Productivity of forage cactus clones under dryland condition.
\r\n\t
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His current position is the Head of Biopolymers & Nanobiotechnology Group at the Center of Excellence, National Research Center in Egypt. \nProf. Elnashar’s fields of interest are in the production of Nano to Macro Beads, Biopolymers Grafting, Immobilized Enzymes, Drug Delivery Systems, Nano Magnetic Particles, Diagnostic Kits (Immunology) and Water Purification.",institutionString:"Curtin University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Curtin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Social Approval and Body Image",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94503",slug:"blossoming-for-whom-social-approval-and-body-image",body:'Our relationship with our body has always been complicated. Although our body is an integral part of our life experience, many of us do not grow to like or appreciate our body as the way it is. Through the process of socialization, we develop ideas of what is preferred in our society and how we should look at our body. This belief system shapes our perception of and attitudes towards our body. While the size and shape of our body are an objective measure, our body image is not always as stable or realistic. It is not uncommon for one to hold a distorted view of his or her body, which could lead to body dissatisfaction and compromise one’s psychological well-being.
Psychologists have devoted an entire body of research on this particular topic and investigated how our perception of our body influences thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors. Some researchers looked into the origins of body image, others studied the influence of negative body image on our mental health. They raised many interesting questions that inspire us to reflect upon. For example, what role do our families and friends play in the shaping of our body image? What makes some individuals more vulnerable to social comparison than others? In this chapter, we will delve into some of these questions and reveal how our societal standards explicitly and implicitly influence our body image.
Before we get started, it is worth mentioning that body image is not a subject that only pertains to girls or women. As many of our male readers may attest, men can be equally troubled by their body images as well. Moreover, body image is not only about size. It would be unfair to assume that one is only concerned with his or her weight or size, given the rich diversity of human experiences. Literature has examined a great variety of body-related topics, such as physical diseases and injuries. For the purpose of this chapter, we will mainly look at the section of literature that relates to shapes and sizes. But it is not to say that other aspects of body image are not as equally important.
Body image is commonly understood as how one looks in the mirror. By staring at your body in the mirror, you will notice some physical characteristics including shape, size, height, skin tone, and so forth. However, do you think these characteristics truly reflect your body? Does your body seem bigger or smaller than you expect? I think you would agree with me that what we see is often not how we feel. There is a great amount of discrepancy between what our body actually looks like and what we perceive our body to be. Furthermore, how do you like the way you look? Do you have an opinion about your body every time you check yourself out in the mirror?
Psychologists coined the term body image to refer to one’s perceptions and attitudes towards his/her physical characteristics [1]. Body image is a multidimensional concept that subsumes cognitive, affective, behavioral, and perceptual facets [2, 3]. For instance, perceiving your body to be a certain way can give rise to various emotions, lead you to have positive or negative thoughts, and result in behaviors in an attempt to modify your body.
More specifically, psychologists have been interested in studying the development of body image and its influence on other aspects of people’s life. Plato once said, “The body, in which we are imprisoned like an oyster in its shell” [4]. One can easily imagine that our feelings towards and opinions of our bodies can fundamentally influence our day-to-day life experiences. Therefore, in order to understand one’s idea of beauty, we must inevitably take a close look at his/her body image.
The first question that researchers began to investigate was how accurate people’s body perception was. Researchers asked individuals to estimate their body sizes and compared the estimations against their actual measurements. The results show that some people have inaccurate estimations as they perceived their bodies to be either bigger or smaller than their actual sizes [5, 6]. Furthermore, people who tend to overestimate their sizes are more likely to develop eating disorders [7]. Among anorexic patients, researchers examined whether their body distortions stem from inaccurate visual inputs or distorted views of their bodies. They employed assessments such as digital photography techniques and figure drawing scales. It turns out that there is not much difference in the patients’ visual sensitivity (i.e. heightened ability in processing visual information) but disturbances in how they interpret the images of their bodies [8, 9]. Hence, their biased attitudes towards weight and size caused them to have a distorted body image.
This discovery naturally led to the next question about the attitudinal component of body image. In other words, what attitudes do people have in relation to their physical appearance? Researchers examined this question by first asking people if they were satisfied with their body image. The results show that around 61 to 93% of people were not satisfied with either their overall appearance or specific body areas [10, 11]. More specifically, around 50% of preadolescent girls and 30% of preadolescent boys reported dissatisfaction with their body [12, 13, 14]. In adults, approximately 60% of women and 40% of men see their body negatively, and these rates remain stable across the lifespan [15, 16]. In addition to being dissatisfied, people also reported experiencing emotional distress (including shame, anxiety, or discomfort) with regards to their body [1]. They could experience such distress at specific moments or as part of their general life experience.
Body image distortion and dissatisfaction can have serious consequences. People with negative body image are at risk of having low self-esteem, depression, social anxiety, impaired sexual functioning, and reduced quality of life [1, 17, 18]. They may engage in risky health behaviors including unhealthy eating, physical inactivity, unsafe sex, smoking, and so forth [19, 20, 21, 22]. Negative body image can also contribute to the development and maintenance of body dysmorphic disorder and eating disorders [23, 24].
