexual gametogenesis and the apospory forms in
Until megasporogenesis there showed similar behaviors in both sexual and apospory varieties. After megasporogenesis, however, different events from sexual varieties were observed in apospory varieties. While the formed megaspore became almost unfunctional and degenerated with the membrane disappeared, AIC-derived from enlarged unreduced nucellar cells appeared from a different direction and usually entered the space around the degenerated or surviving megaspore (Figure 2(1), [36]). In Figure 2(2) and (3), there showed coexistence of AIC and degenerated or surviving megaspore.
Aposporous embryo sac initial cell (AIC) appearance and AIC-derived embryo sac maturity in apomictic bahia grass (
In general, the AIC forms the embryo sac through a special process. The AIC undergoes mitosis two times and forms 2-, 4-nucleate. And no antipodal was found (Figure 2(4)). The cell division only occurred in the half-space of the embryo sac in the micropylar end. It is different from the sexual one which usually occupied the whole space of the sac. And then, the 4 nucleates developed to complete their parts in order (Figure 2(5)). In common, a mature embryo sac formed with one egg cell, one synergid and two polar nuclei (Figure 2(6)). In some rare cases,
In most ovules of apomictic plants, AICs appeared continuously as the ovary length increased. The numbers of AICs were increased between the formations of functional megaspore and mature 4- or 8-nucleates according to the ovary length. For example, the ovary length in "competitor " was ca 520 μm when the first AIC appeared, and ca 496 μm when the third one did. However, 5 AICs appeared between 520 μm to 624 μm (688 μm) in ovary length. So were the other varieties. These values of ovary length indicated that AICs in the same ovule did not seem to differentiate synchronously.
From the length of ovaries, the stages of the ovary containing degenerated embryo sac were from 4-nucleate to their embryo sac maturity in apomictic plants, and from 4- and 8-nucleate to embryo sac maturity in sexual plants, respectively. On the other hand, the stage of functional megaspore showed a range of ovary length so wide it became very close to the value of degenerated ovaries.
Ten types of embryo sacs were observed and most of the embryo sacs belonged to PS type (Table 1, [36]). In apomicts, most ovules showed the number of embryo sacs more than one. And the ovules with different embryo sacs (5PS to 2PS, PS +PNn to 4PS +PNn, S, PNn) were observed. The percentage of S type (
Varieties | No. ovules observed | No. sterile ovules | Types of embryo sacs1 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
5PS | 4PS | 3PS | 2PS | S | PS+PNn | 2PS+PNn | 3PS+PNn | 4PS+PNn | PNn | |||
Competitor | 60 | 1 | 4 | 7 | 14 | 14 | 8 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
Nanou | 35 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 11 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 3 | |
Tifron | 44 | 14 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 13 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | |
Common | 43 | 6 | 3 | 5 | 10 | 13 | 2 | 3 | 1 |
Number of ovules with different types of embryo sacs at anthesis in apomictic varieties of
PS:
Among the 4 varieties, the frequencies of PN type were from 5.0% to 30.3%, and that of PS type were from 60.7% to 90.0%. Total frequencies of apospory were 86.4%, 91.1%, 87.1% and 95.0% in competitor, Nanou, Tifton and Common, respectively.
