Metabolomics studies in agricultural crops.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"114",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Wind Tunnels",title:"Wind Tunnels",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Although great advances in computational methods have been made in recent years, wind tunnel tests remain essential for obtaining the full range of data required to guide detailed design decisions for various practical engineering problems.\nThis book collects original and innovative research studies on recent applications in wind tunnel tests, exhibiting various investigation directions and providing a bird’s eye view on this broad subject area. 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Plants are a large source of natural products with a large chemical diversity and unimaginable properties; therefore, the interest in their study is increasing. Nowadays, the interest in agricultural crops has increased due to their economic importance and their projected importance in the next years in relation to world food security.
\nThe usage on the plant species destined to agriculture is varied, from traditional foods to those with some desirable traits, such as nutritional value and the industrial products derived from them such as polymers, fibres, latex, industrial oils and packaging materials, in addition to basic chemical building blocks and fuels [1].
\nThe objectives of the use of metabolomics tools in agriculture are to know the biochemistry and the functions of the species involved to apply that knowledge to food and environmental security; to use their potentials as tools in the improvement of nutrition, diets and health [2]; and to use them for genetic improvement in plants based on chemical composition, that is, taking into account some notable trait.
\nNowadays, agriculture plays a crucial role in human feeding. Food demand has increased considerably due to the continuous increase of population centres, and thus, the demands on the production and diversity of crops, especially basic crops, are increasing. To this problem, we can add the noxious effects of climate change on crops, the attack of pests and diseases, as well as the emergence of new diseases and the development of resistance by them towards commonly used pesticides. Currently, trials or studies of genetic improvement of crops are being carried out to increase the quantity and quality of yield, avoid damages caused by pest and diseases and develop resistance to several factors, especially environmental ones. There are some crops that are considered as basic or important to world food, such as rice, maize, potato, avocado, tomato and citrus fruits, among others; these crops are placing themselves among priority crops because they support human consumption and thus have been the subject of the aforementioned studies or trials.
Metabolomics represents a field of study with which we can gain a better understanding of the complexity of biological systems. It deals with the identification and quantification of the metabolites present in such systems [3, 4] with molecular weights less than 1500 Da [5], although the range could be occasionally wider (30–3000 Da) [6]. The group of small molecules of metabolites that are in a cell, in an organ or organism, is called metabolome [6, 7]. It is made up of a large variety of molecules such as peptides, amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, organic acids, vitamins, flavonoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, minerals or any other chemical compound that is used, metabolized or synthesized by a cell or by a given organism [7]. The importance of the metabolites resides in that they are an essential part of the behaviour of the individual that contains them; these compounds are the final products of the regulatory processes of the cell, and their presence represents the response of biological systems to environmental or genetic changes. It is due to this that metabolomics is considered as the link between genotype and phenotype [8, 9]. In the last years, metabolomics has managed to position itself as an area of research that is essential and complementary to proteomic, genomic and transcriptomic studies.
\nMetabolomics is a very important complement of genomic studies, and its results could be the basis of genetic improvement based on the chemical composition of crops, be it in nutritional or functional aspects, or in the participation of some chemical compounds in the resistance of some plant species to the factors that have already been mentioned.
\nIt is important to know the current state of metabolomics studies of the most important crops in the world to use it as the basis for future studies destined to improve their production, or to know the diversity of the chemical composition that we have available, its benefits and its possible uses. Moreover, it would be important to know the advantages and disadvantages of using current analytical techniques, in addition to their current state and possible improvements in future analyses.
There are numerous extraction methods used to extract and isolate the compounds of interest, but is important to keep in mind to use a simple method, robust, low consume time, repeatable and cheap. The selected solvent should extract diverse groups of metabolites. Traditional extraction methods as percolation, maceration, Soxhlet extraction, steam distillation or hydrodistillation are convenient to extract a broad class of metabolites; they are cheap, simple and repeatable and can be used for raw plant extraction; and the amounts to be processed depend on the source of plant material, and the amounts to be processed can be since a few grams to a higher amounts, but depends of the source of plant material, but they are time consuming (Figure 1). At present, they can complemented with modern techniques as ultrasonication (sonochemistry), microwaves, supercritical fluid extraction or accelerated solvent extraction; they are simple, repeatable and mainly the extraction time is short, but the cost of these equipments is high. It is also important to consider the effect of temperature provided by the selected method, because some components of the sample can be decomposed if the temperature is high. Roesnner and Dias [10] described a recent review where they notice all the details that should be consider to get a good result with the extraction and isolation of the compounds of interest. Once the sample is extracted properly, is ready to submit for the analysis on GC‐MS, LC‐MS, NMR or MS.
Extraction process and analysis of a sample. Modified from Ref. [
Today we have a wide variety of analytical techniques that are getting better and better, and which help us to obtain reliable data about the behaviour of a plant species, or about its response to diverse environmental factors, both biotic and abiotic. During the last years, there has been a boom of genetic studies of many plant species, and the generated information can be used in a wide range of applications, for example, genetic improvement. A very important aspect that could help us to improve the understanding and to enrich the information of such studies would be the inclusion of metabolomic studies. Metabolomics has been considered as the link between genotype and phenotype, that is, with this kind of studies, gene expression would be better understood, and hence, the behaviour of the plant species in the face of the aforementioned factors.