Eating disorders are serious and sometimes life-threatening illnesses. They often involve serious medical complications that can cause permanent damage or death. People with eating disorders also have an increased risk of dying by suicide. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, the accumulated lifetime prevalence of eating disorders (including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder) was around 4% among adults and 2.7% among adolescents aged 13 to 18 years [25]. Overall, approximately 30 million Americans have struggled with an eating disorder over their lifetime. Moreover, probably twice the number of people or more are also struggling with eating disturbances even if their conditions do not yet meet the criterion of a clinical diagnosis [26]. This is why body image distortion and dissatisfaction are implicated in a range of public health concerns such as eating disorders [27].
For people with negative body image, their passage to beauty and self-appreciation is blocked, because having a healthy and positive body image sits at the core of beauty. Merriam-Webster defines beauty as “a quality or aggregate of qualities in a person or thing that gives pleasure to the senses or pleasurably exalts the mind or spirit” [28]. It is one thing to please the senses of others, but it is another to please oneself. To appreciate the beauty within him/herself, a person must be able to view his/her body positively in the first place. However, it would difficult if a person views him/herself unfavorably and struggles with unpleasant emotions and feelings towards his/her own body. Therefore, in order to reinstate the sense of beauty and self-appreciation within individuals, we must first understand the concept of body image.
At this point, you might wonder what causes people to have distorted and disapproving views of their body. Thomas F. Cash, a leading expert in the field of body image, proposed that there are two views of human appearance [29]. One is the “outside view” as how our physical appearance influences our interpersonal experiences. For example, physical attractiveness plays a role in an array of contexts such as friendship, romantic relationships, and job opportunities. The other is the “inside view” which is a person’s subjective experiences of his/her appearance. The inside view was later defined as “body image” [29]. When we talk about body image, we are referring to a person’s own perceptions, attitudes, emotions, and beliefs regarding his/her appearance. However, the inside view is built upon and largely influenced by the outside view.
Societal standards regarding body image have a prominent influence on an individual’s self-image. As a society, we hold standards for a large variety of qualities. Among these dimensions of self, one’s physical body is the most prominent [30]. The values and beliefs about physical attractiveness are referred to as societal standards of beauty. The concept of beauty is ever-changing, as it has constantly evolved over time and varied across cultures. The standards of different societies stem from two main sources of influence: biology and culture [31]. In developed countries, as the issue of survival becomes less of a concern, people’s preferences for ideal body shape have shifted from a sultry and voluptuous ideal to a thin and slender ideal. Nowadays, the modern ideal body shape has increasingly become both thin and very fit [32]. These ideals then circulate to other parts of the world due to globalization and have been infused into the standards of other countries and cultures. A cross-national comparison study found that the pressure to conform to Western ideals significantly predicts ideal body stereotype internalization for female participants from America, Poland, and the Czech Republic [32].
How are people influenced by these societal standards? Psychologists proposed a persuasive model - the Tripartite Influence Model [33]. It describes how social influence from media, family, and peers can predict body image and eating disturbances. The model also suggests that individual factors, such as internalization of the ideal body shape (regardless of how the ideal body shape is defined in a given society) and a chronic tendency towards social comparison, could mediate these social influences.
Societal standards are pervasively communicated through media messages. Traditional forms of media, such as TV commercials and magazines, have been advocating and promoting the desirability of an unrealistically thin ideal [34, 35]. For example, a study about print media found that adolescent girls would endorse their ideal as the models in fashion magazines specifically targeting teenage girls [36]. New social media, such as Instagram, Pinterest, or Tumblr, are image based. Seeing the images of thin and athletic peers provides a convenient target of upward social comparison for female viewers and motivates them to achieve a similar body shape. Many researchers in the field of eating disorders have criticized the media’s role in the formation of eating and body image disturbances (e.g., [34, 35, 36]).
The media equate an ideal body shape not only with attractiveness but also with success. American culture emphasizes that physical attractiveness helps to achieve success in every area of life [32]. It is believed that thinness is crucial for success and happiness and people with the ideal body shape are likely to have a high social status. On the contrary, overweight or obese people are under pervasive appearance-based social discrimination and are often associated with negative qualities such as unattractive, lazy, immoral and dishonest [37].
Through this socialization process, women are disproportionately influenced by the social standards of beauty. Studies have unanimously observed greater body dissatisfaction among women than men [8, 9, 15]. Psychologists propose that the gender differences in body image originate from a sexual dimorphism through the general developmental process and the subsequent divergent psychosocial experiences of both genders [8, 31]. From an evolutionary perspective, beauty and attractiveness are not merely a cultural concept, but rather an important factor in determining one’s odds of survival and reproductive success. Through the process of defining prominent features of attractiveness for both genders, different standards have emerged. Traditional gender roles associate femininity with beauty and the desire for an attractive appearance, while masculinity is associated with force and control [8]. This focus on esthetic qualities of the body creates a low level of body esteem and dissatisfaction among women [31]. Moreover, mass media portray beauty as a woman’s primary objective. They also normalize the pressure that women experience with body image as if it is normal and acceptable for a woman to be ashamed and anxious about her body and appearance [38]. However, this is by no means to say that men are not affected by societal standards of beauty. In fact, a growing trend of body dissatisfaction has been observed among men [39]. While some of them are affected by the thin ideal, others are actively pursuing a masculine body ideal with high muscle mass. This tendency could posit men at similar risk of developing body image disturbance and eating disorders.