There are no differences observed between obligate sexual and apomictic plants until megasporogenesis in bahia grass. After megasporogenesis, however, different events are followed in embryo sac formation. Sexual ovules proceeded in a manner typical of the Gramineae family, i.e., functional megaspores divided and formed a mature 8- nucleate embryo sac as reported in
The earliest AIC that appeared in ovule always located in micropylar end, as the ovary grows, the later appeared are located along with the first AIC and being apart from it. To understand the mechanism of AIC appearance, we selected ovary length as an index and measured the ovaries when they were observed in different AIC appearance. From the range of ovary length, AICs do not appear together in same time. Instead, they seemed following a continuous course and appeared one by one during the period from megasporogenesis even to the first embryo sac maturity. According to the ovary length compared with the morphology of spikes, AICs appeared in the period of spike emerging to open at anthesis. With regard to the ovary length measured we could collect every stage of embryo sac to apply apomixis gene cloning. Sterile ovules with degenerated embryo sac appeared in both sexual and apomictic varieties based on the observation and quantitative analysis of ovary length. The ovary length of the ovary in which the first AIC appeared was longer than that of ovary the functional megaspore appeared in all varieties, indicating that the aposporous phenomenon of AIC appearance is initiated after megasporogenesis. Further, the ovary length of the ovary staged in functional megaspore was wide and close to the ovary lengths of the ovaries showing degeneration of megaspores in different developed stages. These results indicated indirectly that the development of sexual embryo sac derived from megaspore is often terminated accompanied by AIC appearance in many aposporous apomicts around the stage of megasporogenesis [41, 42]. Which one of megaspore or AIC firstly showed the signal to terminate or to appear will be interesting to further researches of apomixis. In the present study, 10 types of embryo sac formation were observed in
At 0 DAA, most of the embryo sac located in micropylar end became typical ones. In the accessions tested, the percentage of the typical embryo sacs in micropylar end was 90.9–100% higher than that in the other end (40.4–86.0%) (Table 2, [43]). If the typical one is S type, it consists of 8-nucleates of egg cell, 2 synergids and 3 antipodal. If the typical one is PN or PS type, it consists of 4-nucleates of egg cell, synergid and 2 polar nuclei.
Varieties | No. ovules observed (A) | No. embryo sacs (B) | Mean no. (B/A) | No. embryo sacs | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Micropylar | Others | ||||
Competidor | 59 | 171 | 2.9 | 59 (100%) | 112 (78.6%) |
Nanou | 33 | 85 | 2.6 | 30 (90.9%) | 52 (40.4%) |
Tifton | 31 | 51 | 1.6 | 31 (96.8%) | 20 (80.0%) |
Common | 40 | 90 | 2.3 | 40 (92.5%) | 50 (86.0%) |
Distribution of matured embryo sacs at anthesis in facultatively apomictic varieties of
At 6 h after anthesis, polar nuclei firstly started to divide to mean 9.0 cells in 55 of 59 ovules of Competitor. At 1 DAA, first division of egg cell was observed while the endosperm had reached mean 38.8 cells. This phenomenon is same to
In polyembryonic ovules, the embryo sac in micropylar end developed dominantly when compared with that in the other ends. Figure 3 showed the developments of both embryo and endosperm of the sac in micropylar end, and the other sacs were crowded out to chalazal end, with dividing egg embryo and polar nuclei [36].
Multiple embryo formation in the same embryo sac in
The ovules containing dominantly developed embryo sacs were investigated at 4 DAA in 4 varieties. The results showed in Table 3 indicated that, 56–87% of the ovules contained developed sacs in micropylar end in all the accessions, and in contrast, on other ends, 0% in 3 varieties and 3% in one variety.
Varieties | No. ovules observed A | No. embryo sacs B | ES in miciopylar end | ES in the other end | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
embryo and endosperm C(C/A) | embryo only | endosperm only | embryo and endosperm D(D/A) | embryo only E(E/B) | endosperm only | |||
Competitor | 30 | 41 | 26 (87%) | 0 | 4 | 0 (0%) | 7 (17%) | 0 |
Nanou | 27 | 28 | 15 (56%) | 1 | 0 | 0 (0%) | 1 (4%) | 0 |
Tifton | 30 | 35 | 21 (66%) | 0 | 2 | 0 (0%) | 3 (9%) | 0 |
Common | 30 | 38 | 23 (77%) | 0 | 0 | 1 (3%) | 5 (13%) | 0 |
Development of embryo sac (ES) in the flowers 4 d after anthesis in facultatively apomictic varieties of
Some other cases appeared different from the above. 1) A single embryo sac in micropylar end contains a well-developed embryo and unfertilized 2 nuclei. 2) A single embryo sac contains 2 embryos and well-developed endosperm. 3) The embryo sac degenerated in micropylar end, and in chalazal end, the sac with developed embryo and unfertilized 2 nuclei. And the data of other types could be known from Table 3. Among the 4 varieties, the number of the embryo sac in micropylar end containing only embryo was 1 of 27 ovules in Nanou, and the numbers containing only endosperm were 4 of 30 ovules in Competitor, 2 of 30 ovules in Tifton, respectively. In contrast, in the other end, the numbers of the sacs containing only embryo were 4–17% in all the varieties, and the number containing only endosperm was 0% in the varieties.
