Comparison of the proposed antenna with other antennas (all dimensions in cm).
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6836",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Groundwater - Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",title:"Groundwater",subtitle:"Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers aspects of groundwater resource characterisation and management. The inherent heterogeneous and isotropic nature of aquifers coupled with the unpredictable effects of climate change calls for continuous improvement and understanding of hydrogeology site characterisation techniques in theory and application to better understand and manage groundwater. We believe that this book will be useful for various professionals involved in groundwater-related work to improve the theoretical and practical understanding of hydrogeology site characterisation techniques and groundwater resource management skills.",isbn:"978-1-83880-515-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-514-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-711-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73345",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7cad088c49e61c898abc7d7511de42f6",bookSignature:"Modreck Gomo",publishedDate:"May 22nd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6836.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9412,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:19,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 4th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 2nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 21st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 22nd 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"185450",title:"Dr.",name:"Modreck",middleName:null,surname:"Gomo",slug:"modreck-gomo",fullName:"Modreck Gomo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185450/images/system/185450.jpeg",biography:"Modreck Gomo is a researcher in groundwater with experience in a wide range of groundwater science and consultancy projects. His first degree was a BSc Honours in Agricultural Engineering from the University of Zimbabwe, followed by a BSc Honours in Geohydrology (2008), an MSc in Geohydrology (2009), and a PhD in Geohydrology (2011) from the University of the Free in South Africa. He has published over 20 research papers in peer-reviewed international journals. \nHis main research interests include: \n\nInvestigation of the characteristics of borehole fluid electrical conductivity (FEC) profiles in different aquifer systems; \nApplication of numerical modelling to assess and evaluate the application of analytical methods for analyzing aquifer pumping test data; \nInvestigation of hydrogeochemical processes and groundwater quality assessments; and\nProcedures for collecting representative groundwater samples in fractured-rock aquifers.\n\nDr Gomo is a consistent reviewer in more than 10 internationally peer-reviewed journals with a focus on groundwater science since 2012. He is also now involved in a number of groundwater projects in the Southern African Development Community region related to transboundary groundwater and capacity building on groundwater collection. He is a registered professional natural scientist in the field of water resources with the South African Council for Natural Scientific Professions (SACNASP) and also a member of the Groundwater Division, South Africa.",institutionString:"The University of the Free State",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of the Free State",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"837",title:"Hydrology",slug:"hydrology"}],chapters:[{id:"66437",title:"Detection of Underground Water by Using GPR",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83594",slug:"detection-of-underground-water-by-using-gpr",totalDownloads:3036,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Water is the human vital requirement for life; in these days, decreasing of the fresh water increases the importance of the aquifer water. However, Upper Egypt is higher than north Egypt, so the water map continually changes daily, and the aquifer water is deeper than 10 m. The ground penetrating radar (GPR) system is used for underground water detection. GPR is a promising technology to detect and identify aquifer water or nonmetallic mines. One of the most serious components for the performance of GPR is the antenna system. The technology of the remote sensing and radar is rapidly developing, and it has led to the ultra-wideband electronic systems. All of these factors, such as miniaturized, low cost, possible compromise solution between depth and resolution, scanning in real time, easy to interpret, and decreased the false alarm, are important in designing the ground penetrating system. The electrical properties of the sand and fresh water layers are investigated using laboratory measurement and EM simulation. Different types of antenna may be used in GPR to operate over a frequency range for different penetration depth. Frequency-modulated continuous wave is also used for GPR and for through-the-wall applications. However, most of these kinds of antennas are limited by their large volume for certain applications. Therefore, a compact Vivaldi antenna with EBG and a compact planar printed quasi-Yagi antenna with meandered ground plane are designed to fulfill all above requirement.",signatures:"Dalia N. Elsheakh and Esmat A. Abdallah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66437",authors:[{id:"111813",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",surname:"Elsheakh",slug:"dalia-elsheakh",fullName:"Dalia Elsheakh"},{id:"111867",title:"Prof.",name:"Esmat",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"esmat-abdallah",fullName:"Esmat Abdallah"}],corrections:null},{id:"66079",title:"Andean Mountain Groundwater, Drinking Water Sources, and Vulnerability: A Case Study in Central Chile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85016",slug:"andean-mountain-groundwater-drinking-water-sources-and-vulnerability-a-case-study-in-central-chile",totalDownloads:947,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a study of the Diguillín basin in central Chile where geology is dominated by the Nevados del Chillan volcanic complex. The headwater of the basin has two watersheds: Renegado creek and Alto Diguillín. The hydrogeology was studied using field surveys, streamflow gauging, environmental tracers, and a hydrological model. Surface water balance does not fit for both watersheds because there is a deficit/excess of superficial runoff. Renegado soils are predominantly sands over a basement composed of fractured rock; infiltration of rain and snowmelt predominates over surface runoff, resulting in about 5 m3/s of depth groundwater that flows to the Diguillín River, discharging in a cluster of springs located 3 km downstream of the surface connection. Therefore, drinking water availability for the communities located at the Renegado watershed is limited to some springs that are located around the valley. There is a significant expansion of second home construction in the area of the Renegado watershed; because of its skiing and hot springs, it is a major tourism center. Due to the extensive use of septic tanks, located above the highly permeable soils that overlie the fractured rock aquifer, there is concern about how water quality may be affected.",signatures:"José Luis Arumí, Enrique Muñoz and Ricardo Oyarzún",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66079",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65325",title:"Development of a Method for Prediction of Risk of Surface and Groundwater Contamination with Pesticides and Their Dangerous Aspects for Human Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83600",slug:"development-of-a-method-for-prediction-of-risk-of-surface-and-groundwater-contamination-with-pestici",totalDownloads:1068,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The probability of groundwater contamination is high enough because groundwater has different origins: a majority of them are formed by atmospheric precipitation filtration through soil layer or due to condensation of water vapors directly into the ground. Pesticides could be one of such hazardous groundwater pollutants. We developed two methods for the hazardous effect on human organism while consuming contaminated water prediction: risk acceptance assessment and integral groundwater contamination hazard index (IGCHI) evaluation in points according to special scale.",signatures:"Anna Antonenko, Olena Vavrinevych, Maria Korshun and Sergiy Omelchuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65325",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66867",title:"Sustainability of Human, Plant, and Aquatic Life: A Theoretical Discussion from Recharge to Discharge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86171",slug:"sustainability-of-human-plant-and-aquatic-life-a-theoretical-discussion-from-recharge-to-discharge",totalDownloads:876,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Groundwater comprises about 1.7% of the earth’s total water and over 30% of the total freshwater supply. Is there enough groundwater to meet human, plant, and aquatic life needs? In many parts of the world, yes; however, with changing demographics and concordant land use and climate change, the distribution and availability of groundwater may not be sustainable. This chapter considers some of the current and past stressors of groundwater by using case examples from around the world. We explore hydrogeologic settings where anthropogenic activity has impaired or has the potential to impair human, plant, and aquatic life. Stressors include well pumping, mining, climate change, chemical use, water law/regulation, and manipulation of surface water. These examples serve to inform those concerned about sustainable management and offer insight into the links between groundwater, climate, and land use.",signatures:"Joe Magner and Modreck Gomo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66867",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66867",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66470",title:"Mining of Minerals and Groundwater in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85309",slug:"mining-of-minerals-and-groundwater-in-india",totalDownloads:1771,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mining of minerals is essential for our day-to-day life so is the groundwater. Mother Earth is the custodian of these two essential commodities, and both are part and parcel of sustainable living for human beings. This chapter of book focuses on the need, quantity, quality, and management of groundwater encountered in mines, from where extraction of minerals takes place. By understanding