Detailed information of 21 accessions of
Chapter 1: "Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors"\n
Chapter 2: "The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth"\n
Chapter 3: "Dental Anatomical Features and Caries: A Relationship to be Investigated"\n
Chapter 4: "Anatomy Applied to Block Anaesthesia"\n
Chapter 5: "Treatment Considerations for Missing Teeth"\n
Chapter 6: "Anatomical and Functional Restoration of the Compromised Occlusion: From Theory to Materials"\n
Chapter 7: "Evaluation of the Anatomy of the Lower First Premolar"\n
Chapter 8: "A Comparative Study of the Validity and Reproducibility of Mesiodistal Tooth Size and Dental Arch with the iTero Intraoral Scanner and the Traditional Method"\n
Chapter 9: "Identification of Lower Central Incisors"\n
The book is aimed toward dentists and can also be well used in education and research.',isbn:"978-1-78923-511-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-510-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-247-8",doi:"10.5772/65542",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dental-anatomy",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"445cd419d97f339f2b6514c742e6b050",bookSignature:"Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",publishedDate:"August 1st 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5814.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13520,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:14,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 16th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 16th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",middleName:null,surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178570/images/7646_n.jpg",biography:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç is a dentist, a teacher, a researcher and a scientist in the field of Endodontics. She was born in Zonguldak, Turkey, on February 14, 1974; she is married and has two children. She graduated in 1997 from the Ankara University, Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey. She aquired her PhD in 2004 from the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Endodontics, Ankara, Turkey, and she is still an associate professor at the same department. She has published numerous articles and a book chapter in the areas of Operative Dentistry, Esthetic Dentistry and Endodontics. She is a member of Turkish Endodontic Society and European Endodontic Society.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"174",title:"Dentistry",slug:"dentistry"}],chapters:[{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69542",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2621,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. Grawish",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56461",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56461",authors:[{id:"82989",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",surname:"Grawish",slug:"mohammed-grawish",fullName:"Mohammed Grawish"}],corrections:null},{id:"62386",title:"The Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Premolar Teeth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79464",slug:"the-permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-premolar-teeth",totalDownloads:2753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The permanent premolar teeth are placed between the anterior teeth and molars. Eight premolars are found in the permanent dentition, four per arch and two in each quadrant. The main function of premolars is to assist the canines in regard to tear and pierce the food and supplement the grinding of the molars during mastication. The other functions are to support the corners of the mouth reinforce esthetics during smiling and maintain the vertical dimension. Detailed morphology of the permanent premolar teeth is narrated in a pointwise and systematic manner in this chapter.",signatures:"Işıl Çekiç Nagaş, Ferhan Eğilmez and Bağdagül Helvacioğlu Kivanç",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62386",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62386",authors:[{id:"178570",title:"Dr.",name:"Bağdagül",surname:"Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç",slug:"bagdagul-helvacioglu-kivanc",fullName:"Bağdagül Helvacıoğlu Kıvanç"}],corrections:null},{id:"57546",title:"Dental Anatomical Features and Caries: A Relationship to be Investigated",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71337",slug:"dental-anatomical-features-and-caries-a-relationship-to-be-investigated",totalDownloads:1701,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dental caries is a multifactor disease affecting a significant number of people throughout the world. However, in recent decades the widespread availability of fluoride and other preventive measures have resulted in a decline in the prevalence of caries among children and young adults. Currently, it is accepted that most carious dental lesions are restricted to specific anatomical sites. The aim of this chapter is to review the influence of dental anatomy on dental caries development while taking into account recent findings in cariology. Occlusal fissures in the first permanent molar are generally the first sites in the permanent dentition to develop caries. An increased risk of caries is also found in proximal contacting surfaces between two adjacent teeth. Moreover, a partially erupted tooth, which does not participate in mastication, is also at risk for caries since it may provide a more favorable environment for bacterial accumulation than a fully erupted tooth. Bacterial biofilm on the tooth is frequently a high risk caries environment. Understanding anatomical dental features is of great importance for guiding oral health hygiene and preventive measures. Finally, the development of dental disorders plays an important role in dental caries risk.",signatures:"Marcel Alves Avelino de Paiva, Dayane Franco Barros Mangueira\nLeite, Isabela Albuquerque Passos Farias, Antônio de Pádua\nCavalcante Costa and Fábio Correia Sampaio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57546",authors:[{id:"138852",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Sampaio",slug:"fabio-sampaio",fullName:"Fabio Sampaio"},{id:"213662",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabela Albuquerque",surname:"Passos Farias",slug:"isabela-albuquerque-passos-farias",fullName:"Isabela Albuquerque Passos Farias"},{id:"213663",title:"Prof.",name:"Dayane Franco",surname:"Barros Mangueira Leite",slug:"dayane-franco-barros-mangueira-leite",fullName:"Dayane Franco Barros Mangueira Leite"},{id:"213664",title:"BSc.",name:"Marcel Alves",surname:"Avelino De Paiva",slug:"marcel-alves-avelino-de-paiva",fullName:"Marcel Alves Avelino De Paiva"},{id:"213666",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio De Pádua",surname:"Cavalcante Da Costa",slug:"antonio-de-padua-cavalcante-da-costa",fullName:"Antonio De Pádua Cavalcante Da Costa"}],corrections:null},{id:"56119",title:"Anatomy Applied to Block Anesthesia for Maxillofacial Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69545",slug:"anatomy-applied-to-block-anesthesia-for-maxillofacial-surgery",totalDownloads:1528,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anatomy is a basic knowledge that every clinician must have; however, its full management is not always achieved and gaps remain in daily practice. The aim of this chapter is to emphasize the most relevant aspects of head and neck anatomy, specifically related to osteology and neurology for the application of regional anesthesia techniques. This chapter presents a clear and concise text, useful for both undergraduate and graduate students and for the dentist and maxillofacial surgeon. The most relevant aspects of the bone and sensory anatomy relevant for the realization of regional anesthetic techniques in the oral and maxillofacial area are reviewed, including complementary figures and tables. The anatomy related to the