Not all women are equally influenced by societal standards of beauty. Some individuals may not be affected by media messages at all, while others are greatly affected and tend to modify their behaviors in a dysfunctional way to model media-promoted images. Researchers speculated that some interpersonal and intrapersonal factors play a role in influencing an individual’s response to societal standards.
One specific individual difference variable, internalization of societal pressures regarding standards of attractiveness, appears to moderate or even mediate the media’s effects on women’s body dissatisfaction and eating dysfunction. Internalization is a process in which individuals assimilate the idea that possessing the ideal body shape is associated with being happy and successful and begin to hold themselves up against the societal standards [40]. Researchers identified two trends of internalization. One is thin-internalization, in which an individual wants to be thin or skinny; the other is athlete-internalization referring to the desire to possess a lean but muscular body [33]. While these two trends differ in the societal standards that one subscribes to, individuals who experience greater pressure to conform to either societal standard are more likely to internalize the ideal body stereotype [39]. Living in a culture that puts such a strong emphasis on the media and uses it to convey beauty standards increases the perceived pressure to conform for some individuals. This may increase their propensity to internalization and create a strong desire for them to achieve ideal beauty standards. Thus, they are at a greater risk of experiencing body image disturbances.
Empirical studies substantiate extensive evidence of internalization. For example, middle-school-aged girls who perceive higher peer influence and more television influence on the importance of attractiveness reported greater dissatisfaction with their body image and having pathological beliefs about eating [14]. College women who saw photographs of thin models from fashion magazines reported significantly higher levels of private body self-consciousness and anxiety than women in the control group [41]. Women with eating disorders demonstrated significant increases in overestimating their body size following exposure to photographs of models from popular fashion magazines. However, no such effect was found among women without eating disorders [41]. People with bulimic symptoms, regardless of the severity of their symptoms, experienced lower levels of self-esteem and weight satisfaction after seeing photographs of thinner models compared to after seeing photographs of larger models [42].
Why are some individuals more likely to internalize societal standards than others? Psychologists suggest that “People differ considerably in how they want to be seen, but they share in common an active pursuit of those desired self-images.” [30]. Femininity and attractiveness, among many other qualities, are important to women’s self-image. One study found that, in order to present themselves as feminine, female participants consumed less food when getting acquainted with a desirable male companion than with others [43]. Compared to the other qualities, societal standards of attractiveness is a highly accessible external source that can be used to define the self. Therefore, for women who lack a clear definition of their identity, internalizing the thin ideal and comparing their appearance to other women may serve as a means to gain self-knowledge [44].
Unfortunately, defining their self-concept in these ways can have negative implications for women’s body image. A sociocultural model stressed that the current societal standards for thinness, as well as other standards of beauty for women are impossible to achieve for the average woman [31, 34]. It is not difficult to notice discrepancies between the actual self and the ideal self through upward social comparison. For example, when flipping through fashion magazines, one may make comparisons between her body shape and the models’ and inevitably notice the differences in their sizes. Strauman and colleagues found that actual-ideal discrepancies among female undergraduates were correlated with dissatisfaction with weight and appearance-related beliefs about self [45].
Another source of self-knowledge comes from one’s interaction with others. Interpersonal contexts provide opportunities for one to gain insights into his/her self-knowledge [30]. In particular, they allow people to choose comparison targets and interaction partners in ways that maximize benefits to the self. People tend to choose interaction partners who see them as they see themselves due to the desire for self-verification [46]. They create environments that confirm their self-views, primarily by choosing appropriate interaction partners, and they interpret and remember their interactions as confirming their self-views. People choose and are highly committed to interaction partners who confirm their self-views, even if those self-views are negative [46]. Therefore, their negative self-views can be verified, maintained, or even reinforced through their interactions.
Messages about societal standards of attractiveness do not emanate just from media sources. Unfortunately, family, peers, coaches, teachers, and others help reinforce this socialization of women [37, 47, 48]. Their perception plays a critical role in influencing our self-image. Many interpersonal influences have been identified to contribute to the development and maintenance of shape- and weight-related disorders [49]. The factors include, but are not limited to, teasing or critical comments about one’s appearance from parents, peers, or other significant others. For example, one study found that body-related comments received in childhood predicted body esteem in adulthood [49].
The fear of interpersonal rejection leads to a high amount of stress for women. People’s sensitivity to rejection based on their appearance within interpersonal contexts are named appearance-rejection sensitivity (RS). Highly sensitive people are self-conscious about how they look. They anxiously anticipate that other people would reject them for their appearance. Moreover, when they are rejected, they attribute their appearance as the reason of rejection. Appearance-RS strongly predicted disruptive and excessive body image concerns [50]. The more sensitive participants were to being rejected based on their appearance, the more likely they were to report thoughts and behaviors characterizing body dysmorphic symptoms, to view cosmetic surgery as acceptable for both social and intrapersonal reasons, and to consider having cosmetic surgery in the future [50]. Appearance-RS also predicted social reasons for having cosmetic surgery [50]. This finding is consistent with research linking higher sensitivity with sociocultural influences, such as peer acceptance and feeling pressured to please others [37, 51, 52].