interrelationship between groundwater hydrology and mining, the basic objective of sustainability, that is, conserving for future generations with particular reference to the mines, has been addressed. Such scientific approach makes the mine planning easier, ensures better water management, and solves water scarcity as well as security problems in the vicinity of mining areas.",signatures:"Abhay Kumar Soni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66470",authors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],corrections:null},{id:"65189",title:"Groundwater Protection Legislation in Slovenia: Theory and Practice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83664",slug:"groundwater-protection-legislation-in-slovenia-theory-and-practice",totalDownloads:870,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As an EU member, Slovenia implemented the Water Framework Directive (WFD) guidelines into national legislation quite successfully, but in many parts of the country, groundwater is still under threat, mainly from nitrate. The problematic areas, as is the case in many other EU countries, are mostly shallow-soiled alluvial plains. Their groundwater is the country’s biggest source of drinking water, but at the same time, the fertile soil on their flat surface is considered to be the most suitable for agricultural activities. We are aiming to provide an overview of groundwater protection practices in Slovenia. To evaluate the “theory,” we will take a close look at the national legislation concerning the subject. From the “practical” perspective, we will research what guidelines and solutions were drawn from legislation to comply with WFD objectives. Furthermore, we will also discuss the current activities aimed at improving Slovenia’s groundwater status.",signatures:"Miha Curk and Matjaž Glavan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65189",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65189",authors:[{id:"82604",title:"Dr.",name:"Matjaž",surname:"Glavan",slug:"matjaz-glavan",fullName:"Matjaž Glavan"},{id:"271728",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Miha",surname:"Curk",slug:"miha-curk",fullName:"Miha Curk"}],corrections:null},{id:"66379",title:"Groundwater Management Competitive Solutions: The Relevance of the Gisser-Sanchez Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85507",slug:"groundwater-management-competitive-solutions-the-relevance-of-the-gisser-sanchez-model",totalDownloads:845,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main subject of this chapter is related to the relevance of the Gisser-Sanchez effect in groundwater. It is important to point out that groundwater resources provide a primary source of irrigation water throughout much of the world. Two main questions need to be indicated when taking water extractions into account. The first has to do with water scarcity in local watersheds or whole basins created by excessive surface and groundwater withdrawals. The other is related to water degradation and the pollution loads leading to many tracts of rivers and whole aquifers being spoiled and losing their capacity to sustain ecosystem functioning and human activities. These conclusions were called into question by the Gisser and Sanchez analysis. These authors argue that the difference in producer surplus between the open access and optimally managed cases was numerically insignificant for large aquifers subject to inelastic water demand. Perhaps the most interesting point in the work by Gisser and Sanchez is multidisciplinarity.",signatures:"Oscar Alfranca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66379",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66379",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"911",title:"Water Stress",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"639300ffd325d217a7b6ec2261ff26e0",slug:"water-stress",bookSignature:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman and Hiroshi Hasegawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/911.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. 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\r\n\tWith this rapid transformation of the computing and communication world, information-system security has moved from a largely self-contained bounded environment interacting with a generally known and disciplined user community to a worldwide scope with a body of users that may not be known and are not necessarily trusted. Importantly, security control now must deal with circumstances over which there is largely no control or expectation of avoiding their impact. Computer security, as it has evolved, shares a similarity with liability assurance: they each face a threat environment that is known in a very general way and can face attacks over a broad spectrum of sources. However, the exact details or even time or certainty of an attack are unknown until an incident occurs.
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to discuss some of the critical security challenges in today’s computing world and to discuss mechanisms for defending against those attacks by using classical and modern approaches to cryptography and other security solutions. With this objective, the book invites contributions from researchers in the field of cryptography and its applications in network security. Some illustrative topics of interest (but not limited to) are cryptography algorithms, authentication, authorization, integrity, confidentiality, privacy, security in wireless networks, security in wireless local area networks, wireless sensor networks, wireless ad hoc networks, vehicular ad hoc networks, security and privacy in the Internet of Things. Privacy of information, Blockchains, and Machine Learning in Security are three additional topics that the book will also deal with.
After the year 2002, ultra-wideband (UWB) systems have gained popularity mainly when the US Department of Federal Communications Commission (FCC) allocated a license-free spectrum for industrial and scientific purposes. FCC is doing the greatest step in opening new doors of researches for UWB in the field of wireless communications and microwave imaging [1, 2]. UWB device is defined as any device operating in absolute bandwidth greater than 500 MHz or fractional bandwidth greater than 0.2 of central frequency [3]. The frequency band ranges of UWB extended from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz that have expected the applications in the fields of wireless body area networks (WBAN), wireless local area networks (WLAN), wireless interoperability for microwave access (WiMAX), wireless personal area networks (WPAN), and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) technology where wide bandwidth is required [4]. GPR is the major applications of UWB technology, which is in large degree used in military and civilian applications such as water detection and land mines [5]. There are many UWB antennas have been designed for GPR applications. The study based on the lower-frequency band is conducted mainly to increase the penetration depth, while the designing in the higher-frequency band is performed to achieve high-resolution imaging for GPR systems. Some of the researches focused on the entire UWB frequency range to further improve the bandwidth, while others focused on enhancement of the antenna gain [6]. Moreover, GPR is also used in remote-sensing techniques as nondestructive testing of concrete and detection of trapped people under debris or in opaque environment [7]. For the achievement of UWB GPR systems, the performance of various antenna designs, such as bow-tie antenna [8], spiral antenna [9], loaded dipole antenna [10], TEM horn antenna [11], tapered slot antenna (TSA) [12, 13], and Vivaldi antenna [14, 15], has been evaluated.
Ultra-wideband antenna is one of the preferred antennas for some applications in the microwave imaging, object measurement technology, and noninvasive testing (NIT) [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. In this era, the microstrip antenna has the advantages of small size, high gain, and low cost for good performance in some applications [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been utilized by emitting an electromagnetic wave directed into the ground, and the buried objects cause reflections of the emitted wave that are then detected by the receiver system. This is contrasted in the electrical properties as the signal reflection coefficient and their related phase [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. GPR has an ability to detect the electrical inhomogeneity of metal and dielectric object in the presence of surrounding soil or sand [18]. GPR system can exist at the same location for the transmitting and receiving, and there are four types of GPR system: quasi-monostatic radar if there is no separation distance between transmitter and receiver, monostatic radar if there is single antenna performs both transmit and receive operations [19], bistatic radar if the transmitter and receiver have separate distance, and multistatic radar if a radar system involves one or more transmitting platforms and multiple receiving platforms [20]. GPR systems have been classified as the time domain (impulse radars) and continuous wave (CW) radar [21]. CW radar transmits the signal, which can be frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW), or creates the resulting signal as a combination of monochromatic steps through a certain band of frequencies, referred as stepped frequency continuous wave (SFCW) [22]. GPR systems usually work at central frequencies below 1 GHz, and large bandwidth is needed for a better depth resolution and detailed echo. The use of impulse wideband systems involves some technical problems, such as Doppler processing, propagation fading, interference rejection, wave clutter, detecting birds on or near the water surface, and radar interference.
Egypt desert water, land mines, and Egyptian ancient mummy detection are an important, and yet challenging problem remains to be solved and is a matter of concern for both civilian groups and military. Water depth, quantity, and volume are different from location to another, and landmines have huge variety in use with various sizes and materials. They are mostly designed in a circular, rectangular, butterfly, or cylindrical shapes as V69, PSM-1, Hamdy, and Mon 200 with dimensions 13, 7.6, 21, and 43 cm, respectively. On the one hand, the electrical properties of water purity are changed due to water quantities and mineral contained; on the other hand, the electrical properties of the mummy are varying according to biological materials involved as tissues, bones, scapula, and femur, respectively [23]. The average effective dielectric constant is equal to 6.5 and dielectric loss equal to 15 [24].