At 6 DAA, the developed embryo and endosperm of the sac in micropylar end occupied the embryo sac it located in, and at the same time, the space of the whole ovules was almost occupied by the developed sac (Figure 3a). The embryo usually exists with near globular shape, and it is surrounded by well-developed endosperm. For the embryo sacs in the other ends, they usually were squeezed out to outside of the developed sac. However, those sacs showed continuous development. Some egg cells divided well, and formed embryos usually located in opposite side to micropylar end (Figure 3a), or the neighbor (Figure 3b and
In emasculated ovules observed at 4 DAA, no developed embryo sac distinguished in 60 ovules of 4 varieties. The parthenogenesis rate was 0% in all the 4 varieties. At 15 DAA, the inflorescences that were emasculated and then isolated from any pollen source failed to produce seed. So, pseudogamous is essential for seed set in
In facultative apomictic bahia grass, AICs appeared one by one, and then, they became multiple embryo sacs in same ovule, as the ovary length increased [36]. And as the first AIC usually appeared and located in the micropylar end, 92.5 to 100% of embryo sacs closest to micropylar end of ovule matured at anthesis observed in this study (Table 2). On the other hand, the embryo sacs located in other end showed 40.4 to 86.0% mature rates at anthesis. The AIC appearance age (order) maybe influence the mature of apomictic embryo sacs themselves. It could be considered that the first appeared AIC in micropylar end has the temporal dominant in formation and maturity of the embryo sac when compared with the other sacs. And for the fertilization chance, the sac has also the positional dominant, as it was closest to synergid cell through which pollen tube penetrates and finishes fertilization. Therefore, the sac derived from first AIC located in micropylar end has the advantage of fertilization. On the observations of ovules at 4 DAA, the rates of developed embryo sacs with embryo and endosperm were from 56 to 87% in the sacs of micropylar end (Table 3). On the other hand, the other sacs were 0% in 3 varieties, and one variety was 3%. Therefore, the sac in micropylar end has the advantage of seed set. This result also supported the hypothesis that the embryo of developed sac in micropylar end, in final, became a seed-forming embryo [20]. Using this method, we can estimate the degree of apomixis or sexual of any facultative apomictic materials used, based on the analysis of embryo sacs in micropylar end at anthesis.
Different events were observed on the seed set between guinea grass and bahia grass. In guinea grass, the other embryo sacs were crowed out to the chalazal end by the developed micropylar sac, and in final, they were completely degenerated after 10 DAA [21]. In contrast, the rates of embryos formed in the other embryo sacs were 4–17% in 4 accessions of bahia grass used in this study. These are higher than that (0%) in 5 accessions and that (2%) in one accession of guinea grass [21]. This evident was also observed from embryo sac analysis (Figure 3). As the sac derived from AIC contains 2n level reproductive cells, egg cell does not need fertilization. However, for the endosperm formation, fertilization between central cell and sperm cell is needed. And egg cell usually starts division followed the endosperm cell formation. The other sacs also follow the same manner. As the embryo sac developed advantageously in micropylar end, it could be considered that the egg cells in the other sacs were developed vigorously in different places of ovules. In that case, only embryo formed but no endosperm. In the polyembryonic ovules, the embryos located in the other sacs usually presented close to the well-developed endosperm of the micropylar sac. The 2 kinds of embryos in the same ovule seemed sharing the endosperm of the micropylar sac. Maybe that is why the embryos in different embryo sacs could coexist in the same ovule. At the germination experiment, twines, or multiple seedlings (>5%) were observed (data not shown). This means the different embryos have the same germination capacity. For the endosperm balance number, some reporters have discussed the requirement for balance between maternal and paternal contributions to the endosperm formation [44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. When they used different ploidies and sexual materials, endosperm balance in terms of maternal to paternal ratio, 2:1 was considered balanced and should produce normal endosperm. And they indicated that unreduced embryo sacs with one central-cell nucleus (4 factors), when fertilized by a sperm (2 factors), would result in the proper endosperm ratio of 2m:1p, and the closed percentages were obtained between embryo sacs with a single central-cell nucleus and ovaries with endosperm developing 6 and 8 d after pollination. The result of aposporous guinea grass reported by Chen and Kozono [21] also supported the above explanation. In grasses, the most common type of unreduced embryo sac is the 4-nucleates
Recently, the mechanisms of reproductive characterization [49], molecular and genetic regulation [50, 51, 52], and its utilization [53, 54] have been discovered consequently in
In this study, using the plant materials of several apomictic and obligately sexual varieties of bahia grass (
This study was partly supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science and Sports of Japan, No. 10660010.
Authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
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Health",slug:"heavy-metals-and-human-health",totalDownloads:18969,totalCrossrefCites:87,totalDimensionsCites:196,abstract:null,book:{id:"1012",slug:"environmental-health-emerging-issues-and-practice",title:"Environmental Health",fullTitle:"Environmental Health - Emerging Issues and Practice"},signatures:"Simone Morais, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Maria de Lourdes Pereira",authors:[{id:"13875",title:"Prof.",name:"Simone",middleName:null,surname:"Morais",slug:"simone-morais",fullName:"Simone Morais"},{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"87294",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"}]},{id:"36935",doi:"10.5772/37886",title:"Gender Differences in Food Choice and Dietary Intake in Modern Western 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Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. 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The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"69876",title:"Leadership Styles in Nursing",slug:"leadership-styles-in-nursing",totalDownloads:3157,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Recent developments in the field of management-organization and organizational behavior and new concepts have also led to the emergence of new leadership styles in leadership. Leadership in health services is important for following innovations and adapting to current situations. Nurses working together with other health personnel in hospitals providing health services constitute an important group in leadership. Nursing, which is a key force for patient safety and safe care, is a human-centered profession, and therefore leadership is a key skill for nurses at all levels. The leadership styles of nurse managers are believed to be an important determinant of job satisfaction and persistence of nurses. The need for nurses with leadership skills and the need for nurses to develop their leadership skills are increasing day by day. There are several leadership styles defined in nursing literature. These leadership styles are examined under the titles of relational leadership style, transformational leadership, resonant leadership, emotional intelligence leadership, and participatory leadership. The task-focused leadership style is explored under the headings of transactional and autocratic leadership, laissez-faire leadership, and instrumental leadership.",book:{id:"9047",slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives"},signatures:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş and Kamile Kırca",authors:null},{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:8548,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Everyone has the right to decide on the number and timing of children without discrimination, violence and oppression, to have the necessary information and facilities for it, to access sexual and reproductive health services at the highest standard. Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"69631",title:"Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours",slug:"cultural-practices-and-health-consequences-health-or-habits-the-choice-is-ours",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human beings are social animals with an innate desire to conform to socially accepted norms and values. Over periods of time, some of these norms become standards that all members of the community are expected to adhere to. Deviance from these standards is seen as absurd, wrong, or frankly abnormal. However, many of these cultural mores have no scientific basis and, some of them actually promote behaviors with negative health consequences. This chapter examines the cultural practices of some communities in Africa and their health consequences and, explores ways to address the challenges.",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Radiance Ogundipe",authors:[{id:"302308",title:"Dr.",name:"Radiance",middleName:null,surname:"Ogundipe",slug:"radiance-ogundipe",fullName:"Radiance Ogundipe"}]},{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5433,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"200",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82616",title:"The Quantum Theory of Reproduction – How Unique is an Individual?",slug:"the-quantum-theory-of-reproduction-how-unique-is-an-individual",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105769",abstract:"Our understanding of nature’s way is founded on quantum mechanics. In its existence of over 80 years, quantum theory has been describing the physical world. The attraction of studying quantum mechanics is the perception of the conceptual structure of nature. This is aided by the mathematical structure that exposes the internal logic of the subject by inventing a notation that embeds the philosophy of the question. To describe how unique each individual is. A calculation method was applied. The uniqueness of an individual is one in two nonillion, octillion, septillion, sextillion, quintillion, quadrillion, trillion, billion, million and thousand. Individuals are indefinitely unique.