Women view their body image as an area that they can improve in order to gain social acceptance. In an experiment examining the implicit relations between rejection and appearance, female participants attempted to modify their body image in order to achieve self-enhancement [53]. Self-enhancement is one of two general sets of motives. When people are under threat (e.g., rejection, negative feedback, low self-esteem, depression, illness), their affective system and desires for self-enhancement are invoked [54]. Kunda proposed that the motivation to self-enhancement leads people to believe that they possess the desired traits, which in this case is smaller body size [55]. In another study, women who received self-esteem threats reported greater satisfaction with their appearance and less preoccupied with it than women who received positive feedback [56]. While the results indicate that participants held self-defensive perspectives immediately after receiving negative feedback, they might experience a paradoxical increase in investment in body image later on [57, 58]. As counterintuitive as this may seem, evidence shows that, after rejection and disapproval, people are motivated to protect their self-image by regulating their body image in order to maintain a balanced self-concept and diffuse the unbearable emotional distress. Compared to other aspects of the self, such as intelligence, one’s body seems to be salient yet more malleable.
As a result of the interplay between sociocultural influences and the internalization process, women experience dissatisfaction towards their appearance. On the perceptual level, they are likely to overestimate their weight and size and see themselves as bigger than their actual size. Such irrational and inaccurate perception could lead to greater distress and a stronger motive to change. Consequently, individuals may develop distorted beliefs and automatic thoughts about their appearance and its significance [59].
As a result of the negative self-schema, individuals may resort to two common approaches to help regulate their body image. One is the avoidance approach, as some individuals are prone to avoid situations that might generate body image distress. For example, they might wear baggy clothes, avoid tight-fitting or revealing clothes, avoid mirror, and voluntarily isolate from social situations [60]. Other individuals may be prone to actively pursue the ideal body image and try to minimize the actual-ideal discrepancies [61]. They might monitor the condition of their body through repeated weighing and mirror checking. They are also preoccupied with their appearance and spend time-consuming efforts to groom and manage specific body areas. The more dangerous forms of effort include extreme restraints of eating behaviors and cosmetic surgeries. Regardless of the differences in approach, these actions are inherently self-reinforcing. They might relieve the individuals of immediate distress, but perpetuate the problems in the long term.
Struggles with body image have accompanied men and women throughout history and across cultures. With the development of research, we are fortunate to uncover the underlying mechanisms and pathways that link sociocultural influences and individual risk factors. However, many aspects of this problem still remain unresolved. Despite the active effort of studying and intervention, many individuals are still dissatisfied with their appearance and resort to alter their body in dysfunctional manners.
As we are embracing increasing diversity within our culture, it is imperative to reevaluate the dichotomous nature of our societal standards. When we put a category of qualities on the pedestal, we are essentially labeling people who do not possess such qualities as inadequate. Subsequently, individuals are subject to social scrutiny and risk disapproval from their significant and/or desirable others. The stakes are raised obviously too high to the degree that it may erode individuals’ self-esteem and overall well-being. In order for individuals to regain control over their body image, the real effort that we should spend is to challenge media messages and commonly held beliefs about beauty and help individuals develop a secure and stable self-concept that captures their true essence.
Spineless Forage Cactus is no doubt a magic forage plant having potential to serve as a source of water bank and forage for animals under extreme environment, but it does not fall under the scope of book Grasses and grasslands: New perspectives. Due to its resistance to drought and high efficiency in the use of rainwater, the planting and use of Spineless Forage Cactus is neglected in semi-arid regions, which is a mistake. In these regions and suitable climatic conditions, it is an unbeatable crop in terms of productivity and quality as an energy food, which is why it has the power to be called the Queen of Forages in the Semiarid Region.
Scientific production around this forage crop dates back to the 1980s, with increasing interest in recent years, mainly in countries such as Mexico, Tunisia, the United States, Argentina, India and Brazil. Recently, it highlights scientific production related with crop productivity as a monoculture or intercropped, mineralization dynamics of differents sources of organic fertilizers, irrigation, its use as a food supplement or ingredient substitute and how ruminants supplement with spineless cactus can reduces drinking water ingestion.
This chapter is intended to describe a brief use and importance of spineless cactus as forage, desertification mitigation, source of water for animals and a source of income for producers in semiarid regions. As methodology, published papers on planting methods and cultural treatments were researched, aiming at the knowledge of those that allow greater productivity and also articles related to nutritional value that would allow its recommendation as the main alternative as a source of energy for ruminants in semiarid regions. Finally, simulations were carried out in order to demonstrate that the use of forage catus could help in environmental conservation. Papers are located from physical and virtual libraries.
Forage cactos as
According to the Agricultural Census [8], the production of forage cactus in the semiarid region of Brazil is 3,581,469 tons, with productivity of 24.3 t/ha of dry matter in a harvested area of 147,439 ha. This production is concentrated in the states of Bahia (1,500,359 ton), Paraíba (742,982 ton), Pernambuco (481,932 ton) and Sergipe (431,468 ton).