Groundwater is a hidden natural resource. It is found in different proportions, in various rock types, and at various depths of ground surface. Previously, in the past, when there is no visible flow of water along the rivers or lakes, people used to dig small pits, in the river alluvium, then collect the groundwater coming through seepage to use in different purposes and for meeting the domestic needs. As well as the people of mountainous area, springs are the outcome of seepage from any groundwater system [25, 26].
More than 60% of the global population thrives by using only the groundwater resources. The groundwater, which was existing at shallow depths in the open wells, has gone deep due to overexploitation. Exploring these water sources becomes a challenging task to geoscientists [27, 28, 29].
As the signal of the GPR is required to propagate through inhomogeneous media, the efficiency of the antenna should be taken into account. Thus, in order to enhance the efficiency, a compact shape of Vivaldi is designed [7]. The compactness in the shape of antenna is achieved by using two Vivaldi surface shapes with the same feeding network. Frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) is another type than pulse wave also used for GPR and for through-the-wall applications. FMCW systems are transmitting a repetitive waveform with increasing or decreasing frequency [21]. UWB-FMCW systems require a linear sweep, which may be difficult to create. Lower-frequency signals are required to penetrate the ground effectively as the penetration depth decreases with increasing frequencies.
GPR radar could be used for soil with different electrical properties to detect water underground [30, 31]. However, a broadband signal with good resolving power is required. Thus, the GPR antenna should operate on lower frequency and should have a very wide bandwidth. Also, the UWB antenna applied to communication system with high gain is highly desired [32].
The main object of this section is the detection of water. A compact novel shape of Vivaldi antenna as shown in Figure 1 with dimensions of 0.17λ × 0.16λ × 0.013λ is proposed in this section [6].
3D geometry of the proposed Vivaldi antenna.
A comparative study was undertaken as shown in Table 1 for different Vivaldi antenna that are used of GPR application in the same interesting operating frequencies [8, 9, 10, 11] to show that the proposed antenna gives compact size with higher gain from 250 MHz up to 10 GHz.
There are a number of techniques used for improving the parameters of printed antennas with different feeding techniques. These techniques include electromagnetic bandgap (EBG), metamaterial, and defected ground structure (DGS). EBG structure has gained popularity among all the techniques reported for enhancing the parameters due to its simple structural design. The periodical shapes are etched as square, mushroom, and circular shapes in the radiator or ground plane to achieve inductive and capacitive load to create band-stop characteristics and to suppress higher mode harmonics and mutual coupling.
The basic concepts, working principles, and equivalent models of the different shapes of electromagnetic bandgap structure (EBG) are presented [36]. EBG has been used in the design of the Vivaldi antennas for improving the bandwidth and gain of proposed antenna and suppressing the higher harmonics mode and mutual coupling between adjacent elements. In addition, the proposed antenna cross-polarization is improved for the radiation characteristics [6].
A relatively large number of published UWB Vivaldi antennas consist of a feed line and exponential ground plane. Our proposed antenna starts as shown in Figure 2(a) from one layer of FR4 low-cost substrate with conventional exponential Vivaldi tapered slot line shape using empirical Eq.(1) [4]:
The top view of Vivaldi antenna, (a) conventional Vivaldi, (b–d) modified Vivaldi antenna.
where
The symmetrical circular electromagnetic bandgap structure (EBG) slots are etched to increase the antenna bandwidth as shown in Figure 2(b). The modified version from the first one is obtained by slotting the two arms of the Vivaldi antenna.
To improve the bandwidth of the Vivaldi antenna, symmetrical semicircular slots are etched to increase the antenna bandwidth as shown in Figure 2(c). Figure 2(c) and (d) shows the geometry of the proposed antenna in two different configurations. The substrate used is FR4 dielectric substrate of thickness 1 cm, a relative permittivity of 4.4 and a loss tangent of 0.02.
Finally, dual FR4 substrates printed with Vivaldi ground plane with the same feeding line are used. The final geometry of the proposed antenna design with ground plane and feeding network is shown in Figure 3. This design is used to investigate a dual substrate layer of Vivaldi ground plane antenna as shown in Figure 3(a) with the same feeding network as shown in Figure 3(b). Proposed Vivaldi antenna consists of two layers from the dielectric sheet, the feeding line is sandwiched between them, and the two layers of metallic Vivaldi are mounted on the dielectric substrate (one at the top and the other at the bottom) as shown in three dimensions of the proposed Vivaldi antenna in Figures 1 and 7.
Geometry of the proposed Vivaldi antenna (a) ground plane and (b) feed line.
The reflection coefficients of the antenna versus frequency for the four-step design of Vivaldi antennas in frequency range from 0.25 to 10 GHz are shown in Figure 4(a), and the zooming range from 0.25 to 2 GHz is shown in Figure 4(b). The final antenna design achieves improvement in antenna impedance matching all over the band. The dimensions of the proposed antennas are shown in Table 2.
|S11| versus frequency for the design steps of the proposed antennas (a) whole operating band and (b) zoom on low operating frequency.
Ref. | L × W cm2 | Sub. thickness (cm) | Diel. properties | Gain (dBi) | BW (MHz) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[8] | 60 × 40 | 0.32 | εr = 4.4, tanδ = 0.02 | 9 | 500–1500 |
[9] | 60 × 30 | 0.315 | εr = 2.33, tan δ = 0.002 | 9 | 500–1500 |
[10] | 7.8 × 7.5 | 0.16 | εr = 4.4, tan δ = 0.02 | 8 | 1000–4000 |
[11] | 100 × 90 | 1 | εr = 4.4, tan δ = 0. 02 | 10 | 50–250 |
Ours | 13 × 12 | 2 | εr = 4.4, tan δ = 0.02 | 17 | 250–10,000 |
Comparison of the proposed antenna with other antennas (all dimensions in cm).
13 | 12 | 8 | 11.5 | 2.1 | 1.2 | 0.6 | |
3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 2.4 | 4 | 0.6 |
4.5 | 3.5 | 1.1 | 1.5 | 1.9 | 0.9 | 0.6 |
Dimensions of the proposed antenna (all dimensions in cm).
The surface current density distributions of the compact Vivaldi antenna is shown in Figure 5 at different resonant frequencies 0.4, 0.5, 0.75, 1.5, 1.75, and 2 GHz. The current distribution of the proposed antenna is studied to verify the operation of the proposed Vivaldi antenna. The exponential edge is responsible for the fundamental resonant frequency of the proposed antenna at 1.75 GHz as shown in Figure 5. The semicircular slots are etched to create the frequencies at 0.5 and 0.75 GHz. By adding stubs with different lengths, they are affecting the resonance from 1 to 2 GHz. The highest magnitude of current (red) is related to the corresponding radiating element. The simulated antenna gain of single and dual substrate is shown in Figure 6(a). The gain gives better performance by using dual substrate layer, and it increases from 8 to 17 dBi in average over the operating band from 0.2 to 2 GHz. The average radiation efficiency is around 80% over the operating band for dual substrate, while its value is 50% for single substrate as shown in Figure 6(b).
(a–f) Surface current densities for proposed Vivaldi antenna at 0.4, 0.5, 0.75, 1.5, 1.75, and 2 GHz, respectively.
(a) Vivaldi antenna gain variation versus frequency and (b) radiation efficiency versus frequency of the proposed antenna.
To validate the simulated results of the proposed antennas with single and dual substrate, they are fabricated by using printed circuit board (photolithographic) technology and measured by using Agilent vector network analyzer technologies “Field Fox” Microwave Analyzer N9918A 26.5 GHz. Figure 7 shows the photo of the fabricated antenna, feeding line, and Vivaldi antenna with dual substrate. The comparison between the measured and simulated results has been performed for the proposed Vivaldi antenna with single substrate that indicates good agreement.