techniques directed to the three major branches of the trigeminal nerve (ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve, and to the branches of the mandibular nerve) will be approached separately.",signatures:"Alex Vargas, Paula Astorga and Tomas Rioseco",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56119",authors:[{id:"199400",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",surname:"Vargas",slug:"alex-vargas",fullName:"Alex Vargas"},{id:"202023",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Astorga",slug:"paula-astorga",fullName:"Paula Astorga"},{id:"205059",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",surname:"Rioseco",slug:"tomas-rioseco",fullName:"Tomas Rioseco"}],corrections:null},{id:"55902",title:"Treatment Considerations for Missing Teeth",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69543",slug:"treatment-considerations-for-missing-teeth",totalDownloads:984,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Specific terms are used to describe the nature of tooth agenesis. Hypodontia is most frequently used when describing the phenomenon of congenitally missing teeth. Many other terms to describe a reduction in the number of teeth appear in the literature: oligodontia, anodontia, aplasia of teeth, congenitally missing teeth, absence of teeth, agenesis of teeth and lack of teeth. The term hypodontia is used when one to six teeth, excluding third molars, are missing, and oligodontia when more than six teeth are absent (excluding the third molars). The long‐term management of hypodontia in the aesthetic zone is a particularly challenging situation. Although there are essentially two distinct approaches to manage this problem, that is space closure or opening for prosthetic replacements, implant or autotransplantation. These patients often manifest with many underlying skeletal and dental problems and a multidisciplinary approach for management of this condition is recommended. Two treatment approaches including space closure and space reopening are described in details in this chapter.",signatures:"Abdolreza Jamilian, Alireza Darnahal, Ludovica Nucci, Fabrizia\nD’Apuzzo and Letizia Perillo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55902",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55902",authors:[{id:"171777",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdolreza",surname:"Jamilian",slug:"abdolreza-jamilian",fullName:"Abdolreza Jamilian"},{id:"171873",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Darnahal",slug:"alireza-darnahal",fullName:"Alireza Darnahal"},{id:"173044",title:"Prof.",name:"Letizia",surname:"Perillo",slug:"letizia-perillo",fullName:"Letizia Perillo"},{id:"198961",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabrizia",surname:"D'Apuzzo",slug:"fabrizia-d'apuzzo",fullName:"Fabrizia D'Apuzzo"},{id:"206137",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ludovica",surname:"Nucci",slug:"ludovica-nucci",fullName:"Ludovica Nucci"}],corrections:null},{id:"55973",title:"Anatomical and Functional Restoration of the Compromised Occlusion: From Theory to Materials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69544",slug:"anatomical-and-functional-restoration-of-the-compromised-occlusion-from-theory-to-materials",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many conditions can alter the occlusal interface, from tooth wear to tooth loss. The masticatory system is constituted by many components that can influence each other like muscles, joints, teeth and nervous system. This implies that (a) every change at occlusal level makes the other components to adapt and (b) an occlusal alteration may be the effect of an alteration occurred on muscles or joints. Keeping this in mind, traditional principles of occlusal rehabilitation are analysed, and the choice of the restorative materials is discussed.",signatures:"Nicola Mobilio and Santo Catapano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55973",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55973",authors:[{id:"179565",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",surname:"Mobilio",slug:"nicola-mobilio",fullName:"Nicola Mobilio"},{id:"199397",title:"Prof.",name:"Santo",surname:"Catapano",slug:"santo-catapano",fullName:"Santo Catapano"}],corrections:null},{id:"57245",title:"Evaluation of the Anatomy of the Lower First Premolar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71038",slug:"evaluation-of-the-anatomy-of-the-lower-first-premolar",totalDownloads:888,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter provides information about the lower first premolars. This tooth is considered to be one of the most complex teeth and the dentistry graduation students usually have difficulties in identifying it. The aim of this chapter is to present a detailed morphological study of extracted lower first premolars. One hundred lower first premolars, belonging to the collection of the Laboratory of Anatomy of the Department of Morphology of the São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araraquara, SP, Brazil, were evaluated. Nine measurements were performed through direct observation without any instruments. Other 20 measurements were made by photographs and they were analyzed by the Image Tool 3.0 program. According to the results, it was concluded that most of the teeth presented the following features such as one lingual cusp; the distal occlusal pits were wider than the mesial occlusal pits; an enamel bridge linking the buccal and lingual cusps; the grooves in the lingual surface that emerged from the mesial and distal occlusal pits were absent, and where the grooves were present, they emerged from the mesial occlusal pit; one rectilinear root with no root grooves and where the root groove was present, it was observed in the mesial surface.",signatures:"Ticiana Sidorenko de Oliveira Capote, Suellen Tayenne Pedroso\nPinto, Marcelo Brito Conte, Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos\nand Marcela de Almeida Gonçalves",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57245",authors:[{id:"87871",title:"Prof.",name:"Ticiana",surname:"Capote",slug:"ticiana-capote",fullName:"Ticiana Capote"},{id:"199157",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcela",surname:"De Almeida Gonçalves",slug:"marcela-de-almeida-goncalves",fullName:"Marcela De Almeida Gonçalves"},{id:"199243",title:"BSc.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Brito Conte",slug:"marcelo-brito-conte",fullName:"Marcelo Brito Conte"},{id:"199244",title:"Prof.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos",slug:"juliana-alvares-duarte-bonini-campos",fullName:"Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos"},{id:"217420",title:"Mrs.",name:"Suellen",surname:"Tayenne Pedroso Pinto",slug:"suellen-tayenne-pedroso-pinto",fullName:"Suellen Tayenne Pedroso Pinto"}],corrections:null},{id:"57752",title:"A Comparative Study of the Validity and Reproducibility of Mesiodistal Tooth Size and Dental Arch with iTeroTM Intraoral Scanner and the Traditional Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70963",slug:"a-comparative-study-of-the-validity-and-reproducibility-of-mesiodistal-tooth-size-and-dental-arch-wi",totalDownloads:919,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: The introduction of intraoral scanning offers an alternative for measuring mesiodistal tooth sizes.",signatures:"Ignacio Faus-Matoses, Ana Mora, Carlos Bellot-Arcís, Jose Luis\nGandia-Franco and Vanessa Paredes-Gallardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57752",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57752",authors:[{id:"150456",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanessa",surname:"Paredes",slug:"vanessa-paredes",fullName:"Vanessa Paredes"},{id:"150458",title:"Prof.",name:"José-Luis",surname:"Gandia-Franco",slug:"jose-luis-gandia-franco",fullName:"José-Luis Gandia-Franco"},{id:"212242",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Faus",slug:"ignacio-faus",fullName:"Ignacio