The main species explored in Brazil are
In many cases, despite belonging to the same genus, forage cactus species present different responses under different growing conditions. Thus, the productivity of the species in a region will depend on its morphological characteristics [14] and its capacity to adapt to climatic and soil conditions (Table 1) [6, 15].
Clone | Plants/ha | Spacing | Harvest frequency | DMP (t/ha) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ipa Sertânia1 | 28,000 | 1.6 × 0.2 m | 2 years | 10.7 | [6] |
Miúda1 | 20,000 | 1.0 × 0.50 m | 2 years | 7.35 | [16] |
Miúda1 | 29,875 | 1.6 × 0.2 m | 2 years | 11.5 | [6] |
OEM2 | 30,938 | 1.6 × 0.2 m | 2 years | 15.6 | [6] |
OEM2 | 33,333 | 2.2 × 0.2 m | 234 days | 13.7 | [17] |
OEM2 | 25,000 | 1.0 × 0.4 m | 330 days | 16.4 | [18] |
Gigante3 | 20,000 | 1.0 × 0.5 | 600 days | 21.5 | [19] |
20,000 | 3.0 × 1.0 × 0.25m | 600 days | 14.7 |
Productivity of forage cactus clones under dryland condition.
Orelha de Elefante Mexicana [
The variety OEM is an imported clone native from Mexico which has been highlighted by its greater tolerance to drought, resistance to
The recommended plant spacing for forage cactus varies according to the production system and the environment, and it can be planted as a single crop or intercropped with commercial crops [21]. In a single crop, there is greater proximity between plants, especially in double rows, which can favor greater competition for nutrients, damaging growth [19]. However, according to [22] it is possible to obtain greater productivity in dense crops due to the increase in the number of plants per hectare and, consequently, the increase in the cladode area index. However, depending on the genotype-environment combination, there will be a limit where light interception and photosynthetic efficiency can be affected. If mechanization is available, this must also be taken into account when choosing the optimal spacing [21]. Less dense plantings facilitate cultural treatments and reduce the risk of pests such as cochineal insect [22]. According to [23] it is possible to use planting arrangements in triple or quadruple rows that favor the mechanization of the forage cactus
Intercropping planting systems can also affect the productivity and harvest timing of forage cactus [14]. Some of the crops considered in these intercropping systems have been,
The consortium of forage catus and the use of appropriate management practices can contribute to improve soil fertility, increase crop productivity and the sustainability of livestock production systems. Northeastern semi-arid region. The introduction of Leucaena (
A decrease in dry matter production of 22.7% and 39.2% of forage cactus and sorghum, respectively, when they were cultivated in intercropping [29].
The cutting intensity and harvest management of forage cactus are two other factors that affect crop productivity. The efficiency of plants in converting light energy via photosynthesis depends, among other factors, on the area of the cladodes remaining after cutting and the reserves for the next cycles [30, 31]. However, this response will be conditioned by the plant structure and the relationship between genotype, crop agroecosystem, and adopted management [31].
Regardless of harvest management and genotype, it is consistent to observe higher yields when primary or secondary cladodes are preserved (Table 2). This fact is related to a larger photosynthetic area that can provide faster growth and consequently higher productivity [30, 34]. In different states of the semiarid region of Brazil, it is common to observe harvest managements that preserve only the main cladode in search of a greater amount of cladodes per plant in the first harvest [31]. However, the plant will have fewer reserves for the next growth cycle, affecting later production.
Clone | Dry matter production (t/ha)1 | Plants/ha | Harvesting frequency | Reference | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Basal | Primary | Secondary | ||||
Miúda2 | 11.03 | 17.5 | 23.04 | 50,000 | 12 months | [32] |
Gigante3 | 8.62 | 14.83 | 19.64 | 50,000 | 12 months (year 1) | [30] |
14.9 | 22.3 | 34.7 | 12 months (year 2) | |||
Gigante3 | — | 3.9 | — | — | 12 months | [33] |
— | 13.2 | — | — | 24 months | ||
OEM4 | 20.9 | 37.5 | 33.2 | 43,478 | 12 months | [34] |
Forage cactus production under different cutting intensities and harvest time.
Preserving corresponding cladode.
Orelha de Elefante Mexicana [
Related to the ideal time for harvesting, [33] comment that the annual cut can be used as a management practice for forage cactus since the sum of fresh matter production and dry matter production can be greater when the annual harvest is adopted. However, it will also depend on other managements and cultural treatments adopted in addition to the selected genotype.
The forage cactus planting in production units has been purposed for animal feed as forage in 98.5% [13]. When properly managed (improved varieties, density, organic fertilization, weed control, irrigation), forage cactus (
Weed control, as an agronomic practice to reduce competition for nutrients, moisture, and light, is important to increase both green and dry biomass and crop water accumulation. Thus, it is possible to obtain a greater amount of forage, carrying capacity, and water reserve in the plants [21, 24]. The recommended control can be chemical or mechanical, but the most used control method in the Northeast of Brazil is cleaning with a hoe or mowing during the dry season. Chemically, the control is recommended from the early growth stage to minimize competition, although, in Brazil, there are no products registered for weed control for forage cactus [36]. There are few references regarding this topic (Table 3).