Photo of the fabricated antenna, (a) top view of one substrate, (b) the feeding line, and (c) 3D of dual substrate.
Figure 8(a) shows the whole range of the operation presenting proposed antenna from 0.2 to 10 GHz, while Figure 8(b) shows the zoom-operating range from 0.2 to 2 GHz. The measured reflection coefficient of proposed Vivaldi antenna with dual substrate is shown in Figure 9. Figure 9(a) shows the whole range from 0.2 to 10 GHz, while Figure 9(b) shows the zoom-operating range from 0.2 to 2 GHz. One can notice that there is a slight difference between the measured and simulated results of the reflection coefficient due to soldering of feeding launcher and fabrication tolerances.
Reflection coefficient versus frequency for the proposed one substrate layer of Vivaldi antenna.
Reflection coefficient versus frequency for the proposed two substrate layers of Vivaldi antenna.
Figure 10 shows the three-dimensional radiation patterns of the proposed dual substrate Vivaldi antenna at different operating frequencies within the operating band at 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 GHz. The radiation patterns correspond to the axes shown in Figure 1. In the antenna, the radiator and the ground plane are participating to radiation. End-fire radiation pattern is an important requirement for ultra-wideband GPR application system. At lower frequencies of operation, the pattern resembles a conventional dipole antenna, but at higher end of the UWB spectrum, a few ripples are observed which is due to higher-order modes.
(a–d) 3D radiation pattern of dual layer substrate at 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 GHz, respectively.
From (i) to (iv) 2D radiation pattern at 0.5 GHz, 1 GHz, 1.5 GHz, and 2 GHz, respectively, of single and dual substrate (a) Φ°=0°, (b) Φ°=90°, of single and dual substrate, and (c) from (i) to (iv) θ=90° , (
Nowadays, quasi-Yagi printed antenna is extensively used in modern radar systems due to some advantages as high directivity, good radiation efficiency, affordable, low profile, and easy fabrication [33, 34, 35, 37]. However, the disadvantage of these antennas is narrow bandwidth, which achieves about 10%. So, the microstrip-fed quasi-Yagi antenna was initially introduced in 1991 [38] to improve the bandwidth of planar printed quasi-Yagi antennas, and many designs have been reported in [39]. A quasi-Yagi antenna based on microstrip-to-slot-line transition structure was presented in [40]. Modified wideband microstrip-to-coplanar strip-line (CPS) balun was used in quasi-Yagi antenna designs for increasing the antenna bandwidth [41]. Approximately 48 and 38.3% bandwidths were achieved by using the microstrip-to-coplanar strip-line transition structures in [42] and [43], respectively. However, the antenna bandwidths are still restricted by the delay line used in the balun structures. Coplanar waveguide feeding or ultra-wideband balun was presented to improve the bandwidth in some designs [44]. A broad bandwidth of 44% was obtained in [45]. However, the asymmetric nature of the printed quasi-Yagi antenna deteriorates the unidirectional radiation patterns. An ultra-wide band balun feeding structure in which the balun was realized via holes was used in quasi-Yagi antenna for wideband in [46]. Slot and CPS-fed feeding structures were also used in planar printed quasi-Yagi antenna to increase the bandwidth. The maximum available bandwidth of these techniques is about 55%. To improve the bandwidth of quasi-Yagi antenna by modifying the driver to a tapered driver or bowtie driver, rapid developing technology of remote sensing and radar has led to the ultra-wide band (UWB) electronic systems.
Figure 12 shows the geometric structure and parameters of the proposed planar quasi-Yagi antenna. This antenna is printed on commercial thick FR4 substrate and a thickness of 9.5 mm. The antenna consists of a microstrip-line-to-slot-line transition structure, a meandered driver T-shaped dipole and two meandered parasitic strips on top layer. The feeding system is printed on the other substrate side with lengths
The quasi-Yagi antenna configuration (a) upper and (b) bottom layer [
The traditional printed quasi-Yagi antenna started to resonate from 90 MHz as shown in Figure 13(a). Folded stub ground plane and driven dipole that is etched in order to reduce the size of the printed quasi-Yagi antenna, as shown in Figure 13(b), are employed. The ground plane width and the driver dipole length are equal. The antenna shown in Figure 13(b) has 80 MHz as the lowest frequency. Since the ground plane has reduced size, the bandwidth of the antenna is reduced. A driver meander dipole is etched to increase the electrical size of the antenna (Figure 13(c)). The antenna started to operate from 62.5 to 185 MHz. Two meandered stubs are symmetrically extended from its ground plane as shown in Figure 13(d). The reflection coefficients |S11| of the antenna design procedure are shown in Figure 14.
The compact printed quasi-Yagi antenna design steps [
Simulated |S11| of the design steps as shown in
As shown, the antenna consists of a circular balun feeding which takes the form of a curved microstrip line step transition, in addition to a printed dipole, a ground plane, and two parasitic strips. The larger dipole is located at a distance S away from the ground plane which has a greater length than the larger dipole itself, so it can act as a reflector. On the second size of the substrate, the two dipoles are located, their line length is 2.6 cm, and the two parasitic spacing was optimized using the reading-made software package HFSS ver.14 in order to improve the antenna performance which means that it has a wide bandwidth, stable radiation, moderate gain, and high front-to-back ratio.
In quasi-Yagi antenna design, metallic strip is always used as a director. To improve the directivity and impedance matching in the high-frequency band, the two metallic strips are used. The simulated surface current distributions of the proposed antenna at 50, 100, and 150 MHz are shown in Figure 15. The directors have weak surface current as shown in Figure 15, while the two parasitic strips have a large magnitude of surface current at 50 MHz. the largest value of surface current at resonant 100 MHz takes place at larger parasitic strip and the driven dipole. At 150 MHz, the current concentrates on the meandered driven dipole. Compared to Figure 15, the surface currents on the metallic strips are enhanced, which means that the effects of the parasitic strips as directors improved the antenna performance at the high-frequency band.
The surface current distribution of the printed quasi-Yagi antenna at (a) 50, (b) 100, and 150 MHz [
The antenna structure was optimized to operate at 100 MHz center frequency. The reflection coefficient against frequency for different values of
Effect of the length (a)
Effect of the length (a)
Effect of the length (a)
Increments of the spacing decreased the coupling effect between the parasitic element and the dipole induced significant changes in the reflection coefficient in the operating band region from 50 to 150 MHz, but negligible changes occur in the bandwidth.
In the high-frequency region of 100 MHz band, the antenna performance is affected mainly by the spacing between the driver and the director. The quasi-Yagi antenna and the T-dipole were designed to operate at 50 and 150 MHz, which shows that a suitable choice of this spacing is very important for the wideband operation of the proposed antenna.