\nAn essential aspect of the metabolomic study is the qualitative and quantitative analysis of metabolites, which allows us to know the biochemical state of an organism; that information can be used to monitor and evaluate gene function and the multiple responses of the organism to the conditions where it develops [8]. In spite of the technological advances, it is practically impossible to determine the entire composition of even a single cell in a single study or with a single analytical technique [9]; in order to do that, coupled techniques have been developed, such as high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography (GC) coupled with mass spectrometry (MS).
\nThe analyses that have already been mentioned are carried out using analytical techniques specialized in separation, identification and quantification. Such techniques must have high resolution, be very precise and very sensitive, and be able to analyse a wide variety of compounds of different chemical nature and origin because the structural complexity of many molecules makes their study difficult. Several analytical technologies can be used, depending on the chemical nature of the compounds. Some of them are nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), GC and HPLC coupled with MS, as well as capillary electrophoresis coupled with MS [7].
\nIt is known that a single analytical technique is not enough to visualize whole metabolome [11], and thus, it is necessary and important to carry out separate studies using different techniques, or using the aforementioned coupled systems.
\nNMR has several uses in metabolomics which can be applied or adapted to agriculture. For example, in quality control, chemotaxonomy (classification and characterization), analysis of genetically modified plants and the study of interactions with other organisms and the environment, besides the study of diseases in humans. Currently, the study of the metabolome based on NMR is accepted as an efficient analytical tool to study biological systems [6].
\nThe main advantages of the NMR over the rest of the analytical techniques are that it can detect a wide range of chemical compounds of different nature; quantification does not pose any problem; it is highly reproducible and metabolite identification is simple [12]. Perhaps the most important benefit is that the method is quick and simple, and the damage of the existing compounds during the preparation of the extracts is minimal. However, the technique is not very sensitive [13, 14].
\nAs it was already mentioned, chemotaxonomy is one of the main applications of NMR, since through the metabolomics profiles obtained by this technique it is possible to classify and identify plants and their derived preparations. There are several examples of the application of NMR in chemotaxonomy. The classification of Ilex species [15],
Specifically in agriculture, metabolite content is related to developmental and differentiation processes, fruit maturation processes, resistance to adverse environmental factors, stress‐related problems and pathogen attack, among others.
\nThe wide range of compounds is analysed through several analytical techniques; some of which are specific to certain compounds. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry is a technique that can be used to analyse a wide range of compounds such as vitamins (hydrophilic and hydrophobic), coenzymes, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, terpenoids, amino acids and amines, lipids, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds and alkaloids, among others. With GC‐MS, fewer compounds can be analysed due to the type of compounds that this technique can detect; although by using derivatization reactions, the number of metabolites detected by this technique increases considerably. With this technique, it is easy to analyse essential oils and fatty acids as well as terpenoids, alkaloids, monosaccharides and steroids, among others. Capillary electrophoresis, for its part, helps in the detection of oligosaccharides, hydrophobic vitamins, coenzymes, prosthetic groups, nitrogenous bases, nucleotides and nucleosides, among others [21].
\nCurrently, there are many examples of metabolomic studies that have been applied to agriculture with various purposes (Table 1). Some of the main objectives of metabolomic studies in agriculture are as follows: know the metabolic responses towards any type of stress; generate metabolic profiles for genetic mapping and generate metabolic profiles to study the impact of heredity. Generate metabolic profiles to determine the impact of geographic location and season, study the phenotype of natural variations of certain plant species, evaluate transgenic varieties, study metabolic variations of different cultivars and carry out functional characterizations (functional genomics). Analyse metabolic changes during growth, development and differentiation, elucidate biosynthetic pathways, analyse population differentiation, carry out chemotaxonomic analyses, carry out nontargeted studies and characterize cultivars [21].
Crop or plant species | Compound/analytical technique | Topic | References |
---|---|---|---|
Avocado | Mannoheptulose carbohydrate)/LC‐MS | Development and growth | [86, 87, 91] |
Perseitol (carbohydrate)/LC‐MS | Development and growth | [85, 86, 90] | |
Stearic, palmitic, oleic, Linoleic, linolenic and palmitoleic acids (fatty acids), carbohydrates/FID‐GC, LC | Development of rapid method | [88] | |
Persenone A and B/HPLC, NMR | Targeted metabolomics | [53] | |
Cyanidin 3‐O‐glucoside (anthocyanin)/HPLC | Fruit ripening | [84] | |
Sugars, protein, oil/LC | Fruit ripening | [54] | |
Tomato | 1‐Methyl‐tryptophan/UHLC‐MS | Plant‐pathogen interaction | [50] |
Flavonoids/GC‐MS, LC‐MX | Metabolic engineering | [51] | |
Sugars, amino acids, organic acids/NMR, GC‐TOF‐MS | Growth and development | [49] | |
Organic acids/NMR, GC‐MS | Metabolic engineering | [89] | |
Enzymes/GC‐MS | Fruit development in transgenic plants | [90] | |
Maize | Amino acids, carbohydrates, organic acids/NMR | Salt stress | [27] |
Total nitrogen, protein/MS‐MS | Development and growth | [85] | |
Protein/MALDI‐TOF‐MS | Metabolic changes under phosphorus deficit | [26] | |
Potato | Glycoalkaloids, fructans/GC‐TOF‐MS, LC‐MS | Genetically modified plants | [37] |
Fatty acids, amino acids, organic acids/NMR, HPLC‐UV | Genetic modifications to metabolic pathways | [39] | |
Sugars, amino acids, organic acids/FIE‐MS, GC‐MS | Total composition analysis and quality trait | [36] | |
Fatty acids, organic acids, alkaloids and amino acids | Plant‐pathogen interaction | [40] | |
Amino acids, organic acids, sugars and sugar alcohols | Phytochemical diversity | [34] |
Metabolomics studies in agricultural crops.