Faus"},{id:"212243",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Bellot-Arcís",slug:"carlos-bellot-arcis",fullName:"Carlos Bellot-Arcís"},{id:"218390",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Mora",slug:"ana-mora",fullName:"Ana Mora"}],corrections:null},{id:"57378",title:"Identification of Lower Central Incisors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71341",slug:"identification-of-lower-central-incisors",totalDownloads:857,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Unlike the other teeth, the permanent lower central incisors have great symmetry between the proximal surfaces, being difficult to distinguish them. It was intended to facilitate the study of the anatomy of the lower central incisor for dentistry students, that this study searched for a better way to differentiate the third quadrant element (31) from the fourth quadrant element (41). The purpose of this chapter was to evaluate 100 permanent lower central incisors of the didactic collection of the Discipline of Anatomy of the Department of Morphology of the School of Dentistry of Araraquara - UNESP and to verify the presence of correlation between the some anatomical features. Besides, it was evaluated if there was difference between 31 and 41. It was verified that the systematic methodology used for the evaluation of the incisors in this study facilitated the identification of the teeth. There was no statistically significant difference between the measurements of 31 and 41. Distinguishing the right from the left central incisor is difficult, even for experienced practitioners. We could observe that the measurements do not facilitate the identification of teeth of different quadrants. Therefore, the anatomical features are relevant for the study of the dental anatomy in the identification of the lower central incisors.",signatures:"Marcela de Almeida Gonçalves, Bruno Luís Graciliano Silva, Marcelo\nBrito Conte, Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos and Ticiana\nSidorenko de Oliveira Capote",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57378",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57378",authors:[{id:"199157",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcela",surname:"De Almeida Gonçalves",slug:"marcela-de-almeida-goncalves",fullName:"Marcela De Almeida Gonçalves"},{id:"199243",title:"BSc.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Brito Conte",slug:"marcelo-brito-conte",fullName:"Marcelo Brito Conte"},{id:"199244",title:"Prof.",name:"Juliana",surname:"Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos",slug:"juliana-alvares-duarte-bonini-campos",fullName:"Juliana Álvares Duarte Bonini Campos"},{id:"221435",title:"Mr.",name:"Bruno Luis Graciliano",surname:"Silva",slug:"bruno-luis-graciliano-silva",fullName:"Bruno Luis Graciliano Silva"},{id:"221438",title:"Prof.",name:"Ticiana Sidorenko De Oliveira",surname:"Capote",slug:"ticiana-sidorenko-de-oliveira-capote",fullName:"Ticiana Sidorenko De Oliveira Capote"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8837",title:"Human Teeth",subtitle:"Key Skills and Clinical Illustrations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac055c5801032970123e0a196c2e1d32",slug:"human-teeth-key-skills-and-clinical-illustrations",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan and Farid Bourzgui",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8837.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"52177",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",middleName:null,surname:"Bourzgui",slug:"farid-bourzgui",fullName:"Farid Bourzgui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52177/images/system/52177.png",biography:"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.",institutionString:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9588",title:"Clinical Concepts and Practical Management Techniques in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42deab8d3bcf3edf64d1d9028d42efd1",slug:"clinical-concepts-and-practical-management-techniques-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Aneesa Moolla",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9588.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10126",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0878a332413e67a1aa0a16fabeed9046",slug:"dental-caries",bookSignature:"Efka Zabokova Bilbilova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10126.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"275097",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Efka",surname:"Zabokova Bilbilova",slug:"efka-zabokova-bilbilova",fullName:"Efka Zabokova Bilbilova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9387",title:"Oral Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76591a3bd6bedaa1c8d1f72870268e23",slug:"oral-diseases",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan, Anil Sukumaran and Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9387.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Using Molecular Markers: An Endangered Medicinal Plant",doi:"10.5772/66536",slug:"evaluation-of-genetic-diversity-in-chlorophytum-borivilianum-santp-and-fernan-using-molecular-marker",body:'\n
All the plants considerably possess some medicinal or perfumery or mixed properties. In the course of time, the human beings were able to distinguish between the harmful and useful plants. The world Health Organization (WHO) has listed over 21,000 plant species that have been reported for medicinal uses around the world. Among these, over 100 botanicals are reported to have consistent large demand and are traded in major drug markets in the world. In the developing countries, about 80% of the people depend upon the traditional system of the medicine, as it shows no or less side effects [1]. India is considered as a veritable emporium of medicinal and aromatic plants. In India, about 2500 plant species belonging to more than 1000 genera are used by traditional healers and about 500 plant species are utilized by 159 different pharmaceutical companies [2].
\nMany of the medicinal plant species are facing threats of extinction due to over and improper exploitation, habitat loss, degradation of land, urbanization, etc. On the other hand, the increasing global demand for the medicinal plants necessitates an accelerated cultivation and conservation of them. However, before the widespread domestication of such plant species is implemented, it would be important to determine their genetic diversity so that the useful genotypes could be effectively used as cultivars by farmers or breeders and it would, in turn, facilitate the efficient conservation, management and utilization of the species. For the purpose of conservation and to carry out successful breeding programmes, proper identification of the plant is of prime importance, for which an accurate, reliable and more authentic system of classification is required. Conventionally, identification and classification of plant groups are solely based on similarities and dissimilarities in morphological features, particularly, the floral character which are considered to be consistent. As already established, expression of morphological characters is the outcome of interaction between the environment and the genotype and is highly influenced by climatic and edaphic factors. Certain biochemical markers such as isozymes and storage proteins are used for identification of cultivars as well as characterization of somaclonal variation. However, the number of genetic loci generated with chemical/ biochemical (isozymes) were quite lower than detected with DNA markers [3]. Molecular techniques are very much useful not only to identify the genotypes for authentication but also to assess and exploit the genetic variability [4]. DNA fingerprinting of all the genetic resources of the medicinal plants is necessary to generate a molecular database as well as to utilize the information in a systematic manner.