The reflection coefficient
Effect of the length (a)
FMCW GPR system is used for the detection of underground water in the frequency range from 50 to 150 MHz. Figure 20(a) shows the radar system which requires a high-gain antenna to obtain acceptable scanning resolution. We used laboratory measurement and EM simulation in order to investigate the electrical and physical properties of the sand and fresh water. The simulated parameters depend on the Debye dispersive model inherent in HFSS software package. Figure 20(b) shows the study of the ground effect on the radiation characteristics of the antenna S11 projection. The distance
(a) The GPR antenna system for water detection and (b) the effect of K on proposed antenna reflection coefficient [
|S11|of the receiver antenna in different cases at
|S11| comparison between measured and simulated reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna [
The 3D radiation pattern at different resonant frequencies with and without sand layer
The 2D
A photolithographic technique on FR4 substrate with 100 μm copper thickness was used to realize the proposed antenna. A 50 Ω SMA launcher was used as a transition between the microstrip antenna and the coaxial line, which was not included in the simulation process. Rohde and Schwarz ZVA67 VNA was used to measure S11. The antenna gain and radiation efficiency are also tested as shown in Figure 23 in both cases namely free space and in the presence of sand layer. The antenna gain is also tested as shown in Figure 23 in both cases namely free space and in the presence of sand layer. The proposed antenna performance is investigated with and without sand layer as shown in Figure 20(a). The sufficient distance that keeps the antenna reflection coefficient near from free space is almost about 50 cm as shown in Figure 20(b). Figure 23 shows that the antenna radiation efficiency is increased at present of sand layer by 5%. While the antenna gain is reduced by about 1.5 dBi in the present of sand layer. The gain in the present of sand layer increases at certain resonant frequency due to increase in directivity and has value less than free space on the other resonant frequencies. The optimized antenna reflection coefficient is measured, and there is a good agreement with the simulated results. The measured bandwidth extends from 56 to 150 MHz for the −6 dB reflection coefficient, while the simulated bandwidth extends from 45 to 140 MHz. This bandwidth completely covers the specification for operation.
The antenna gain and efficiency with and without sand layer [
The slight difference between the measured and simulated reflection coefficient could be from misalignment between curved microstrip line and the circular slot of the balun and effect of the SMA connector, in addition to some fabrication tolerances.
The importance of aquifer water increased these days after decreasing the fresh water. A precise approach for the detection of buried nonmetallic objects is ground-penetrating radar (GPR). It should be importance of aquifer water increased these days after decreasing the freshwater. A precise approach for the detection of buried nonmetallic objects is ground penetrating radar (GPR). A novel, miniaturized, and low-cost antennas, which compromise between depth and resolution for different applications, are highly needed. This requires hundreds of conducting research activities in this area. However, although GPR has shown some promising results, the complexity of the problem requires certain challenges on the operation of GPR systems. One of the most serious hardware components for the performance of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is the antenna system. First, a new compact Vivaldi antenna is designed to achieve ultra-wideband extending from 0.4 to 10 GHz and high average gain of about 17 dBi with average radiation efficiency of about 80%. The proposed antenna consists of dual exponential Vivaldi shapes on both dielectric substrates with the same feeding network. The GPR results in frequency range extending from 0.4 to 2 GHz of the water detection have also been investigated under certain system parameters. Second, ultra-wideband printed quasi-Yagi antenna has been introduced. The proposed antenna has the advantage of simple single feed structure which consists of a circulator balun with a microstrip line and a circulator slot. The antenna bandwidth extends from 47 to 150 MHz based on −6 dB reflection coefficient. The gains at the upper and lower bands are 3.5 and 6.5 dBi. It should be noted that the proposed antenna has the advantage of simple structure and stable end-fire radiation pattern, which makes it widely used in ground-penetrating radar. The average simulated gain in this band is about 5 dBi. At the same time, this antenna possesses low profile and miniaturization characteristics. Furthermore, the wide beamwidth and high gain can promise the antenna to be widely applied in many communication systems.
Since the Federal legalization of cannabis medicines in Australia in 2016, cannabis has rapidly moved from being a recreational drug to a medicinal product. While it shows great therapeutic promise, one of the issues faced by clinicians in prescribing cannabis is the limited information available from high quality clinical trials across a broad range of indications. In order to generate this evidence, collaboration and sharing of knowledge between all stakeholders will be required to progress quality clinical trials of cannabis medicines. This paper discusses several issues that investigators have found when designing clinical studies using cannabis medicines as investigational products. These include cannabis medicine selection according to the indication(s) being studied, dosage form, dose range, drug-drug interactions, regulatory considerations, purchase and supply, purity and consistency of plant-based products, and industry engagement.
Over 120 phytocannabinoids have been identified in Cannabis sativa L. that have a diverse range of molecular targets [1]. Consideration of the type of cannabinoid and its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics is important when selecting products for clinical trials [2]. To date, research has focused heavily on cannabidiol (CBD) and ∆-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Cannabis medicine clinical trials can be located on clinical trial registries, such as the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR), ClinicalTrials.gov and WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) [3, 4, 5]. The selection of cannabis medicines for a particular indication in the context of a clinical trial requires researchers to consider several different factors.
Some trials have investigated a combination of cannabinoids. For example, in palliative care [6] and glioblastoma [7], THC and CBD have been trialed in the ratios of 1:1 and 4:1, respectively. Trials of CBD alone have been conducted in anxiety and schizophrenia [8] and refractory epilepsy (Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome) [9]. Nabiximols, an oral spray containing roughly equal parts CBD and THC and marketed under the trade name Sativex, has been studied in spasticity in multiple sclerosis [10], cannabis dependence [11], and neuropathic pain [12]. Dronabinol, an entirely synthetic form of THC has been trialed for anorexia and weight loss in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome [13] while dronabinol and nabilone, also a synthetic cannabinoid that is similar to THC but appears to be more potent, have both been studied in treatment-refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting [14]. Dementia studies have trialed THC, dronabinol, and nabilone [15].
These are only a few examples of numerous trials for different clinical indications and disease states. Many of these studies have had mixed results suggesting that proposed clinical trials, especially for diseases not already studied will require a thorough examination of in vitro and preclinical work to inform the selection of the cannabinoid formulation most appropriate for the disease under study.
To this end, there is an abundance of in vitro and in vivo studies being conducted on a variety of cannabinoids and in different formulations that over time, will help identify the principal components required of a cannabinoid for the disease being targeted [1]. As always, a detailed literature search is essential.
Several factors need to be considered when selecting a cannabis medicine for use in a clinical trial. Key features include the age of the patient cohort where participants may have limited dexterity in handling certain formulations, likely comorbid conditions that may affect drug absorption, and manufacturers\' ability to create a placebo that looks, tastes, and smells the same as the investigational product.
Several different dosage formulations can be selected. Table 1 describes the potential advantages and disadvantages of common dosage forms of cannabis medicines that may be considered for use in a clinical trial. Less common dosage forms such as rectal, vaginal, and intravenous are not discussed as they are generally less practical forms for a clinical trial in comparison with the forms discussed below [16].
Route of delivery | Dosage Form | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
Inhaled | Smoked or vaporized |
| |
Sublingual | Sprays, oils, tinctures, wafer |
|
|
Oral | Capsules, tablets, oils, tinctures |
|
|
Topical | Creams, patches |
|
Advantages and disadvantages of common dosage forms of Cannabis medicines when used in a clinical trial setting.
Currently, dosing information is only available for approved cannabis medicines, dronabinol, nabilone, nabiximols and Epidiolex (CBD). For unregistered cannabis medicines, there is no precise dosing recommendation. Pharmacokinetic variability of cannabinoids is very high both among and between cohorts and hence, dosing is highly individualized and dependant on the patient’s condition [21, 22]. Generally, the approach for cannabis dosing is to start low and go slow. The patient should be started on a low dose and gradually titrated until a therapeutic effect without any undesired side effect is achieved [23, 24, 25, 26].
Most patients take oral cannabis medicines 2–3 times per day. Epidiolex, a cannabis-derived form of CBD, is taken twice daily with a starting dose of 5 mg/kg/day up to a maximum dose of 20 mg/kg/day [27], while nabiximols is taken as 4 to 8 sprays/day (1 spray is equivalent to 2.7 mg THC and 2.5 mg CBD) up to a maximum of 12 sprays/day [28]. Frequency is dependent on the duration of action, which is in the order of 3–4 hours for inhaled products and 8–12 hours for oral products.
THC-dominant products can be taken at bedtime for days 1–2 to minimize undesirable daytime side effects such as dizziness or drowsiness and encourage tolerance of doses beginning at 2.5 mg of THC. If the dose is tolerated, the dosing can be doubled every 1–2 days until any undesired side effect(s) are experienced. In this event, patients are advised to revert to their previous dose [23].