Clone | Control type | DMP (t/ha) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Gigante1 Harvest 2 years | Chemical | 11.9 | [37] |
Manual labor (summer weeding and hoe) | 4.93 | ||
No control | 3.03 | ||
Miúda2 (0.5 × 0.5 m) Harvest 1 year | Manual labor | 11.1 | [24] |
No control | 9.5 | ||
Miúda2 (1.0 × 1.0 m) Harvest 1 year | Manual labor | 3.9 | |
No control | 4.5 |
Control of weeds used in forage cactus production.
DMP: dry matter production
The use of irrigation for forage cactus is another of the agronomic practices considered. It is not a common practice, but in some regions where low precipitation associated with high night temperatures limits crop development, the application of small amounts of water can improve results in the planted area [21]. Thus, it is a technology that should be strategically used based on local rainfall, thermal regimes, and available clone [38]. The diversity of responses has been observed over time.
For species
The cacti grow in various types of soils and regions with rainfall between 300 and 600 mm annually, however, they are sensitive to high rainfall [42]. Saline soils are another limitation to the cultivation of the
Due to drought resistance and high efficiency in rainwater use, forage cactus planting is neglected in terms of soil fertility; which is a mistake. In semiarid regions and adequate climatic conditions, it is an unbeatable crop in terms of productivity and quality as an energy feed, for that it can be called The Queen of Forages in the Semiarid Region [43]. So, it must occupy the best fertile soil on the property.
As with all crops, the fertilization of forage cactus is conditioned to the fertility of the soil where it was or will be planted. Therefore, the first step to cultivate the forage cactus is the choice of the planting place, and the second to carry out the soil analysis. When the soil is submitted for analysis, the recommendation of fertilization for forage cactus is required. Or, with the analysis result, a professional can make the calculations to quantify enough limestone to correct soil acidity if necessary, and quantify the amount, formulate the planting and maintenance fertilizers for the crop.
In the nutritional aspect, it has long been recognized that forage cactus responds well to organic and chemical fertilization, as shown by [21, 42, 44, 45]. Also known the effect of the interaction between the level of fertilization, spacing, and environmental conditions of the crop influence the nutrients replacement. The higher population of plants more extraction of nutrients from the soil, and the greater requirement.
According to [42] forage cactus has a low nutritional requirement, but nutritional deficiency causes losses in yield and plant health. They report a quick response to the application of manure and chemical fertilizer in the production of new cladodes and fruits. Under greenhouse conditions, the application of 3–5 g/l of NPK (19:19:19) after fruit harvest was beneficial to the production of new cladodes. Another point reported by authors was the positive response to fertilization with tanned corral manure, which improves soil structure, nutrient availability, and soil water storage capacity. Thus, they recommend 6–10 t of barn manure/ha incorporated into the soil before planting.
In soil conditions, their recommendation is the application of 20 kg of N after harvesting cladodes, either for the production of
The recommendations above are for India and are contained in ICAR’s Technical Bulletin No. 73, which still shows the recommendation by [46] with the combination of five tons of tanned corral manure and NPK (60:30:30)/ha at planting.
The five soil nutrients that may influence the
Some research results for the states of Pernambuco and Paraíba prove the positive effect of fertilization with cattle manure on the
Location | Plants/ha | manure (t/ha) | Increment (t/ha/2 years) | % | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parari, PB | 20,0001 | 20 | 70.3 → 191.9(FM) | 173 | [49] |
Bonito de Santa Fé, PB | 20,0002 | 20 | 74.8 → 299.8(FM) | 300 | |
Caruaru, PE | 40,0002 | 30 | 9.6 → 42.6 (DM) | 443.7 | [50] |
Indicating that forage cactus responds positively to organic fertilization.
Orelha de Elefante Mexicana [
[51] suggested for South Africa the correction of the soil before the forage cactus planting intended for fruit production in dryland during summer rains. They indicated the ideal soil pH range of 6.5 to 7.5 and the fertilization indicated by soil analysis to obtain the soil nutrient levels as shown in Table 5.
The great level of element in soil (mg/kg) | |||
---|---|---|---|
P | K | Ca | Mg* |
20–30 | 80–100 | > 400 | 100–150 |
Whereas the recommendation for forage cactus nutrition to produce fruits or “nopalito
In Brazil, research about forage cactus retakes to the 1950s with agronomic trials on fertilization, planting spacing, and later on animal feed [21], and nowadays on irrigation, water salinity, and chemical weeding. Some studies indicate the composition and morphology of Brazilian Semiarid soils show diversity; they are vulnerable to degradation, due to the decrease in organic matter content and loss of fertility, and in arid, semiarid, and dry sub-humid climates it is characterized as desertification [28]. Data from INSA show that 9% of the Brazilian semiarid region is already desertified and 85% in a moderate process of desertification, a condition that makes the management of this soil more difficult and the need to use soil conservation and fertilization management techniques.
This diversity consists of shallow, stony, and sandy soils generally with low fertility in contrast to deeper soils with greater fertility. In some situations, saline soils are already found. [21] reported 19.2% of the soils in the Brazilian semiarid range from Litholic Neosols, shallow with an “A” horizon directly on the rock, to Latosols (21%), deep, well-drained, and with low organic matter content.