\nDuring last 20 years, the advent of the PCR and the DNA sequencing techniques has allowed a very significant development of this approach, which leads to great change in the traditional vision of the classification of the organisms. The DNA marker systems are considered to be the best tools for determining the genetic diversity, as they are unlimited in number, show high polymorphism and are independent of environmental interaction, i.e. they are highly heritable. The application of the DNA marker systems in agricultural research has progressed rapidly over the past few years, especially, in the area of cultivar identification and characterization [5] as well as determination of population diversity in many plant species [6]. Among these, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter‐simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers provide a larger number of potential markers that are useful for the analysis of genetic diversity, often using fast, simple and reliable protocols that minimize the amount and quality of DNA required. Genetic diversity in a population is considered to represent its evolutionary potential. Genetic variation has implications for conservation at the species level. Evidently, molecular markers could be used to derive genetic relationship with an increased level of accuracy and also can provide valuable data on diversity through their ability to detect variation at the DNA level.
\nA total of 21 accessions of
An overview of 21 accessions of
Sr. no. | Germplasm (name) | Place of collection |
---|---|---|
1 | Ch1 | Madhya Pradesh |
2 | Ch2 | Madhya Pradesh |
3 | Ch3 | Madhya Pradesh |
4 | Ch4 | Madhya Pradesh |
5 | Ch5 | Madhya Pradesh |
6 | Ch6 | Madhya Pradesh |
7 | Ch7 | Madhya Pradesh |
8 | Ch8 | Madhya Pradesh |
9 | Ch9 | Madhya Pradesh |
10 | Ch10 | Rajasthan |
11 | Ch11 | Rajasthan |
12 | Ch12 | Rajasthan |
13 | Ch13 | Rajasthan |
14 | Ch14 | Rajasthan |
15 | Ch15 | Maharashtra |
16 | Ch16 | Maharashtra |
17 | Ch17 | Maharashtra |
18 | Ch18 | Gujarat |
19 | Ch19 | Gujarat |
20 | Ch20 | Gujarat |
21 | Ch21 | Gujarat |
Detailed information of 21 accessions of
Since isolation of DNA from
RAPD analysis was performed using randomly and arbitrarily 10‐base primers (Operon Technologies Inc., Alameda, California). A preliminary screening was carried out using 100 RAPD primers following the protocol of Williams et al. [14] with minor modifications. ISSR analysis was carried out using ISSR primers (Banglore Genei, India) based on the protocol of Zietkiewicz et al. [15] with some modifications. The amplified products were separated in 1.5% agarose gel for both the markers used. After electrophoresis, the gel was visualized under the UV light and photographed in a gel documentation system (Syngene, United Kingdom). The sizes of the amplicons were determined by comparing them with that of the ladder.
The data were scored as 1 for the presence and 0 for the absence of the band for each primer‐accession combination for RAPD and ISSR analysis.
Resolving power of the primer/primer combination was calculated as per Prevost and Wilkinson [16] as:
The primer index (PI) was calculated from the polymorphic index (PIC). The polymorphic index was calculated as PIC = Σ
Jaccard\'s coefficient of similarity [19] was measured and a dendrogram based on similarity coefficients generated by the unweighted pair group method using arithmetic averages (UPGMA) [20], and the sequential agglomerative hierarchial and nested (SHAN) clustering was obtained. The entire analysis was performed using the statistical package NTSYS‐pc 2.02e [21].
The correlation among different dendrograms generated from the data obtained from RAPD and ISSR was calculated separately and the cophenetic correlation for both the markers was also calculated from the total data.
To visualize the genetic variation among 21 accessions of
To study the efficiency of each marker technique, the Mantel ‘Z’ test was performed for the comparison of each marker system with the combined data and between the marker systems [23].
The present work pertains to the study of genetic diversity among 21 accessions of
A total of 100 random decamer oligonucleotide primers from 20 numbers from each series (OPA, OPC, OPD, OPP and OPT) were screened using an accession (Ch12; Raj 4) of
RAPD banding pattern in 21 accessions of
The Jaccard\'s coefficient showed that MH2 and MH3 were most closely related with a similarity value of 0.707 followed by MH3 and Akola with similarity value of 0.697. The matrix value ranged from 0.321 to 0.707. It was observed that MP5 and Guj2 were most remotely placed with the similarity coefficient of 0.321. The average similarity coefficient was 0.639 between any two accessions taken into account.
\nThe dendrogram constructed by the UPGMA method of pooled RAPD data led to the segregation of the 21 accessions into two distinct groups. All accessions were distributed between 39 units. Surprisingly, the first contained only one accession, Ch8 collected from Madhya Pradesh and second contained remaining 20 accessions collected from different diversified regions (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Gujarat) though they belong to same species. The second major cluster divided into two sub‐major clusters out of which one sub‐major cluster IIA contained four accessions (Ch1, Ch4, Ch5 and Ch7) collected from Madhya Pradesh with ~47% similarity and the another one (Group IIB) clutched Ch2 and Ch3 collected from Madhya Pradesh depicting 47% genetic variability. The third sub‐major cluster (Group IIC) comprised four accessions Ch6 (Madhya Pradesh collection), Ch15, Ch16 and Ch17 collected from Maharashtra showing genetic similarity at the level of 68%. Another group, IID, consisted of two accessions (Ch12 and Ch13) collected from Rajasthan and other two Ch19 and Ch21 of Gujarat collections. Another group (IIE) holds two accessions (Ch18 and Ch20) collected from Gujarat showed 51% (approx.) genetic diversity. Accession no. Ch10 and Ch11 of Rajasthan collections fall in group IIF depicting 52% genetic similarity whereas cluster (IIG) containing two accessions (Ch9 and Ch14) showed genetic variability of about 51% collected from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, respectively.