CBD dominant products can be used at higher concentrations than THC products because they produce fewer adverse effects. Doses of CBD between 1 and 50 mg/kg/day improve psychotic symptoms, seizures, and anxiety [29]. An average CBD dose of 15 mg/kg/day showed positive significant reductions of seizure while CBD between 150 and 600 mg/day produced therapeutic effects in social anxiety disorder and insomnia. The maximum tolerated dose for CBD in humans is 1500 mg/day [30]. This data shows that CBD-dominant products have a higher therapeutic index than THC-dominant products. Patients are advised to keep a journal of their cannabis medicine dosing together with a record of their symptoms to aid in determining the optimal CBD dose for their particular condition.
There is variable evidence indicating other drugs interact with cannabis medicines, ranging from hypothetical concepts to documented clinical trial evidence [31, 32]. Interactions among drugs is particularly relevant in trials where a variety of pharmacologic products is being investigated. Drug-drug interactions may increase the active concentration of cannabinoids, enhancing the possibility of adverse effects, or they may decrease cannabinoid concentrations, compromising their physiologic effects [33]. The converse effect might be expected from the competing drug.
Examples of drug-drug interactions include blood pressure-lowering medications, warfarin [33], antiepileptic drugs (e.g. clobazam) [34], and central nervous system depressant medications, including opioids and benzodiazepines [35]. Researchers should keep in mind that drug-drug interactions can occur with cannabis medicines.
Clinical trials place stringent demands upon the availability of precise and reproducible formulations of the medicines under study. Unfortunately, the quality and consistency of supply of many cannabis medicines are not of a standard that would facilitate their use in most clinical trials. Indeed, while plant genetics can be tightly regulated through cloning techniques to minimize variability amongst cannabis plants, multiple factors can still alter the phytochemical profile of plant-based medicines, including environmental factors, time of harvest, manufacturing processes and storage conditions (reviewed in [36]). In Australia, to overcome this the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) has introduced guidelines for cannabis medicines and more recently the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has also introduced guidelines [37, 38]. Cannabis medicines used in clinical trials must align with the existing framework for the use of medications in clinical trials, and meet the requirements for human use of cannabis medicines set by the local regulator e.g. FDA, European Medicines Agency (EMA), TGA [39, 40, 41]. Local pharmaceutical, prescribing and holding regulations, approvals, and requirements for labelling, transport, and storage of investigational medicinal product for use in a clinical trial must also be confirmed prior to selecting and purchasing a product for a clinical trial [42, 43, 44].
Australia’s TGA approves the use of medicines in a clinical trial through their Clinical Trial Notification (CTN) scheme [41, 45]. Prescribed cannabis medicines must conform to Therapeutic Goods Orders No. 93 (Standard for Medicinal Cannabis) (TGO 93) and TGO 100 (Microbiological quality of medicinal cannabis products), among others [37, 46, 47]. Adherence to Good Manufacturing Process (GMP), and to federal and state pharmacy regulations, policies, and their respective drugs and poisons legislation is required [48, 49, 50, 51, 52]. Where the manufacture of cannabis medicine products will form part of a clinical trial, a license authorising manufacture for clinical trial use must be in place between the manufacturer and the TGA [44, 53].
Following product feasibility, risk review, and final selection, supply contracts should be developed for the purchase of the product(s) for the clinical trial, to document agreed requirements, roles, and responsibilities including:
Formulation (dose, volume, and form)
Packaging and labeling requirements (if required) must comply with Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention and Pharmaceutical Inspection Co-operative Scheme (PIC/S) Annex 13 [43, 44]
Consistency of supply (i.e. volume, consistency and purity of product supplied across the duration of the clinical trial) with an agreement to provide certificates of analysis with each batch to ensure purity and consistency in phytochemical profile
Availability of stock
Cost
Any regulatory fees, import permits as required, shipping costs
Insurance and indemnity
Access to data if appropriate (this may be an ethics committee decision)
Pharmacovigilance reporting responsibilities
Confirmation that all products under trial will meet and be maintained in compliance with International Conference for Harmonisation of technical requirements for pharmaceuticals for human use Good Clinical Practice (ICH- GCP) R6E2 requirements
An essential consideration of any cannabis clinical trial is the stability of the cannabis medicines and the robustness both of their supply chain and the methods used to assess their stability [54]. It is imperative that any medication under study is available via a reliable and continuous supply for the duration of the study and for any ethically approved post-study period. This is particularly important when utilizing plant-based sources that can have inherent variability compared to chemically-synthesized medicines of mainstream pharmaceutical products.
As the legal production of GMP-certified cannabis medicines that are suitable for clinical trials is limited to certain countries, securing appropriate supply may involve transportation across international and state borders. Export and import logistics, licensing, permits, and quarantine requirements may be a consideration to ensure adequate supply in a timely manner for the trial.
A diverse stakeholder cohort underpins all clinical trials. In cannabis research, most stakeholders—clinicians, researchers, regulatory bodies, and the medicinal cannabis industry—support the need for robust clinical evidence that informs the use of cannabis derived therapeutics. In Australia as in other countries, cooperation amongst stakeholders is essential to ensure the challenges associated with a complex regulatory environment are appropriately addressed. Furthermore, stakeholders have the responsibility of managing industry expectations and delivering a level of patient recruitment that leads to successful clinical trials as well as fostering more efficient and effective collaborations.
A lack of global consistency on quality standards presents a different challenge. Establishing collaborations and implementing common agreements with local industry provides a framework to share knowledge especially when accessing the GMP cannabis medicines produced in Australia. Moreover, importation of products for clinical trials requires authorization, first from the country to which the product will be imported and subsequently from the country from which the product will be exported. Industry stakeholders may be highly responsive and supportive, but response timelines of regulators on both ends of the importing process can be prolonged and unreliable and may impact continuity of supply for longer-term trials. In addition, the requirement to comply with local standards that are geographically specific and often unique to cannabis medicines, means that the supplier must be both willing and capable of meeting those standards. In practical terms, this requirement can constrain a research team to source cannabis medicines only from companies with an established local operation with experience in the current regulations. Without this experience the impost of ensuring compliance shall fall either on the supplier or the research project and is likely to be cost-prohibitive.
The design of clinical trials for cannabis medicines is a complex process. Before embarking on a clinical trial, researchers need to have a clear understanding of the potential therapeutic benefit cannabis medicines may have. This understanding will inform the selection of cannabis product, the formulation of the product and the dose to be tested. Researchers must also be aware of regulations that are applicable where the research is to be undertaken as well as regulations that may be imposed at the source of the cannabis product. The phytochemical consistency of plant-derived products can be solidified with further research and may assist the approval of additional botanical products to the cannabis medicines market, increasing options for clinicians and patients, as plant-based products may be preferred to chemically-synthesized or bioengineered medicines [55]. Importantly, collaborations with industry are key to the successful outcome of cannabis medicines clinical trials. Without significant investment and sponsorship of clinical trials, the ability to generate quality data will be limited and the evidence for cannabis medicines to be registered as therapeutics lacking. Collaborations between researchers, industry and regulators, working together in sharing knowledge will generate high quality cannabis medicines research.
We would like to thank the members of the Australian Centre for Cannabinoid Clinical and Research Excellence (ACRE) Guidance Writing Group for Clinical Trials in Cannabinoids: Selection, Purchase and Supply of Cannabis Medicines as Study Drugs in Clinical Trials members Prof Janet Hardy (Mater Cancer Care Centre) and A/Prof Phillip Good (Mater Cancer Care Centre) for their contribution to the development of this paper.