Nowadays, human world food depends on certain crops that are indispensable due to their nutritional value, and the access that we have to them.
\nMaize (
The development of maize, as well as of other crops, under ideal nutritional conditions is paramount in order to obtain good yield and quality; hence, the importance of carrying out studies that involve nutrient analysis. The effect of nitrogen (N) deficiency on the development of maize has been studied using metabolomic studies [25], and the effect of phosphorous (P) deficiency has been analysed through MALDI‐TOF MS [26]. Stress caused by any factor limits the growth and development of any plant species. The effect of salt stress on the growth of maize seedlings was studied through 1H‐NMR; the metabolic profile obtained in the study can be used to improve the growing conditions [27].
\nRice (
Potato (
As it was mentioned in maize and rice, there have been analyses in transgenic potato crops to know their metabolic profile; such studies have been carried out in tubers through techniques such as GC‐MS [37, 38] proton NMR and HPLC‐UV [39].
\nOne of the main limitations in yield and quality of crops is the effects caused by pathogens. It is important to study the interaction between pathogens and crops to gain a better understanding of its effects. In this crop, the interaction with
Metabolomics in agriculture can be used to obtain a chemotaxonomic classification, where differences and similarities can be distinguished between related species or cultivars, as it was the case between genetically modified potato crops and conventional potato crops, where the study was carried out using GC TOF‐MS and FIE‐MS [37].
\nSpecies in the family Solanaceae, such as potato and tomato (
During the day, any plant species has changes in its chemical composition due to the action or effect of the environment, something that [49] determined when detected 70 metabolites in tomato leaves and 60 in the fruit using NMR and MS. Also, with the aid of metabolomics, it is possible to identify particular compounds with some specific function, important to the survival of a species. With respect to this, 1‐methyltryptophan was identified as the metabolite involved in the response of the plant to
On the other hand, it can be altered the levels and composition of flavonoids in tomato fruits through the modification of biosynthetic pathways using regulatory and structural genes [51].
\nThroughout time, about 95% of the genetic and chemical diversity of tomato has been lost owing to its domestication; therefore, it is important to know the entire metabolic profiles of both commercial and surviving wild tomatoes to determine their chemical and genetic variability and use that information as the foundation to obtain better genotypes or varieties [52].
\nOne of the most important fruit trees, economically speaking, due to its particular characteristics as flavour, texture and chemical composition, is the avocado (
The study of the chemical compounds present in avocado is very important, and it will help us to lay the foundations to use the chemical information of this fruit tree, for example, in genetic improvement or it can be used to increase the interest in those varieties or races that are not widely consumed and find new applications to them. In this approach, the chemical composition of avocado is addressed using techniques and strategies that combine the identification and quantification of cellular metabolites through sophisticated analytical techniques, and the use of statistical and multivariate methods to analyse and interpret data. In the development of analytical methods throughout time, there have been important technological advances, which have resulted in improvements in the way biological systems are seen, analysed and interpreted [13].
\nIn the last years, the content of acetogenins in avocado has attracted attention. These long‐chain fatty acid derivatives have important medicinal properties; they are considered anticancer agents. The profile of acetogenins in the peel, seed and pulp of avocado fruits has been determined to obtain a chemotaxonomic model using a linear discriminant analysis [53]. Also, changes of sugars, total protein and oil in ‘Hass’ avocado have been determined using GC‐FID and LC [54]. On the other hand, important proteins from the pulp have been identified through the use of nano‐LC‐MS/MS [55]. The use of coupled analytical systems has helped to get better resolution, higher sensitivity, higher speed of analysis and wider diversity of applications. A study in avocado was carried out to investigate fruit maturation through its metabolomic profile using GC‐APCI‐TOF‐MS. Such technique showed that it is a valuable and powerful tool to improve the understanding of the process of fruit maturation [56].
\nThrough the years, the metabolomic knowledge has been applied to agriculture through various planned objectives. For example, some studies have been carried out to elucidate the biosynthetic pathways that produce metabolites in herbs in order to discover the mechanisms responsible for the evolution of these pathways and to understand the function of a given natural product within the physiology of the plant where it is found [2]. Such studies have been carried out in ginger (
A metabolomic study, whatever it may be, is a process with some key stages to know the real status of a plant. Such stages are collection and extraction of the sample, and the analysis, identification, and quantification of the chemical compounds of interest, according to the objective of study. Another case is the analysis of the extracts of
Several metabolic studies have been carried out in cultivable plant species, where all the tissues have been used and all the analytical techniques employed. Within the cereal group, the leaves and roots of barley (
The tobacco (
Fruit trees have also been studied to obtain their metabolic profiles for several purposes. In grape berries (
The analytical techniques have many advantages for metabolomic analyses; however, their application is not universal. It is important to know the limitations and the processes that are being developed to improve them.