\nThe cophenetic correlation showed maximum (0.7065) correlation between Ch15 (MH2) and Ch16 (MH3); both collected from Maharashtra. The average cophenetic correlation between two accessions was found to be 0.584.
A total of 10 ISSR primers were used out of which 06 primers resulted in amplification of 29 loci. Out of 29 loci, 24 loci were polymorphic and 05 loci were monomorphic in nature. Among the polymorphic loci, only one (01) locus was found to be unique in nature. The amplicons were observed in the range of 180 to >3000 base pair (Figure 3). The resolving power of the primers varied from 1.905 to 8.667 while the primer index varied from 0.091 to 0.499. Best resolving power (8.667) was observed in the primer (CA)8AT and the minimum (1.905) with primer (CA)6GG. The maximum ISSR primer index (0.499) was observed with the primer (CT)9G and the minimum (0.091) with primer (CA)6GG.
ISSR banding pattern in 21 accessions of
The Jaccard\'s coefficient showed that Ch13 (Raj 5 was most closely related) to Ch 14 (Raj 11) with a similarity value of 0.846 followed by Ch7 (MP7) and Ch10 (Raj1) with a similarity value of 0.833. The matrix value ranged from 0.363 to 0.846. The Rajasthan collected accession (Ch11) and Ch18 (Dangs) of Gujarat collections were most remotely placed with the similarity coefficient of 0.363. Between any two accessions, the average similarity coefficient was observed as 0.627.
\nSix (06) ISSR primers were used to construct a dendrogram by using the UPGMA method which led to the segregation of the accessions into two distinct groups. All accessions were distributed between 36 units. The resultant dendrogram formed a cluster with the 18 accessions in one group and the other 3 accessions into a separate group. Again 18 accessions discriminated into several groups. Group I consisted of only three accessions, Ch9, Ch11 and Ch19 collected from Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat, respectively that showed about 35% genetic variability. Group II comprises five groups such as IIA, IIB, IIC, IID and IIE. Group IIC is the largest, which comprises six accessions, Ch3, Ch6 and Ch7 Collected from Madhya Pradesh, Ch 10 and Ch12 from Rajasthan and Ch18 collected from Gujarat showed 61% genetic similarity. The second largest Group IIB holds five accessions from which Ch2 and Ch8 collected from Madhya Pradesh, Ch13 and Ch14 from Rajasthan and Ch20 collected from Gujarat showed about genetic variation of about 40%. IID formed a group with three accessions, Ch 15, Ch16 and Ch17 of Maharashtra collections showing about 70% genetic similarity among them. The smallest Group IIE consisted accessions Ch4 and Ch5 of Madhya Pradesh showed 30% genetic variability between them.
\nThe cophenetic correlation showed the maximum cophenetic correlation value (0.846) between Ch13 (Raj5) and Ch16 (Raj11); both are collected from Rajasthan. The average cophenetic correlation between two accessions was found to be 0.605.
Both RAPD and ISSR produced a total of 197 loci of which 179 loci were polymorphic and 18 loci were monomorphic. A dendrogram was constructed by pooled RAPD and ISSR data using Jaccard\'s similarity coefficient and SHAN clustering.
\nThe Jaccard\'s similarity coefficient showed a wide range of correlation among all the accessions. The average similarity coefficient between any two accessions was approximately 0.565. Maximum similarity (0.709) was observed between Ch15 and Ch16. However, Ch 8 and Ch17 were found distantly related with a similarity coefficient value of 0.423.
The dendrogram constructed from combined RAPD and ISSR data segregates a single accession (Ch 8) of Madhya Pradesh Collection from the rest of the accessions sharing a node at 48% level of genetic variation (Figure 4). The subsequent sub‐cluster contained five groups (IIA, IIB, IIC, IID and IIE). The accessions (Ch1, Ch4 and Ch5) formed a group (IIA) which were collected from Madhya Pradesh. Then group IIB consisted of Ch2 and Ch3 collected from Madhya Pradesh showed 47% genetic variability. The IID holds five accessions out of which Ch12 and Ch13 of Rajasthan collections and Ch19, Ch20 and Ch21 of Gujarat collections showed 52% genetic similarity. Thereafter Group IIC consisted of four accessions among which Ch6 collected from Madhya Pradesh and three accessions such as Ch15, Ch16 and Ch17 collected from Maharashtra shared 68% genetic similarity among them. About 47% variability was observed between Ch10 and Ch11 of Rajasthan collections which fall in Group IIE. In this study, it was observed that genetic relation/ variability among the accessions were found more or less similar to RAPD analysis. The maximum cophenetic correlation value (0.707) existed between Ch15 (MH2) and Ch16 (MH3); both were collected from Maharashtra. The average cophenetic correlation between two accessions was found to be 0.590.
Clustering pattern of 21 accessions of
As can be seen in Figure 5, the accessions of
Principal co‐ordinate analysis (PCA) in 21 accessions of
Matrix comparison showed the
The programme takes two symmetric similarity or dissimilarity matrices and plots, one matrix against the other element by element (but with the diagonal values ignored). It also computes the product‐moment correlation,
Matrix comparison of combined RAPD and ISSR markers in 21 accessions of
Characterization of genetic resource collection has been greatly facilitated by the availability of a number of molecular marker systems. Different types of molecular markers have been used to assess the genetic diversity in crop species, but no single technique is universally ideal. Therefore, the choice of the technique depends on the objective of the study, sensitivity level of the marker system, financial constraints, skill and facilities available [25].
\nThe molecular markers best studied for detecting genetic diversity should be relatively easy and inexpensive to use and should rapidly evolve enough variable within populations [26]. There are numerous DNA‐based molecular marker systems suitable for genetic diversity assessment. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter‐simple sequence repeat (ISSR) marker, in addition to its suitability of genetic diversity study, are highly polymorphic, reproducible, cost effective and require no prior information of sequence [27]. These facts suggest RAPD and ISSR could be unbiased tools to evaluate the changes of diversity in agronomically important crops [28].