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Zouhair O. Amarin"},{id:"81930",title:"Smoking and Its Consequences on Male and Female Reproductive Health",slug:"smoking-and-its-consequences-on-male-and-female-reproductive-health",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104941",abstract:"Smoking contributes to the death of around one in 10 adults worldwide. Specifically, cigarettes are known to contain around 4000 toxins and chemicals that are hazardous in nature. The negative effects of smoking on human health and interest in smoking-related diseases have a long history. Among these concerns are the harmful effects of smoking on reproductive health. Thirteen percent of female infertility is due to smoking. Female smoking can lead to gamete mutagenesis, early loss of reproductive function, and thus advance the time to menopause. It has been also associated with ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. Even when it comes to assisted reproductive technologies cycles, smokers require more cycles, almost double the number of cycles needed to conceive as non-smokers. Male smoking is shown to be correlated with poorer semen parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation. Not only active smokers but also passive smokers, when excessively exposed to smoking, can have reproductive problems comparable to those seen in smokers. In this book chapter, we will approach the effect of tobacco, especially tobacco smoking, on male and female reproductive health. This aims to take a preventive approach to infertility by discouraging smoking and helping to eliminate exposure to tobacco smoke in both women and men.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Amor Houda, Jankowski Peter Michael, Micu Romeo and Hammadeh Mohamad Eid"},{id:"81468",title:"The Knowledge and Use of Intra-Uterine Device by Women Attending Ante-Natal Clinic at Enugu State Teaching Hospital, Parklane",slug:"the-knowledge-and-use-of-intra-uterine-device-by-women-attending-ante-natal-clinic-at-enugu-state-te",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104097",abstract:"Intrauterine contraception has been recognized globally as one of the modern long-term reversible contraceptive methods suitable for women of all reproductive ages. It represents the most cost-effective method for preventing unwanted pregnancies, scientifically proven for its safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness and is known to last longer in preventing pregnancy than other methods. This study assessed the knowledge of mothers attending ESUT teaching hospital, Parklane on intrauterine contraceptive device, the use as well as the common side effects experienced by the users. A descriptive survey research design was used to sample 175 mothers. A structured researcher developed questionnaire was used for data collection. The findings revealed that more than half of the respondents have good knowledge of intrauterine device but only 23 (14%) respondents make use of it. The commonly experienced side effects identified were irregular bleeding (75%) and vaginal discharge (62.5%). Although, the respondents had good knowledge of intrauterine device, their uptake of the method was poor. Therefore, there is a need to improve contraceptive counseling to ensure that women understand the relative effectiveness of IUDS. The study also recommended the need for better education for both clients and providers to improve the accessibility and acceptability of intrauterine device.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Chukwuasokam Caleb Aniechi and Uloma Cynthia Ezuma"},{id:"81003",title:"Perspective Chapter: Modern Birth Control Methods",slug:"perspective-chapter-modern-birth-control-methods",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103858",abstract:"This chapter focuses on various modern birth control methods, including combined oral contraceptives, progestogen-only pills, progestogen-only injectables, progestogen-only implants, intrauterine devices, barrier contraceptives, and emergency contraceptive pills. Each contraceptive method is covered in detail, including mechanism of action, effectiveness, health benefits, advantages, disadvantages, risks, and side-effects.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Rahma Al Kindi, Asma Al Salmani, Rahma Al Hadhrami, Sanaa Al Sumri and Hana Al Sumri"},{id:"80084",title:"Contraceptive Implants",slug:"contraceptive-implants",totalDownloads:174,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101999",abstract:"Contraceptive implants or implantable contraceptive are five subdermal implants, rods the size of pencil lead that are embedded just under the skin on the inside of the upper arm. The rods contain etonogestrel, the metabolite of desogestrel, an equivalent progestin. Implants are often used during breastfeeding without an impact on milk production. It was identified that age does not affect the use of contraceptive implants but educational status is significant to its usage; there is an association between the age at first birth and the use of contraceptive implants; the number of liveborn children has a significant impact or influence on the use of implants; etc. This chapter focuses on types of contraceptive implants and its mechanism of action; global statistics on contraceptive implants; side effects; health benefits and positive characteristics of contraceptive implants; those who can and cannot use contraceptive implants; reasons women are not interested in contraceptive implants and factors influencing its usage.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Hassan Ilegbusi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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