\nMetabolomic approaches have been divided in two groups, targeted and untargeted metabolomics. In principle, both approaches can be applied in all analytical platforms as LC‐MS and GC‐MS. The main difference between them is the identification of the analytical signals. In the first one, the metabolites under study are known. In the second one, no specific metabolites are chosen and all the signals detected are taken in account. Clearly, both techniques have advantages and disadvantages. The main benefit of untargeted approach is a more holistic view of the behaviour of metabolite composition with the chance of low probability of missing key metabolites. If it already known what specific metabolites are key for the research, an optimized targeted approach could be most successful. Through the use of internal standards, analysis can be undertaken in a quantitative or semi‐quantitative form.
\nThese tools have been useful in pre‐harvest and postharvest issues of food constituents and are related with food safety and quality control. In fruits as mango prone to a pre‐harvest fungal disease or the postharvest contamination of onions have been assessed by GC‐MS, in which the sample is trapped by head space and then submitted for the GC‐MS analysis. In fact, metabolomics techniques may find their greatest application in the food industry in monitoring quality control of different batches. It is described that fruit juice adulteration is quite common; it is not easy to detect the adulteration, but the LC‐MS has helped to control the adulteration. The distinction between fresh squeezed juices and those come from pulp washes also has been determined by 1H NMR, with a high accuracy of the method [4]. Recently, Canela et al. [83] described a review on foodomics imaging by mass spectrometry and magnetic resonance (IMS and MRI). They pointed out that these tools have advantages over fluorescent microscopy or immunochemistry to localization and chemical identity of small molecules. These can determine the presence of many compounds in a single multi‐detecting measurement. In the review described some examples where these techniques can support the visualization of the compounds present in a plant tissue used for evaluation of quality control.
\nIn general, there are many uses of metabolomics in agriculture, and there are no limitations in the study of the multiple species. It is possible to work with any plant structure, with any crop, for almost any purpose, and the array of techniques available makes it easy to carry out these studies. In the end, the results of metabolomics from agriculture will have an impact on other areas of study, such as medicine, food quality control, nutrition, and genetic improvement, among others. Finally, an essential part of metabolomic studies is the statistical analysis and bioinformatics resources used to interpret the results, which are important to take into account in a wide review of metabolomics.
Plants are always influenced by different factors, mainly environmental ones; those factors force them to adapt and change parts of their functioning to protect themselves, in most cases. One of the main interactions that exist in plants is that with micro‐organisms, which also cause changes in the physiology and development of plants, like the environment does. Normally, there is an adverse effect to the plant, but in some occasions, both obtain a benefit, in what is called symbiosis. Pathogen attacks can lead to yield losses although occasionally the micro‐organisms may help the plant to improve nutrient uptake. The most characteristic example is the interaction of nitrogen‐fixing bacteria with legumes.
\nWhen the interaction between a plant and a pathogen occurs, one of the changes that happen in the plant is the production of several kinds of compounds that act as a type of defence as attractants, repellents, feeding inhibitors or the production of chemical compounds that are beneficial to human health.
\nMetabolomics, through its variants, can help to determine the physiological and biochemical changes that happen during the interaction and provide a general overview of the whole system.
\nPrimary and secondary metabolites are a key in the response of the plant towards pathogen attacks. There are many modifications that could happen during such interaction, such as molecular and physiological modifications. The modifications range from changes in primary metabolism, where basic processes like photosynthesis can be affected, modifications in the cell wall and in some organs of the plant, to the production of secondary metabolites that can be toxic or trigger defensive signals in the plant. Depending on the type of interaction, resistance, tolerance or susceptibility could occur [74].
\nOne example is the plant‐fungus interaction, where a study was carried out using mass spectrometry using electrospray ionization to detect changes in the levels of lipids and hormones. In this study, the researchers had predicted that those molecules were involved in the interaction between
On the other hand, a metabolomic study of the plant‐pathogen interaction can help to elucidate the genetic mechanisms originated during resistance. Through a nontargeted study using GC‐MS, the resistance of sunflower (
Many studies about plant‐pathogen interactions have focused on relating chemical compounds with diseases using bacteria, fungi, oomycetes and even viruses, interacting with plants such as Arabidopsis, tobacco, sunflower, barley, rice, potato and grapevine, where changes have been detected in both primary and secondary metabolism [74]. Most of the studies that have been mentioned have used mass spectrometry (coupled with LC or GC) as the analytical technique that helps to characterize the metabolomic response of the interaction, but there are studies based on NMR to achieve the characterization. In a study of the interaction between tobacco (
NMR has also been used to characterize the compounds involved in the resistance of host plants to the western flower thrips (
There are many examples of the application of metabolomics in plant‐pathogen interactions that help us to know and interpret this interrelation through the physiological and biochemical changes that take place. For this, advanced analytical platforms of high sensitivity are used; these platforms allow the characterization of almost any molecule expressed during the interaction. Any kind of plant involved in any type of attack or interaction can be studied, and valuable information can be obtained that will help us to understand the reaction of the plant or both. From this type of interactions, and through applied analytical techniques, information about the best way to exploit such interaction can be obtained, in case one wants to obtain or increase chemical compounds with some use, or if one has interest in other aspects of life, such as health.
Over the years, the field of metabolomics has gained interest in several disciplines such as functional genomics, biological and integrative systems, pharmacogenomics, and the discovery of biomarkers to predict diseases, diagnostics and therapy monitoring [80], besides the area of study of agriculture [2].