As we know the scope of forage cactus fertilization is generally neglected by producers. The reasons are many and generally, the areas chosen by the producers are characterized by their little agricultural vocation and usually with low fertility. [54] developed research with producers from Taperoá, PB, Brazil, and found that only 10% of producers performed soil analysis before planting forage cactus. However, 74% of the plantations were implanted in clayey soils, 20% in sandy-clay textured soils, and 6% cultivated cactus in sandy textured soils.
The search for greater productivity in the forage cactus crop has led researchers and producers to increasing plant density, increasing the number of plants per ha under cultivation. [55] indicate extraction of 0.9; 0.16; 2.58 and 2.35%, for N, P, K, and Ca, respectively by forage cactus cultivation indicating partial agreement with [42]. However, [56] cited by [21] demonstrated the positive effect on forage cactus production with increasing levels of organic fertilization and numbers of plants per ha in the state of Pernambuco. Even with a low level of nutrient requirement by forage cactus, the increase in dry matter production per area promotes high nutrient extraction per cultivated area causing the need for nutrient replacement after each harvest, whether annual (Table 6) or biannual. Logically, the amount of fertilizer needed to increase production will reach its limit.
Productivity (t DM/ha/year) | Nutrient annual removal (kg/ha) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | P | K | Ca | Ratio t DM:Nutrient amount | |
5 | 45 | 8 | 129 | 117 | 1:1:1:1 |
10 | 90 | 16 | 258 | 235 | 2:2:2:2 |
20 | 180 | 32 | 516 | 470 | 4:4:4:4 |
40 | 360 | 64 | 1032 | 940 | 8:8:8:8 |
55 | 495 | 88 | 1419 | 1292 | 11:11:11:11 |
80 | 720 | 128 | 2064 | 1880 | 16:16:16:16 |
Nutrient extraction by forage cactus according to productivity.
Calculated from [55]: extration of 0.9; 0.16; 2.58 and 2.35% for N, P, K e Ca from soil, respectively.
Research by [57] showed the efficiency of organic fertilization decreased when using a low amount of cattle manure for planting with 160,000 plants/ha of forage cactus and recommended a minimum application of 40 t/ha every two years for this density. Greater productions occurred with the increase in population density and application of 80 t of cattle manure every two years, with values of 61; 90; 117 and 139 t DM/ha/two years, respectively, for planting densities of 20, 40, 80 and 160 thousand plants/ha.
Taking as an example a forage cactus planting in low fertility soil (P and K; Table 7), we used the fertilizer recommendation for forage cactus in Guide recommendation for crops in the state of Pernambuco.
Soil analysis | Implantation1 (kg/ha) | Fertilizing2 (kg/ha) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Content in soil | Planting | Growth | After cutting | Planting | Growth | After cutting2 |
Do not consider | 100 | 100 | 222 | 222 | ||
< 11 mg/dm3 | 80 | 60 | 60 | 445 | 445 | |
< 0.12 cmolc/dm3 | 100 | 60 | 100 | 167 | 167 | |
Cattle manure3 | 20,000 | 20.000 |
Example of chemical and organic fertilization association for forage cactus based on hypothetical soil analysis and recommendation for the state of Pernambuco, Brazil.
[59] reported to have little information on the subject but asserts several occurrences of cactus becoming a problem as invasive plants in several countries around the world. According to him, species of commercial value such as
In Brazil, this is still not a problem be considered for cactus cladodes, however, [60, 61] cited by [62] comment cactus species are the most cosmopolitan and destructive among invasive plants in any parts of the world. Briefing, informative material from ICARDA – International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas reports after 150 years cultivation of
The number of invasive species in South Africa has increased from 13, all
The semiarid in the world land structure is almost entirely characterized by a large number of small and medium sized family-owned establishments. In Brazil, 70% of the consumed food is produced by small producers [63]. Although family farming is economically in these regions crucial, producers in the semi-arid region are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The combination of an adverse environment and economic activity that is dependent on nature leads to extreme vulnerability of the production systems, represented by virtual collapses under climatic conditions that are unfavorable to production. This, in part, results in economic fragility.
In dry areas around the world, periodic droughts have a major impact on rural properties, leading to serious socio-economic losses [29]. In these regions, biomass production is typically low (<5 tons of DM per ha per year), with low forage potential (<1 ton of DM per ha per year), leading to a low support capacity (12–15 ha to sustain an adult cow; Dubeux et al., 2015). However, producers should make efforts to identify and implement strategies to deal with these adversities, which can reward them with long-term resilience [64]. For this reason, [65] suggested corn crop for silage production. [66] evaluated five short cycle corn cultivars, recommended for silage production in semi-arid regions, and observed a productivity of 8.04 tons of DM/ha (6.12 to 9.68 tons of DM/ha).
However, the use of cactus, notably cactus cladodes (
In general, energy is the most limiting “nutrient” for animal production. [72] showed that
Item | Forages | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forage cactus | Sorghum silage | Alafafa | Leucaena | Buffel grass | Corn silage | |
2.34 | 2.28 | 2.13 | 2.67 | 1.52 | 2.29 | |
23.69 | 24.31 | 26.03 | 20.76 | 36.47 | 24.21 |
Metabolizable Energy (ME) content and productivity expectation of different forages.
