Spurces and pharmacological uses of selected plant-derived alkaloids.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10785",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Suicide",title:"Suicide",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The occurrence of suicide often startles those who knew the involved individual. The public often cannot believe that the person who committed suicide could have engaged in such a seemingly irrational and extreme act. Similarly, health agencies often find themselves at a loss as to what strategies or policies might be employed to stem the seemingly constant flow of suicide. This book carefully addresses sociological, psychological, and physiological factors that contribute to suicide. It also presents strategies that might be employed to reduce suicide by way of public policies, psychotherapeutic strategies, and neurophysiological interventions.",isbn:"978-1-83969-726-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-725-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-727-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94810",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"suicide",numberOfPages:86,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f8ad2d5c55e4551a2e1046369cae627f",bookSignature:"Robert W. Motta",publishedDate:"November 24th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10785.jpg",numberOfDownloads:921,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 19th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 7th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 6th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"262071",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert W.",middleName:null,surname:"Motta",slug:"robert-w.-motta",fullName:"Robert W. Motta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/262071/images/system/262071.jpeg",biography:"Robert W. Motta, Ph.D., ABPP, is Professor of Psychology and director of the Child and Family Trauma Institute at Hofstra University, New York. He formerly served as the chair of the Psychology Department at the same university and is the founder of Hofstra’s nationally accredited PsyD Doctoral Program. He has published more than 100 scientific papers and book chapters and has written two books: Alternative Therapies for PTSD: The Science of Mind-Body Treatments published by the American Psychological Association and Altered: A Trauma and PTSD Casebook. Dr. Motta is board certified in Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy and Behavior Therapy. He is a former president of the School Division of the New York Psychological Association, is licensed as a clinical psychologist, and certified as a school psychologist.",institutionString:"Hofstra University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Hofstra University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"281",title:"Sociology",slug:"sociology"}],chapters:[{id:"77988",title:"Dalit Suicide an Emerging Social Problem in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99320",slug:"dalit-suicide-an-emerging-social-problem-in-india",totalDownloads:194,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"There are various kinds of discrimination is prevailing in Indian Society. India is practising discrimination against the lower caste for many centuries. But in contemporary Indian Society, caste-based discrimination is becoming a matter of grave concern for committing suicide. Caste-based discrimination is surviving in Indian society. In many cases of caste discrimination, Dalits were persecuted by the upper caste of Indian society for demanding education, employment, and equal social status. Every year several Dalits were committing suicide due to atrocities and discrimination. The present study will understand the nature of suicide among Dalits due to social discrimination and explores the factors affecting Dalit suicide. The data on suicide have been collected from 2011 to 2021 through various newspapers, magazines, journals and articles.",signatures:"Avanish Bhai Patel and Sumant Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77988",authors:[{id:"308238",title:"Dr.",name:"Avanish Bhai",surname:"Patel",slug:"avanish-bhai-patel",fullName:"Avanish Bhai Patel"},{id:"357222",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumant",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sumant-kumar",fullName:"Sumant Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"77921",title:"Suicide: A Public Health Problem in Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99071",slug:"suicide-a-public-health-problem-in-brazil",totalDownloads:206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This text focuses on the situation of suicide in Brazil, defines and quantifies information, and presents a description of the main risk factors, as well as a reflection on the phenomenon and the possibilities for prevention. Fatal suicide is a serious public health problem. In 2012, 172 member states of the World Health Organization registered 804,000 self-inflicted deaths, representing an annual rate of 11.4/100,000, of which 15/100,000 men and 8.0/100,000 women. Consummate suicide rates are unevenly distributed globally, within countries, according to sex and according to age groups. The mortality rate is highest in Asia (17.7/100 thousand inhabitants), followed in Europe (12/100 thousand