\nModern challenges for metabolomics are diverse in all the fields mentioned, but they are particularly relevant in the discovery of biomarkers [82], especially in the field of diseases, because their detection, monitoring and treatment are important. One of the problems that researchers face these days is the difficulty in the identification and quantification of several chemical compounds at the same time in a reliable and ideal way, since their number can be huge, and some metabolites, which may be undetectable due to their low concentrations, may be relevant to some function or application. Nowadays, new analytical techniques are being developed or improved to solve these problems, widening the range of detectable metabolites based on their structural characteristics, and making the methods more sensitive, so they can detect very low concentrations of compounds.
\nNowadays, the information obtained from analysed samples may not be correctly interpreted, or it may offer much more information than what is obtained, but some limitations related to the design of the experiment could have impeded the correct interpretation and use of that information.
\nA future challenge will be to improve this type of situations to use the information better and find possible applications for it. The validity of a metabolomic study is affected by the sizes of unbalanced samples (this aspect has to do with the design of the experiment), especially in studies with humans, mainly when statistical methods are used to interpret the data. This is mentioned because in some studies that have already been carried out, the number of control and diseased individuals is not associated, that is, it is not balanced [81], so it is necessary to balance these cases of study.
\nOne of the challenges of metabolomics is to participate in more fields of study which could be waiting for this type of analyses; although the most important ones are already included, such as disease detection and health in general, studies have already started in fields such as evolution, chemotaxonomy, agriculture, ecology and food quality control, among others.
\nNowadays, there are many databases related to chemical compounds, their identification and their structural elucidation, and probably over the years these databases will increase significantly due to the increasing number of studies in this area; therefore, we will have access to a huge number of metabolites, their properties, their possible health benefits and other properties.
\nCertainly, with the passing of the years, the number of studies related to the functionality of what is already sequenced will increase, since in this field there are still some delays. This is the main challenge of metabolomics for the next years, and it will be conquered by integrating the study of several fields focused on the same objective, or by integrating the latter.
\nThe complete understanding of the function of the cell system and the deciphering of gene function will arrive with time, since metabolomics is integrated with genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics; thus, an integral work will give the result that everyone wants in this branch of knowledge, which is the complete understanding of cell function [81].
\nChemical studies in plants, from their origins, have been based on their traditional use and knowledge, since people used them to get some benefit, but without really knowing what caused such effect. Therefore, something that must be addressed is to make the composition and the beneficial effects of the compounds available to the general public in an easy‐to‐understand way.
\nMetabolomic studies in plants related to natural products will increase simply because they are everywhere, they can be used for everything, and every day new applications are found for them; most of these applications will benefit humans.
\nIt has mentioned that metabolomics is not a goal in itself, but a tool to improve our understanding about the metabolism and biochemistry of the organisms [6]. Therefore, among all, this must be the most important future perspective: to know and completely understand metabolism and cell function.
Metabolomics is a relatively new field. During the last years, this discipline has been growing because diverse applications have been found for it, and different analytical techniques have been developed and improved; this has allowed an easier interpretation and analysis of the results. The inclusion of a wide variety of crops in this type of studies is paramount, because it is necessary to know the qualities that they have, and take from them the most important traits with the aim of developing an application that benefits food, health or industry.
\nThe field of study of agriculture, with respect to metabolomic aspects, will keep growing, because in the next years, there will be challenges to ensure world food sovereignty. Currently, most crops and their diversity are at risk; therefore, it is necessary to carry out actions focused on their conservation, rescue and rational exploitation.
\nThe range of analytical techniques implemented in metabolomics allows us to be a step ahead in the analysis of extracts or chemical compounds, through which new uses or applications for the plant species studied can be found, or strengthen those already existing, in addition to the development of improvement programmes based on distinctive chemical traits.
Many recreational athletes who resumed their practice after a long period of detraining rejoined without noticing fatigue and discomfort, which precede the onset of pain. This situation, added to an incorrect periodization, graduation, and progression of workloads; inadequate nutrition and hydration; incorrect execution of the sports gesture with inappropriate movement patterns; and lack of rest and post-exercise recovery, generated a predisposition to suffer damage in some body tissues [1]. It should be noted that these situations occurred in stages prior to COVID-19 pandemic situation, but actually their prevalence has currently increased.
There are multiple variables that need to be addressed in order to recommend how to perform physical activities: type, frequency, intensity, duration, and density. There exist many guides related to this topic, but the special situation related to COVID-19 generated high interest aimed to avoid injuries after an extended period of untraining [1].
The epidemiological analysis of sports injuries started with Dr. Roald Bahr’s work. He described a methodological approach for the study of risk factors on sports injuries using Meeuwisse’s multifactorial dynamic model in 2003 [2, 3]. Subsequently, several guidelines follow one another in terms of prevention strategies: from the linear cause-effect postulates of Quatman et al. [4] to the interactive models of Mendiguchia et al. [5] and complex systems, which have become widely known today with their “web of determinants” or “neural network” [6]. Broadly speaking, these works allow us to distinguish:
This is a dynamic process, since all these factors are interrelated and interact in multiple ways [6].
Ideal athletes do not exist because they all have internal risk factors (Figure 1). The predisposed individual becomes susceptible when exposed to external risk factors. This fact, added to the application of a workload and the occurrence of an inciting event, can result in an adaptation to this stimulus or produce a failure/fatigue in the athlete’s biopsychomechanics, with consequent damage to the different tissues of the anatomy and/or the psychic apparatus.
Modified from “How do training and competition workloads relate to injury? The workload-injury etiology model.”