It is impossible to achieve the productivity of the selected forages in semiarid conditions (Table 8) under low rainfall without irrigation. However, they should not be discarded, because they could be used, to a lesser extent in the diet, as a source of fiber.
Some other advantages justify spineless forage cactus use; for example, cows producing 15 kg of milk/day, fed with a diet contenting 50% of forage cactus, practically do not need water via a drinking fountain [74]. Spineless forage cactus is a perennial crop that allows for a reduction in implantation costs over time.
Due to its crude protein content (5.4%), CNF content (54.3%), and NDF content (24.8%), cactus cladodes combined with a cheap source of fiber (sugarcane bagasse, wheat straw) and NPN (urea), as a feeding strategy for ruminants, show very satisfactory results, including a reduction in the required amount of concentrated feed. [75] evaluated diets for crossbred lactating cows, with 61% forage cactus, 34.2% roughage, 1.7% urea, and only 3.1% soybean meal. They reported an average production of 11 kg milk/day. In another study, Holstein heifers, with an average weight of 243 kg, received a basal diet consisting of spineless forage cactus (69.8%), sugarcane bagasse (27.6%), and urea (2.6%), supplemented with 1 kg wheat bran per day. They showed an average gain of 0.71 kg/day [76]. Spineless forage cactus is an excellent feed for small ruminants. [77, 78] reported a positive performance for sheep with an average daily gain of 251 g/day, and lactating goats with average milk production of 2.97 L/day, respectively, when the animals were fed with spineless cactus.
A major issue that affects the global society is desertification, which is the process of land degradation in arid, semiarid, and sub-humid areas stemming from factors such as climatic variations and human activities [79]. Due to climatic conditions, soil characteristics, the inadequate exploitation of natural resources, and overgrazing, the Caatinga, a specific biome in Northeast Brazil, has become fragile and vulnerable [80]. In general, the causes of desertification in Northeast Brazil are not different from those typically found in other areas around the world. They are related to the exploitation of natural resources, to improper practices of land use (overgrazing and over-cultivation), and above all, to models of immediatism regional development [80].
It is necessary to consider the notorious contribution of livestock activity to the acceleration of the desertification process, along with the aforementioned climatic factor. According to [81], the use of semi-extensive or extensive livestock in semiarid areas becomes a factor in environmental changes due to the excessive stocking of animals in limits above the ecosystem’s support. In the medium term, it exerts strong pressure on the floristic composition of the native vegetation due to the high palatability that is causing the extinction of species. It also exerts pressure on the soil due to the excessive trampling that causes compaction (in the rainy season) and disintegration (in the dry season), which has negative effects on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. In the long term, it contributes to the irreversible degradation of soils and vegetation, thus generating areas that are susceptible to the process of desertification.
The use of spineless forage cactus in areas where it can develop normally and may become the basis for ruminants’ feed would increase the support capacity production systems. This would avoid the indiscriminate use of natural vegetation, mitigate desertification, and improve coexistence with the adverse conditions of the semiarid region. Taking Caatinga as an example that is an exclusive Brazilian biome with semiarid weather, vegetation with a few leaves and adapted to dry season, presents great biodiversities, but it is quite degraded by man.
According to [82], there are techniques for handling the Caatinga that can significantly increase the forage supply in that biome and contribute to its preservation. The main techniques used are thinning, lowering, and enrichment of the caatinga, with possible combinations between them. The thinning consists of making selective cuts in species of little forage and timber value, reducing the density of these plants in the area, thus allowing other species to develop and serve as a source of feed for the animals. Lowering is cutting the highest part of trees and shrubs to increase the forage supply for grazing animals. This practice makes forage in the pasture accessible, but it is not easily available because it has two meters high, becoming indicated for use in goat production systems or that combine goats and cattle. On the other hand, enrichment is a technique to improve forage production conditions by introducing perennial species. In addition to the benefits for herds, these management techniques help to regenerate native vegetation and optimize the use of forage resources (Table 9). There is a considerable increase in forage availability, from 400 (native caatinga) to 3600 kg of dry matter/ha/year (enriched caatinga).
Manipulation Level | DMY** (kg/year) | Available for animal intake | Forage cactus area (ha) |
---|---|---|---|
Nativa | 4.000 | 400 | 0.02 |
Rebaixada | 4.000 | 1600 | 0.08 |
Raleada | 4.000 | 2400 | 0.13 |
Enriquecida | 4.000 | 3600 | 0.18 |
Caatinga management and biomass production vs. forage cactus.*
20 tons of dry matter/year was considered.
Dry matter yield.
Despite the increase verified with the manipulation of the Caatinga, it could be preserved using more productive species such as
Specifically for Brazil’s semiarid region these species can make the difference as forage for animal feeding, cultivated as monoculture or intercropped, for soil conservation and desertification mitigation, source of water for animals, preservation of the Caatinga biome and be a potential source of income for producers if cultivated as vegetable for nutritional properties and medicinal derivative of fruits and cladodes for exports.
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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
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\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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