\nRAPD generated a total of 168 bands ranging from 300 to >3000 bp of which 7.73% were monomorphic common to all accessions, 2.97% were unique present in four accessions and 92.26% were polymorphic in many of the accessions. This high degree of polymorphism detected with 20 RAPD primers indicates a high marker index. This is consistent with the results obtained by Shin et al. [29] in watermelon and Galderisi et al. [30] in fig. Some RAPD primers (OPA16, OPA18) produced more markers probably because genomic DNA sequences possess high frequency of annealing sites [31]. ISSR markers have been used to evaluate the genetic diversity in several medicinal plants [32–35]. The larger number of polymorphic markers (as compared to number of primers used) generated by ISSR‐PCR can be attributed to the fact that the centromeric region contains a large amount of repeated sequences [36]. A higher level of polymorphism was detected by both RAPD and ISSR in our study corroborated to other reports [37, 38].
\nThe present results showed that molecular markers, ISSR and RAPD, efficiently identify
Though RAPD and ISSR markers demarcated 21 accessions into several groups, clustering of accessions within groups was not similar. A possible explanation for the difference in resolution of RAPD and ISSR is that the two marker techniques targeted different portions of the genome. The inter‐simple sequence repeats target regions lying within the micro‐satellite, and the amplification loci of RAPD are mainly in the gene expression region [14, 15]. These differences may also be attributed to marker sampling errors and/or the level of polymorphism detected reinforcing the importance of the number of loci and their coverage of the overall genome in obtaining reliable estimates of genetic relationships among cultivars [42, 43]. The putatively similar bands originating for RAPDs in different individuals are not necessarily homologous, although they may share the same size in base pairs. This result sometimes may lead to wrong results when calculating genetic relationships [44].
\nThe dendrogram did not indicate any clear pattern of clustering according to the locations from where germplasm were collected, indicating little and no location specificity among
Matching the clustering result with their collection sites revealed that the geographical distribution of most accessions was not found to be defined. The majority of accessions in sub‐group IIC were from different places of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Similarly, three of five accessions in the sub‐group IID were collected from Maharashtra whereas two were from Madhya Pradesh. Similar conclusions were made by Padmesh et al. [47] in
On the basis of percent of polymorphism (RAPD = 92.26 and ISSR = 82.76), RAPD markers were marginally more informative than ISSR in the assessment of genetic diversity in
The Mantel test on the similarity matrices produced by RAPD and ISSR markers showed significant correlation (
In this study, superiority of RAPD markers over ISSR were observed with regards to polymorphism detection, as RAPD detected 92.26% as compared to 82.76% for ISSR markers. This is in contrast to the results as obtained for other several plant species where ISSR was proved to be superior as compared to RAPD [44, 56–58]. More polymorphism, in the case of RAPD than ISSR markers might be due to the fact that out of 10 primers used in the study, only 6 primers amplified 609 numbers of fragments for ISSR. While in the case of RAPD, all the 20 primers which were used in the investigation amplified 3528 number of fragments. The same polymorphism pattern was observed in jatropha, podophyllum and apricot [59–61]. RAPD also provides marker even for cultivars identification [62] determining hybridity among the sexual cross made intentionally to exploit the genetic variability [63, 64] and germplasm evaluation [31].
\nTo conserve the diversity of genetic resources, a large number of accessions are to be conserved for which problems are encountered in documentation, conservation, multiplication and evaluation. Therefore, to minimize the cost of genetic conservation ensuring representation of maximum genetic variation, a set of accessions (core collection) should be selected to represent the genetic diversity of a base collection with minimum redundancy [12]. From the PCA of the 38 accessions, it was evident that some of the accessions were found overlapping each other depicting redundancy which should be eliminated. Since there are different strategies for developing a core collection using morphological or marker data, however molecular markers are more stable and efficient in estimating the genetic relatedness among the individuals [65, 66].
\nThe molecular analyses of RAPD and ISSR markers were extremely useful for studying the genetic relationship/variability between and among
The present findings demonstrate the use of RAPD and ISSR markers in estimating genetic diversity and identifying a core collection in
The authors wish to acknowledge the support from the Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research (DMAPR) Boriavi, Anand for providing necessary facilities. The authors are also thankful to K.A. Geetha, Principal Scientist (Plant Breeding) for providing the material for the study.
Cardiac electrophysiology study (EPS) is helpful to assess the heart’s electrical system. This is an invasive percutaneous cardiac procedure used for the investigation and treatment of certain arrhythmias. During the examination, catheters are inserted to the appropriate position within the heart mainly via large veins to record the electrical signals of the heart and to pace from different localized areas. In this way, EPS can help evaluating the function of the conduction system, determining the mechanisms of brady- and tachyarrhythmias, and identifying areas which may be the targets of often curative catheter ablation. Many cardiac arrhythmias that previously required the use of potentially harmful antiarrhythmic drugs can now be routinely cured in the electrophysiology laboratory by means of transcatheter ablation techniques.
In this chapter, the basics of cardiac electrophysiological studies are presented.
Equipment necessary for EPS includes an operation table, fluoroscopy unit, recorders, programmable stimulator, a multichannel lead switching box, an oscilloscope, and emergency instruments. In addition, tools for vascular access and electrode catheters are also required [1]. A standard schematic set-up for typical EPS is shown in Figure 1.
Standard schematic set-up for typical electrophysiology study. Abbreviation: RF—radiofrequency.
Electrical signals from humans obtained by surface or intracardiac electrodes are <10 mV in amplitude. These electrocardiograms must be amplified and filtered before digitalization, displaying, and storage for interpretation and analysis [2]. Amplification means the increase of the signal’s amplitude. However, the signals are plagued with electrical noise, thus amplification results in increasing not only the original signals but the amplitude of noise also. For this reason, avoidance of extraneous signals is essential: all electrical tools used in EPS should be appropriately earthed and shielded. In addition, filtering is required to eliminate unnecessary components of the electrical signals. High-pass filters remove components below a given frequency, while low-pass filters eliminate high-frequency components of the electrical signal. Electrophysiological signals are often contaminated with power line noise (i.e., 60 Hz in North America and 50 Hz in Europe), thus notch filtering is often used to eliminate it [3].