Excessive workload will cause an injury. Athletes can return to play with previous rehabilitation or not recover from this event.
Appropriate workload will generate adaptation, and this situation may modify internal risk factors.
Almost every injury is suffered as a devastating experience for an athlete. However, there is a large amount of evidence regarding the most effective treatment options for a particular type of injury in order to achieve an adequate return to play. It is important to note that there are many variables to have in mind when determining a treatment. Many of these factors have not been considered in the systematic reviews that were taken as a reference in this article, which represents an important area of research to be developed. These limitations, the quality of evidence and patient preferences, must be included when determining an appropriate treatment.
The analysis of epidemiological data is essential to identify risk factors, sport-specific patterns, and injury mechanisms, allowing to propose in this way prevention strategies that range from the introduction of protective equipment to changes in regulations and the field of play among other possible interventions in order to reduce the athlete’s time out of training or competition. It will allow us to make effective decisions on preventive actions.
Muscle generates movement by contracting or relaxing. It makes up 40–45% of the total body mass. It is enveloped by fascia and attached to the skeleton by tendons. There are two types of muscle: striated (skeletal and cardiac) and smooth (found in the wall of hollow organs, for example). Its functional unit is the muscle fiber (or muscle cell), and there are two classes: red (type 1) and white (type 2) [7]. Type 1 fibers are slow-contracting fibers and resistant to fatigue, since they are located in postural muscles of the trunk (continuous activity). On the other hand, type 2 fibers are fast-contracting fibers, since they are located in upper and lower limbs.
Its functions include generating movement and mechanical energy (stored in glycogen), providing joint stability and protection to other deeper tissues, maintaining posture, and providing heat to the human body. It is an organ of greater adaptability since, being trainable, it can increase its strength and size [8]. It also has an endocrine function: acting on the brain (cognitive function), bone (mineralization), liver (carbohydrate metabolism), immune system (modulation), and adipose tissue (thermogenesis), among others [9].
Functional and structural muscle injuries [10] are produced by stretching too fast too far. Most of them are caused by noncontact situation: overload or overexertion [11]. They can also be generated by violent contraction against resistance or sudden uncoordinated and involuntary elongation. They are the most frequent injuries in athletes, and almost all of them occur at myotendinous junction [12]. It predominantly affects lower limbs (more frequently hamstrings). Modifiable risk factors can be identified: acceleration or deceleration movements, lack of warm-up and return to calm, muscle fatigue, large volume of training, and anabolic intake, among others. NOT modifiable risk factors include age older than 30 years, previous tear, biarticular muscles with type 2 fibers [13], etc. In order to diagnose muscle injuries, we recommend to start with a precise history of the occurrence, the circumstances, the symptoms, previous problems, followed by a careful clinical examination with inspection, palpation of the injured area, comparison to the other side, and testing of the function of the muscles. We will focus on structural muscle injuries in this review. There may be pain, functional disability or limitation (inability or decreased mobility of the affected area), local inflammation, hematoma, and sometimes audible “clicking.” On certain occasions, when a frank muscular rupture occurs, a “gap” (defect similar to sinking) can be observed in the affected surface. It is important to establish a correlation of having made an exertion with the body segment involved. Some imaging studies must be carried out to verify the injury. Broadly speaking, trained sonographers will have no trouble identifying them. But it should be noted that this is an operator-dependent procedure. On certain occasions, a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) will be required to reach an accurate diagnosis [14]. There are countless muscle injuries classifications, but currently the one described by FC Barcelona-Aspetar [15] presents the greatest advantages due to its detailed analysis regarding the type of injury and high-performance treatment strategy. It refers to the extracellular matrix involvement. For practical purposes, we will combine O’Donoghue [16] (symptoms-based) and Takebayashi et al. [17] (ultrasound-based) classification, which describes the following three types:
Grade I: normal architecture, no appreciable tissue tear.
Grade II: partial rupture of muscle fibers, with reduced strength of musculotendinous unit.
Grade III: total rupture and complete loss of function.
Treatment will be conservative in grades I and II and will follow the premises of
Rehabilitation will be in charge of physiotherapists and involves sequential strengthening protocols according to pain tolerance and progressive evolution of patient’s condition [15]. Regarding grade III injuries, surgical or conservative treatment will be considered according to age, functional limitation, affected region, occupation, activity level, etc. Complications consist of hypertrophic scars, fibrous nodules, myositis ossificans, and acute or stress compartment syndrome.
Prevention strategies include muscle eccentric training and strengthening, warm-up and cool-down practice, stretching, proprioception, correct technique, and avoiding muscle fatigue [15].
Tendons are connective tissue bands which insert muscle into bones. They transmit muscle contraction force to the bone in order to generate movement. Its relatively avascular structure implies a scarce regeneration process (producing nonelastic collagen fibers) if damage occurs [19]. Overuse causes repetitive microtrauma on the enthesis (insertion zone in the bone), exceeding self-intrinsic repair capacity [20]. It is important to highlight that these are NOT inflammatory changes. It produces local degenerative vascular and structural disorganization [21]. We also need to mention other causes of tendinopathy: rheumatological disorders (psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, etc.), metabolic diseases (gout, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, etc.), and toxic (fluorinated) and pharmacological (statins) intake [22, 23, 24, 25].