Author Disclosure Statement
Dr Peter Galettis, Dr Rachel Galettis and Mrs Courtney Hill are part of the Australian Centre for Cannabinoid Clinical and Research Excellence (ACRE), which is funded through the National Health and Medical Research Council’s Centres of Research Excellence Program. ACRE also receives funding through NSW Health’s Clinical Cannabis Medicines Program.
John Barlow is a consultant to Applied Cannabis Research.
Jaroslav Boublik is Chief Science Officer of LeafCann Group Pty Ltd, a privately held Australian federally licensed medicinal cannabis production company.
Myfanwy Graham is funded through NSW Health’s Clinical Cannabis Medicines Program.
Melinda Thompson is an alternate board member for the Medicinal Cannabis Industry Australia (MCIA)
Aaron Wong is Primary Investigator in a medicinal cannabis trial which is funded by the Victorian Cancer Agency.
SC, JSa, JS, PM, RR, LT, KW, & BZ – No competing financial interests exist
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"56330",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69932",title:"Russian Scientific Trends on Specific Language Impairment in Childhood",slug:"russian-scientific-trends-on-specific-language-impairment-in-childhood",totalDownloads:1940,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In Russia, there are many decades of experience in the scientific study of the problem of impaired language development in children. Today, the term “Systemic speech-and-language underdevelopment (SLU)” has firmly established in Russian science and practice, implying a complex developmental disorder of speech and language in children with a primary normal hearing and a conserved intellect, in which the main components of the language system are violated: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, and, as a consequence, dialogic and monologic speech. Traditionally, a differentiated level-by-level analysis of the speech and language abilities of children is used. The variability of the manifestations and severity of speech-and-language disorders were initially systematized and characterized in four levels of underdevelopment: from the complete absence of phrase speech to the availability of simple and complex sentences with lexico-grammatical errors. Effective algorithms of speech therapist work with SLU are introduced. The effectiveness of the application of these models and algorithms on the material of various language groups is proved.",book:{id:"5957",slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology"},signatures:"Tatiana Tumanova and Tatiana Filicheva",authors:[{id:"204529",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Volodarovna",middleName:null,surname:"Tumanova",slug:"tatiana-volodarovna-tumanova",fullName:"Tatiana Volodarovna Tumanova"},{id:"208704",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana Borisovna",middleName:null,surname:"Filicheva",slug:"tatiana-borisovna-filicheva",fullName:"Tatiana Borisovna Filicheva"}]},{id:"36452",doi:"10.5772/38931",title:"Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology",slug:"qualitative-research-methods-in-psychology",totalDownloads:35851,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"1997",slug:"psychology-selected-papers",title:"Psychology",fullTitle:"Psychology - Selected Papers"},signatures:"Deborah Biggerstaff",authors:[{id:"123274",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",middleName:null,surname:"Biggerstaff",slug:"deborah-biggerstaff",fullName:"Deborah Biggerstaff"}]},{id:"56560",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70235",title:"The Role of Speech and Language Therapist in Autism Spectrum Disorders Intervention – An Inclusive Approach",slug:"the-role-of-speech-and-language-therapist-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-intervention-an-inclusive-app",totalDownloads:2332,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The chapter describes the possibilities of involving a speech-language therapist in the assessment of the pragmatic level of communication in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), where one of the most frequently impaired areas is communication pragmatics. These difficulties lead to a disruption of social interaction, which might be one of the obstacles to speech-language intervention in these children. The text is based on an originally developed testing material aimed at selected pragmatic-oriented communication situations relating to everyday activities and real life. Based on a comparison of domestic and international resources in this area, as well as mediated and own empirical experience, our assessment approach is based on the conclusion that pragmatics can be understood in different contexts and perspectives. The text presents the results of a partial survey comparing the performance of children with ASD and children with typical development. The assessment focused on the children’s election of the correct picture of a pair of pictures that represent usual communication and social situations. The results of the research suggest fewer incorrect responses in children with ASD and in different areas compared with children with typical development. However, the results of a qualitative analysis indicate a necessity to expand the assessment of communication pragmatics by adding an individually specific qualitative analysis of children’s performance.",book:{id:"5957",slug:"advances-in-speech-language-pathology",title:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology",fullTitle:"Advances in Speech-language Pathology"},signatures:"Kateřina Vitásková and Lucie Kytnarová",authors:[{id:"203061",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kateřina",middleName:null,surname:"Vitásková",slug:"katerina-vitaskova",fullName:"Kateřina Vitásková"},{id:"212035",title:"MSc.",name:"Lucie",middleName:null,surname:"Kytnarová",slug:"lucie-kytnarova",fullName:"Lucie Kytnarová"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"73271",title:"Social Media and Its Effects on Beauty",slug:"social-media-and-its-effects-on-beauty",totalDownloads:2991,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Beauty is concerned with physical and mental health as both are intimately related. Short-term decisions to alter one’s body structure irrespective of genetic, environmental, occupational and nutritional needs can leave medium- and long-term effects. This chapter analyzes the role of social media and its effects on the standards of beauty. The researchers have summarized the literature on how social media plays a role in affecting beauty trends, body image and self-esteem concerns. There is support that social media affects individuals negatively, in pushing them to engage in life threatening beauty trends due to social compliance and acceptance in society. The aim was to review social networking sites’ impact on perception of standards of beauty and newer unrealistic trends gaining popularity that could alter opinions and also cause harm to individuals in the long run. This is an emerging area of research that is of high importance to the physical and mental health in the beauty, health and hospitality industry with the latter being manifested in depression, anxiety and fear of non-acceptability and being seen as a social gauche.",book:{id:"7811",slug:"beauty-cosmetic-science-cultural-issues-and-creative-developments",title:"Beauty",fullTitle:"Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments"},signatures:"Mavis Henriques and Debasis Patnaik",authors:[{id:"320016",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mavis",middleName:"Lilian",surname:"Henriques",slug:"mavis-henriques",fullName:"Mavis Henriques"},{id:"320978",title:"Dr.",name:"Debasis",middleName:null,surname:"Patnaik",slug:"debasis-patnaik",fullName:"Debasis Patnaik"}]},{id:"60564",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:6884,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"27237",title:"Emotional Intelligence",slug:"emotional-intelligence",totalDownloads:5728,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"679",slug:"emotional-intelligence-new-perspectives-and-applications",title:"Emotional Intelligence",fullTitle:"Emotional Intelligence - New Perspectives and Applications"},signatures:"Adrian Furnham",authors:[{id:"85492",title:"Prof.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Furnham",slug:"adrian-furnham",fullName:"Adrian Furnham"}]},{id:"70731",title:"Theoretical Perspective of Traditional Counseling",slug:"theoretical-perspective-of-traditional-counseling",totalDownloads:1582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical perspective of traditional counseling from an African context. Traditional counseling involves a broad perspective that enhances learning for transformation and integration of sociocultural values that are peculiar to each human society. A cursory review of the literature suggests that the concept of traditional counseling is rooted in traditional systems of knowledge and sociocultural customs and practices, and it promotes a collective approach to problem identification, resolution, and management. The traditional counseling process centers on four aspects: traditional counselor, client, family, and community. The key elements that inform the theoretical framework of traditional counseling from an African perspective are: cultural context, collective belief system, and initiation rituals Traditional systems of knowledge deemed essential for each generation are passed on successively to the next generation by elderly people who do not only have the necessary wisdom and experience, but are also adorned with social competences and skills.",book:{id:"9136",slug:"counseling-and-therapy",title:"Counseling and Therapy",fullTitle:"Counseling and Therapy"},signatures:"Hector Chiboola",authors:[{id:"314172",title:"Prof.