Standard ECG devices run at 25 mm/s Increasing the paper output speed, subtle ECG findings hidden in the tracings become more evident. During an EPS, surface ECG leads and intracardiac electrocardiograms (IEGM) are generally displayed and interpreted at a sweep speed of 100 or 200 mm/s (Figure 2).
Same normal sinus beat at a paper speed of 25, 50, 100, and 200 mm/s.
For a standard EPS, a standard number of four catheters is necessary. Based on the operator’s decision, EPS is also feasible using only three diagnostic catheters. Diagnostic catheters have two or multiple electrodes, and for each pair of consecutive electrodes, a distinct intracardiac electrogram gets recorded. Traditionally, catheter placement is carried out under fluoroscopy guidance. In the EP lab, three main fluoroscopy projections are used: anteroposterior (AP), left anterior oblique (LAO), and right anterior oblique (RAO) views (Figure 3).
Standard catheter positions in left anterior oblique (LAO), anteroposterior (AP), and right anterior oblique (RAO) projections. Abbreviations: CS—coronary sinus decapolar catheter; HRA—high right atrium; RVa—right ventricle apex.
A diagnostic catheter is positioned from the femoral vein and contacted with the lateral wall of the right atrium at right atrium—superior vena cava junction.
The coronary sinus runs transversely in the left atrioventricular groove on the posterior side of the heart. A multielectrode catheter is inserted into the coronary sinus from femoral, jugular internal, or subclavian vein. For femoral approach, steerable catheters are used. CS catheter allows to record IEGMs coming from the left atrium and ventricle. Moreover, this position is easily reproducible and serves as a reference point during the EPS. Thus, CS catheters play an important role in EP labs.
For recording His bundle electrogram, a catheter is inserted via femoral vein to the high septal part of the right ventricle and pulled back slowly with clockwise torquing till characteristic His bundle electrogram appears.
A diagnostic catheter is advanced from femoral vein to apical right ventricle, which allows to record local ventricular IEGMs.
Generally, IEGMs mean the electrical activity between two electrodes at the tip of the catheter (bipolar recording) [4]. The main difference between surface ECG and IEGMs is that the surface ECG records a summation of the electrical activity of the heart, while in contrast, IEGMs show only the electrical activity of a localized area, i.e., IEGMs are local intracardiac electrograms. Importantly, these are displayed together on the monitor system facilitating accurate interpretations of the electrical signals (Figure 4).
Snapshot from an electrophysiology study. The upper four channels represent lead I, II, V1, and V6 of surface ECG. The paper speed is 200 mm/s. on the distal His (His d) channel, we can recognize three different wavefront characteristics of the His bundle: the first one is the A (atrial) wave (synchronous to P wave on surface ECG), the last is called V (ventricular) wave (synchronous to QRS complex on the surface ECG). In the middle, a sharp signal represents His bundle electrogram. AH interval could be measured from the beginning of A to the sharp His signal. HV interval is measured on the His bundle electrogram from the beginning of the His deflection to the earliest identified ventricular activity on the surface ECG. CS electrograms show atrial activation (synchronous to P wave on surface ECG again). Note that first activation occurs on CS 9,10 which is the proximal pair of electrodes. CS 9,10 is at the ostium of the coronary sinus, thus these electrodes are the closest to the sinus node. In the case of a correctly positioned CS catheter, CS 9,10 should be activated first during normal sinus rhythm. Finally, a local ventricular electrogram can be easily identified on the catheter at RVa position. Asterix represents PA interval.
After catheter placement, a routine EPS starts with the measurement of basic intervals [4]. Ideally basic intervals should be measured during sinus rhythm.
The PA interval represents the interval between the earliest atrial activation (recording in any channel) in the region of the sinus node and at the region of the atrioventricular node. Usually, the earliest atrial activation is represented by the P wave onset on the surface ECG. Normal value is 25–55 milliseconds (ms).
AH interval represents the conduction time from the low-right atrium at the interatrial septum through the atrioventricular (AV) node to the His bundle. It is measured between the atrial electrogram recorded by the His bundle catheter and the beginning of the His electrogram itself. The normal range is 55–150 ms [4]. The AH interval is sensitive to autonomic tone. A prolonged AH interval may indicate AV nodal disease or high vagal tone, whereas a shorter than normal AH can occur during sympathetic activation.
HV interval reflects conduction through the His-Purkinje system and is measured on the His bundle electrogram from the beginning of the His deflection to the earliest identified ventricular activity on the surface ECG. An HV interval of 35–55 ms is considered normal. In the presence of anterograde conducting accessory pathway, the HV interval may be shorter. Prolonged HV interval represents infrahisian conduction disturbances.
Time measurements are reported in milliseconds in the case of EP procedures. To characterize the heart rate, the cycle length (CL) is used instead of the frequency. CL represents the length of time between each atrial or ventricular beats. For example, a tachycardia with a heart rate of 150 beats per minute has a CL of 400 ms (Figure 5). The faster the heart rate the shorter the CL.
Atrial pacing at a cycle length of 400 ms, which means a rate of 150 beats per minute. Sharp pacing artifacts are present before P waves. P waves are negative in the inferior leads (pacing from coronary sinus ostium). Paper speed is 100 mm/s.
Besides IEGM recordings, electrode catheters previously inserted in the heart are also used for pacing. An external stimulator is connected to the catheters. When pacing starts, electrical current is passed by catheters resulting in cardiac cells’ depolarization near the catheter’s electrode. The depolarization of these cells generates an electrical wavefront, spreading over the heart as the impulse originating from the sinus node. As a result, stimulator pacing generates cardiac impulse artificially. Carefully positioned catheters can impulse the heart from almost any position. During the EPS, pacing is used to introduce electrical impulses in predetermined patterns and at precise time intervals. Such pacing is called programmed stimulation [1]. Programmed stimulation consists of the main type of pacing technique: burst and extrastimulus pacing.