According to Blazina’s classification, tendinopathies can cause pain at the end of sports practice (type I). It may start with the activity and disappear at the end of it (type II) or it could be permanent (type III). It can even cause tendon rupture (type IV). The most affected areas correspond to the medial and lateral elbow epicondyles (epicondylalgia), knee (patellar tendon), abdomen and pubis (groin pain—ex pubalgia), shoulder (subacromial compression syndrome—ex rotator cuff syndrome—most often affects supraspinatus muscle tendon), gluteal tendons, and the Achilles tendon.
Pain is the most important clinical feature. We can also identify local inflammation, decline in function or impotence, and reduced exercise tolerance. Sometimes, a clicking sound may occur if a rupture takes place. Tendinopathies develop gradually and progressively, although there may be cases of acute onset (especially type IV). Diagnosis is basically clinical, although images are sometimes required to rule out other associated injuries. Type I and II treatments consist of sports/work rest, after identifying the triggering-overloading repetitive action. Other alternative treatments include extracorporeal shock-wave therapy, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) administration, kinesic therapies (Ciriax deep massage, eccentric exercises, etc.), platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injection, or 5% dextrose solution prolotherapy [26, 27]. Some type III injuries will be capable of nonsurgical treatments. In case it fails, tendinopathies will require surgery: longitudinal incisions, tenotomies, forage, or tendoscopy. Type IV injuries will be treated with tenorrhaphy or reinsertion.
Bone is a firm, hard, and resistant organ, which is part of vertebrate endoskeleton. It constitutes up to approximately 15% of the total body weight and is among the largest organs/systems of the human body [28]. Adult bone structure mainly includes cortical bone, cancellous bone (trabecular bone), and bone marrow cavity. Bone consists of three compartments: bone cells, extracellular organic matrix including collagen fibers and amorphous matrix, and extracellular minerals [29, 30]. There are three major types of cells in bone tissue: osteoblast (bone formation), osteoclast (bone resorption), and osteocytes (bone remodeling). Bone functions include supporting body movement, protection of internal organs, calcium storage, and blood cell production [29]. Recently, increasing studies have revealed that the skeleton contributes to whole body homeostasis and the maintenance of multiple important organs/systems, such as hematopoiesis, immune activity, energy metabolism, and brain function [31, 32].
Fracture is a loss of continuity in the cortical surface of the bone. Plastic deformity is more frequently seen in pediatric population since bone has a lower elasticity modulus. Fractures are produced by direct trauma (impact on the affected area), indirect trauma (at a distance from the region involved by transmission of forces), stress (repetitive microtraumas), or pre-existing pathologies (bone tumors, metastases, osteoporosis, etc.).
Symptoms include pain, local swelling, deformity or shortening, hematoma, functional limitation, or impotence. Sometimes, an audible click can take place. Exposed fractures show a skin wound in direct communication with the inside fracture site. Acute fractures have a clear traumatic history.
Stress fractures are produced by mechanical overuse in a prolonged period of time and account for 10% of all overuse sports injuries [33]. They will show progressive pain, without a clear onset. Bone tissue damage alternates with periods of remodeling, which causes a delay in the origin of symptoms. A complete cycle of bone turnover requires 3–4 months. When bone cannot remodel at the pace at which loading increases, it fractures [34]. Running is the most commonly associated sport—accounting for 69% of stress fractures [35]. Almost 95% occur in lower extremities due to the dissipation of ground reaction forces during load-bearing tasks such as marching, walking, running, or jumping [35]. Stress fractures typically occur in cortical bone in the following areas, in decreasing order of incidence: tibia, tarsal bones, metatarsals, femur, fibula, and pelvis [36, 37].
The diagnosis of acute fractures is made with simple frontal and profile radiographs (obliquely is demanded in distal regions: hands and feet). If there is a clear suspicion with a traumatic history and negative X-rays, sometimes computed tomography (CT) scan is requested. Periosteal reaction or continuity solution will be observed in one or both cortical surfaces. We can also use MRI, which will identify bone edema. Stress fractures will be diagnosed with these procedures or performing bone scintigraphy.
Treatment will be based on age, existence or not of bone exposure, affected bone, associated injuries, and functional demand of the patient, among other aspects. Broadly speaking, proximal and distal joint involving affected bone must be immobilized.
Medial tibial stress syndrome is the most frequent overuse injury in runners and athletes involved in jumping. Incidences varying from 4–35% are reported, with both extremes being derived from military studies [38, 39, 40]. Clinically, it shows pain in posteromedial side of the mid- to distal tibia over a length of at least 5 cm during or some time after training [41, 42]. From the literature, it is unclear as to whether tibial stress fracture is a continuum of MTSS. In the 1970s, Roub et al. were the first to suggest that increased levels of stress to the tibia could result in a spectrum of bony overload. In this spectrum, the end stage was a cortical fracture. In the beginning of this spectrum, when bone resorption outpaces bone formation and replacement of the tibal cortex, MTSS occurs [43]. Differential diagnoses include nerve compressions, vascular pathologies, exertional compartment syndrome, and tibial stress fracture, among others [41]. Differentiation can usually be accomplished without additional imaging. Bone scintigraphy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are widely used to confirm the diagnosis [44]. Treatment will follow
Ligaments are bands of elastic, fibrous connective tissue which hold bones together. Its function is to maintain “controlled mobility” of joints, giving passive stability, facilitating, and restricting certain actions. In addition, they give proprioceptive sensitivity to the involved joint. Sprain is considered a transitory loss of relations in an articular surface due to an overstretched ligament injury. Typically, a traumatic mechanism causes the ligament to stretch beyond its normal range, leading to injury. Ankle is the most frequently affected area in athletes.