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Chiboola",slug:"hector-chiboola",fullName:"Hector Chiboola"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7678,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"21",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82260",title:"Psychometric Analysis of an Instrument to Study Retention in Engineering",slug:"psychometric-analysis-of-an-instrument-to-study-retention-in-engineering",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105443",abstract:"Although engineering programs admit highly qualified students with strong academic credentials, retention in engineering remains lower than most other programs of study. Addressing retention by modeling student success shows promise. Instruments incorporating noncognitive attributes have proven to be more accurate than those using only cognitive variables in predicting student success. The Student Attitudinal Success Instrument (SASI-I), a survey assessing nine specific noncognitive constructs, was developed based largely on existing, validated instruments. It was designed to collect data on affective (noncognitive) characteristics for incoming engineering students (a) that can be collected prior to the first year and (b) for which higher education institutions may have an influence during students’ first year of study. This chapter will focus on the psychometric analysis of this instrument. Three years of data from incoming first-year engineering students were collected and analyzed. This work was conducted toward investigating the following research questions: Do the scale scores of the instrument demonstrate evidence of reliability and validity, and what is the normative taxonomy of the scale scores of first-year engineering students across multiple years? Further, to what extent did the overall affective characteristics change over the first year of study?",book:{id:"11441",title:"Psychometrics - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11441.jpg"},signatures:"Kenneth J. Reid"},{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",abstract:"The word senescence is derived from the Latin word “senex” (meaning old). In biology, senescence is a process by which a cell ages and permanently stops dividing. Senescence is a natural universal phenomenon affecting all living organisms (e.g., humans, animals, and plants). It is the process of growing old (aging). The underlying mechanisms of senescence and aging at the cellular level are not fully understood. Senescence is a multifactorial process that can be induced by several stimuli including cellular stress, DNA damage, telomere shortening, and oncogene activation. The most popular theory to explain aging is the free radical theory. Senescence plays a role in the development of several age-related chronic diseases in humans (e.g., ischemic heart disease, osteoporosis, and cancer). Lifespan is a biological characteristic of every species. The lifespan of living organisms ranges from few hours (with mayfly) to potential eternity (with jellyfish and hydra). The maximum theoretical lifespan in humans is around 120 years. The lifespan in humans is influenced by multiple factors including genetic, epigenetic, lifestyle, environmental, metabolic, and endocrine factors. There are several ways to potentially extend the lifespan of humans and eventually surpass the maximum theoretical lifespan of 120 years. The tools that can be proposed include lifestyle, reduction of several life-threatening diseases and disabilities, hormonal replacement, antioxidants, autophagy inducers, senolytic drugs, stem cell therapy, and gene therapy.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati"},{id:"81748",title:"Emotional Creativity",slug:"emotional-creativity",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104544",abstract:"Creativity encompasses and is influenced by several emotions. Emotional creativity is a critical component in the creative process. It is the ability to create something new through the influence of emotions evoked from the personal or experiences of others. Creative works inspired by emotions are often original and greeted with Euphoria. This chapter demonstrates how different emotions inspire different forms and levels of creativity with examples of notable artists who experienced emotional creativity. This chapter discusses research linking emotions to creativity and the explanations of how the identification and regulation of emotions, which are often referred to as emotional intelligence, make a difference in whether creativity becomes useful, helpful, or hurtful. The dark side of creativity, which occurs when creativity becomes hurtful instead of helpful, and research into its causes is also discussed in this chapter. An example of a notable figure in the twentieth century, i.e., Adolf Hitler who masterminded World War II, is used to demonstrate how emotions played a role in this phenomenon. A conclusion alluding to the fact that creativity or creative outcomes are not necessarily bad but the application of creative work and the ability to identify emotions and regulate or control the emotions to drive creative performance validates emotional creativeness.",book:{id:"11303",title:"Creativity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11303.jpg"},signatures:"Cynthia Naa Anyimah Botchway"},{id:"82097",title:"Including Religion in Rational-Emotive Behavior Counseling",slug:"including-religion-in-rational-emotive-behavior-counseling",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104980",abstract:"Cognitive-behavioral therapies (CBT) have been disseminated worldwide. This therapeutic approach is being considered some of the best empirically supported treatments for a large variety of psychological disorders. The core tenet of CBT is to restore mental health and promote psychological well-being by focusing on cognitive dysfunctional patterns that cause emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors. First, a general view of the basic principles and origins of cognitive-behavior therapies constitute the basis on which the chapter is built. Thereafter, a more in-depth discussion on specific forms of CBT, namely cognitive therapy (CT) and rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) provides further support for the integration of religion and psychological intervention. Next, a thorough analysis of the theoretical premises of this integration and the ways in which religious beliefs and psychological mechanisms merge in practice is provided. Finally, the REBT conceptualization, techniques, and strategies are illustrated in a practical situation; here, the relationship between religious beliefs and practices on the one hand, and irrational beliefs, dysfunctional emotions, and maladaptive behaviors, on the other hand, is easy to observe. The example provided aptly illustrates the many ways in which REBT can incorporate religious principles, beliefs, and practices; all of them, advocating for the harmonious relationship between Christian values and REBT.",book:{id:"11305",title:"Counseling and Therapy - Recent Developments in Theories and Concepts",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11305.jpg"},signatures:"Adrian Opre and Bianca Macavei"},{id:"82075",title:"Sexuality and Disability",slug:"sexuality-and-disability",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104325",abstract:"Sexuality and disability is an important topic in our global society. Dismantling myths about sexuality and disability is considered a final frontier for people with disabilities. Dismantling myths about sexuality and disability is vital to the overall health and well-being of people with disabilities. A major aspect of the dismantling process is to acknowledge that sexuality is a significant quality of life determinant for all human beings. This chapter provides information that will promote a healthier and more accurate view of Sexuality and Disability. Dismantling this last frontier involves providing the readership with relevant historical information; information about psychosocial factors and attitudes that influence sexuality; and information about ethical practice guidelines. Information pertaining to sexuality training, specific provider competencies and how select disabilities and chronic illness impact sexuality is also covered in the chapter.",book:{id:"11267",title:"Human Sexuality",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11267.jpg"},signatures:"Danita H. Stapleton, Sekeria V. Bossie, Angela L. Hall and Lovett O. Lowery"},{id:"81962",title:"Gender and Modern-Day Slavery: Aggression and Violence in the Context of a Nigerian Focus",slug:"gender-and-modern-day-slavery-aggression-and-violence-in-the-context-of-a-nigerian-focus",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104727",abstract:"This chapter explored the various forms of gender-based modern-day slavery in Nigeria. Such modern slaveries as baby factories (unlawful maternity and orphanages where children are sold and their mothers serve as ‘economic-slaves, sex-slaves, procreation-slaves, and money-ritual-slaves’), peonage (debt bondage), and early forced marriage were found to be common and on the increase in Nigeria and fundamentally precipitated by patriarchy. The predictors and risk factors of these slavery typologies were supported by the tenets of feminist and political economy theories, which formed the framework. A patriarchal society engenders inequalities, alienation, subjugation, aggression, violence, deprivations, and frustration, with women on the receiving end, when compared to men. The female population is largely the victim, while most perpetrators are males. The new, emerging trend in slavery enterprise are typically organised and largely motivated by women’s vulnerabilities and powerlessness, with dehumanising and destructive consequences. Arising from this is the conclusion that certain cultural practices and socioeconomic forces intertwine with poverty, lack of qualitative education, and other exclusions to expose women and girls to servitudes. The problem requires robust intersectoral approaches—that is, coordinated intervention, programmes, and collaborative efforts between governments and local authorities and institutions—to (re)solve.",book:{id:"11440",title:"Aggression and Violent Behaviour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11440.jpg"},signatures:"Mary Juachi Eteng and Macpherson Uchenna Nnam"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:50},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11970,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. 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