Burst pacing consists of implementing a series of electrical impulses (so-called drive train) at a fixed cycle length. By definition, each impulse is called S1 and the difference between the impulses is the same (Figure 6).
Ventricular burst pacing from RVa position. Note the pacing artifact on RVa channel and before the QRS complexes. Pacing cycle length is fixed (500 ms). Paper speed is 50 mm/s.
Extrastimulus testing means introduction of a drive train (usually 8 beats, S1) followed by one or more extrastimuli with shorter coupling interval than the cycle length of the drive. S2 means the first programmed extrastimulus, S3 is used for the second, and so on (Figure 7).
Atrial extrastimulus testing from coronary sinus catheter (CS). The drive train consists of 8 beats at a cycle length of 400 ms is followed by an extrastimulus with a shorter coupling interval (300 ms). Ablation catheter (ABL) is in the His region showing His bundle electrogram. Paper speed is 50 mm/s.
During EPS, refractory periods of cardiac tissues can be characterized by measuring effective, functional, and relative refractory periods [5].
Most commonly used as it is part of a routine EPS. It represents the longest coupling interval that fails to capture the tissue or be conducted over the structure (Figure 8).
Programmed atrial stimulation from CS 9,10. Drive cycle length is 400 ms. Panel A shows ventricular contraction (i.e., QRS complex) after S2 extrastimulus at a coupling interval of 240 ms. However, Panel B represents atrioventricular block after S2 extrastimulus at a coupling interval of 230 ms. In this case, effective refractory period of the AV node (AVNERP) is 230 ms.
A routine EPS does not include the measurements of the functional and relative refractory period. Functional refractory period means the lower limit shortest “output” coupling interval that can be produced by any “input” interval. Relative refractory periods represent the point at which latency begins to occur. RRP means “input” interval to a tissue at which the “output” interval just begins to differ from the “input” interval.
This chapter summarized the basics of electrophysiological studies of the heart. The author sincerely hopes that the chapter may have contributed to a deeper understanding of the world of electrocardiograms.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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The ambiguities surrounding of the digital currency still leave enough space for the analysis of its unreserved acceptance, trust and anticipation, which are the main driver for the spread of the network. Banks should carefully consider the technology underlying these cryptocurrencies as a potential generic new way of transferring ownership of the value over the long term. The chapter provides an analysis of the use of cryptocurrencies in general, especially Bitcoin as the technology adoption in the presence of network externalities. The objective attitude is the future of the digital currency in the moment is still unsolved issue due to the existence of “critical mass”. Further, the chapter explores financial privacy which is very sensitive issue in using digital currency (or cryptocurrency) and discuss about private choices versus political rules. The research has shown that the future of cryptocurrencies can be bright if some institutional-formal conditions are met due to the fact that success evolution of e-money requires building safety payments through three criteria–standardization, compatibility and innovation.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Tatjana Boshkov",authors:[{id:"246137",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Boshkov",slug:"tatjana-boshkov",fullName:"Tatjana Boshkov"}]},{id:"38793",title:"Overview of Wireless Sensor Network",slug:"overview-of-wireless-sensor-network",totalDownloads:12426,totalCrossrefCites:62,totalDimensionsCites:83,abstract:null,book:{id:"2211",slug:"wireless-sensor-networks-technology-and-protocols",title:"Wireless Sensor Networks",fullTitle:"Wireless Sensor Networks - Technology and Protocols"},signatures:"M.A. Matin and M.M. Islam",authors:[{id:"12623",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Abdul",middleName:"A",surname:"Matin",slug:"mohammad-abdul-matin",fullName:"Mohammad Abdul Matin"}]},{id:"66938",title:"An Overview of Wireless Mesh Networks",slug:"an-overview-of-wireless-mesh-networks",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Wireless mesh networks (WMNs) are communication networks which comprise radio nodes in which nodes are arranged in a mesh topology. Mesh topology is an interconnection of all nodes connected with all other nodes in the network. The network includes devices like nodes, clients, routers, gateways, etc. As the nodes are fully connected, mesh networks are usually less mobile as rerouting is less difficult in predicting the reroute results in delay in data transmission. Mesh clients can be of any wireless devices like cell phones, laptops, etc. The gateways which act as forwarding nodes may not be connected with the Internet. As different devices come under a single network, it is also referred as mesh cloud. WMN is self-healable. It works better with various different networks which include cellular networks and IEEE 802.11, 802.15, and 802.16 as well. WMN is flexible to work with more than one protocol. This chapter gives architecture, layer functionalities, and applications.",book:{id:"7322",slug:"wireless-mesh-networks-security-architectures-and-protocols",title:"Wireless Mesh Networks",fullTitle:"Wireless Mesh Networks - Security, Architectures and Protocols"},signatures:"J. Rejina Parvin",authors:null},{id:"63090",title:"Cryptocurrency Returns",slug:"cryptocurrency-returns",totalDownloads:1446,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"One of the most significant innovations in the world of finance has been the creation and evolvement of cryptocurrencies. These digital means of exchange have been the focus of extensive news coverage, especially the Bitcoin, with a primary focus on the tremendous potential return and the high level of accompanying risk. In this chapter, we examine the risk-return pattern for an array of cryptocurrencies, contrasting the pattern with those of conventional currency and equity investments. We find the measures of cryptocurrency returns and risk to be a very high multiple of those of conventional investments, and the pattern is determined to be robust relative to the time frame. Consequently, cryptocurrencies are determined to provide an alternative to investors that involves tremendously high risk and return.",book:{id:"7228",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies"},signatures:"Mike Cudd, Kristen Ritterbush, Marcelo Eduardo and Chris Smith",authors:[{id:"254939",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Cudd",slug:"mike-cudd",fullName:"Mike Cudd"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"88",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"93",type:"subseries",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",keywords:"Social contract, SDG, Human rights, Inclusiveness, Equity, Democracy, Personal learning, Collaboration, Glocalization",scope:"