Due to their clinical relevance in sports, we must mention knee injuries: anterior, posterior, lateral internal, and external cruciate ligament sprain or rupture, which can also be associated with meniscal injuries.
Ankle sprains manifest with pain, local inflammation, hematoma, impotence or functional limitation, clicking, feeling of instability, and intolerance to load. They are considered acute injuries. 78% of ankle sprains are caused by plantar inversion and flexion, a mechanism that usually affects the external lateral ligament (most frequently the anterior talofibular ligament).
Differential diagnosis should be made with other injuries that reproduce the same symptoms but are more serious, so radiographic images will be requested, thus excluding fractures and/or dislocations. On certain occasions, it will be necessary to request MRI to rule out soft tissue injuries: peroneal tendons, syndesmosis, deltoid ligament, etc. According to symptoms, we can classify sprains into three types: (1) mild, (2) moderate, and (3) severe. Type 1 is characterized by ligament elongation (sprain) without rupture, little or no functional limitation, mild edema, and joint pain and stability. In contrast, type 3 manifests with great functional impotence, hematoma, edema, pain, and instability due to total ligament rupture accompanied by joint capsule injury [45]. Treatment in mild grades of nonsports patients with stable ankle consists of applying
Joints are areas where two or more bones join each other. They are classified into synarthrosis (immobile), amphiarthrosis (semimobile), and diarthrosis (mobile). In turn, diarthroses are subdivided into enarthrosis, condylarthrosis, troclearthrosis, reciprocal socket, trochoids, and arthrodesis. Dislocation is considered the loss of permanent contact of the articular surfaces, unlike sprain, which is characterized by being transitory. It can be caused by direct or indirect trauma. Clinically, pain, deformity, hematoma, edema, and inflammation associated with impotence or functional limitation can be observed. Diagnosis is established by X-ray (at least two projections: front and profile) where we will observe the “uncoupling” of involved bones. Associated injuries must also be ruled out. Treatment consists of performing reduction under anesthesia in the operating room. It constitutes an orthopedic emergency. Affected joint will be immobilized after evaluating post-reduction joint stability. In a second time, complementary studies may be requested to verify the indemnity or not of joint stabilizers. The most frequently affected joint in general population is the shoulder.
Fascia is a connective tissue membrane that lines the muscles. In the plantar region, this structure is arranged from the base of the heel to the toes forming a wide band. Plantar fasciitis is the most common cause of heel pain, accounting for 80–90% of all cases. It is a chronic condition caused by traction on its insertion in the calcaneus bone. Sometimes, pain radiates toward the fingers. Its etiology remains unknown. Symptoms usually appear gradually and progressively after prolonged rest, can be established acutely, manifest during training, or be triggered by just walking or prolonged standing, in the most severe cases. A third part of all cases are bilateral. Plantar fasciitis is characterized by the exacerbation of pain on passive dorsiflexion of the fingers and forefoot, since this maneuver tightens the fascia. It can also be associated with morning stiffness. Diagnosis is made with the clinical examination. On certain occasions, images are needed both to rule out other pathologies and to confirm this condition. Treatment strategies include the use of NSAIDs, heel pads/insoles, night splints, and kinesic therapy based on stretching exercises and shock waves. In the case of nonsurgical treatment failure, open or arthroscopic fasciotomy will be performed.
Sports injuries lie in three fundamental aspects and their interrelationships: risk factors, inciting event, and work training load.
Gradual and progressive return to physical activity is recommended after a prolonged time of detraining in order to avoid injuries. Exercise must be performed in a structured and repetitive manner (at least at the beginning) through strength and/or resistance training.
Strength training should be performed using around 50% percent of maximum repetition (MR, three concentric and three eccentric with no rest in between). This planning produces the same benefits than training with 80% of MR (one concentric set, one eccentric set, and a rest set between them) and does not involve any specific equipment [48]. Exercises can be done with your own body weight, elastic bands, etc. Therefore, low-intensity and high-volume plans (lower loads and multiple repetitions) are preferred [49].
Resistance training must involve large muscle groups, such as jumping rope, jogging in place, burpees, and mountain climber.
Ideally, people can work in circuits doing quick repetition series, combining both strength and resistance training. It allows us to modify a number of circuits, series, and speed of execution [48].
Physical activity recommendation guidelines [50, 51] suggest 150–300 minutes per week of resistance training at moderate intensity (allows people to speak, but not sing) or vigorous (75–150 minutes per week, reaching that magnitude when only a few words can be told while performing training). Two or three muscle strength training sessions must be performed per week.
Coordination and balance should also be considered. Warm-up programs decrease injury rates by 30%. They include activities that increase body temperature and thus prepare tissues for maximum effort.
Static stretching exercises maintain body parts in a fixed position in order to relax certain muscles passively for at least 10–25 seconds. It improves flexibility and range of motion. Cooldown is also recommended when finishing.
If pain appears and/or remains (or even increases) in a period of 24 hours post-exercise, “too much too soon” could be the reason. Correct technique with proper movement patterns should always be executed before adding workload. A weekly increase in workload should not exceed 10%, since values above it contribute to injuries [52].
There is a better response to small increases (or decreases) in workload than to larger fluctuations on it.
Finally, you should have in mind that proper rest and recovery are essential part in training.
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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"