inhabitants). The Americas have a mortality rate of 7.3/100 thousand inhabitants (WHO, 2014). In Brazil, with an unevenly distributions between the regions, gender and ages, the total rate is 4.5/100,000. In the country and everywhere, risk factors are classified as medical, psychiatric and psychological, micro social, social and environmental. The history of the occurrence of suicides shows that it is possible to prevent them and to reduce the incidence rates. This requires investment in local diagnostics and multidisciplinary action. Given the delicacy of the problem and the taboos that surround it, the protection network for people at risk for suicide needs to be constantly in the process of training and taking action. As national and international surveys show, at least two-thirds of the individuals who tried or committed suicide had somehow communicated to friends, family, acquaintances or health professionals their intention to kill themselves.",signatures:"Maria Cecília de Souza Minayo and Camila Alves Bahia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77921",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77921",authors:[{id:"198978",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Cecília",surname:"De Souza Minayo",slug:"maria-cecilia-de-souza-minayo",fullName:"Maria Cecília De Souza Minayo"},{id:"417623",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",surname:"Alves Bahia",slug:"camila-alves-bahia",fullName:"Camila Alves Bahia"}],corrections:null},{id:"78040",title:"Risk Suicide, Anxiety, and Coping Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99618",slug:"risk-suicide-anxiety-and-coping-strategies",totalDownloads:109,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this paper, we sought to examine the levels of suicidal risk and anxiety, as well as the coping strategies used in a sample of 154 Spanish university students, most of them first-year students, during the situation of confinement and the pandemic. After approval by the Ethics Committee, instruments for the evaluation of these constructs were administered. An ex post facto design was used. A high level of suicide risk was not found in the sample. Statistically significant differences were found in the levels of suicidal risk and anxiety according to gender, with higher scores in both variables for women. Likewise, the coping strategies of self-criticism and social withdrawal show direct associations with the levels of suicidal risk. We conclude by pointing out the relevance of the data obtained for a more effective design of psychoeducational interventions to face these public health problems with the training of effective coping strategies.",signatures:"Francisco Manuel Morales Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78040",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78040",authors:[{id:"357520",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco Manuel",surname:"Morales Rodríguez",slug:"francisco-manuel-morales-rodriguez",fullName:"Francisco Manuel Morales Rodríguez"}],corrections:null},{id:"77918",title:"The Fallacy of Happiness: A Psychological Investigation of Suicide among Successful People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99425",slug:"the-fallacy-of-happiness-a-psychological-investigation-of-suicide-among-successful-people",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"There are three feelings that prompt a person to take their life: hopelessness, helplessness and worthlessness. Studies have found that the risk of suicide increases with decreasing happiness. In the recent past, people have been left clueless when celebrities and successful people ended their lives despite appearing overtly happy. What prompted them to do so? Modern society today highlights the importance of success over failure. Although we are motivated to be successful in life, it should not become our main gauge of happiness. In the same way we should not let success be our main goal in life and get discouraged by failure. Happiness has been viewed in two ways: as concerning the well-being of a person, and as the opposite of depression. Each one of us has different ways of measuring happiness. The quality of one’s happiness depends on one’s priorities in life. Happiness is not merely something that can be quantified with how much success and failure one has because such metric is very much subjective. How do we prevent a young life from extinguishing? How do we identify suicidal behavior among successful people and help those around? The present chapter covers the possible reasons why successful people commit suicide. Role of media in preventing suicide and measures for preventing suicide by successful people has been discussed.",signatures:"Nishi Misra and Shobhna Srivastava",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77918",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77918",authors:[{id:"308037",title:"Dr.",name:"Nishi",surname:"Misra",slug:"nishi-misra",fullName:"Nishi Misra"},{id:"425053",title:"Ms.",name:"Shobhna",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"shobhna-srivastava",fullName:"Shobhna Srivastava"}],corrections:null},{id:"77672",title:"Suicide Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Pathogenesis and Neurocognitive Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99259",slug:"suicide-following-traumatic-brain-injury-pathogenesis-and-neurocognitive-mechanisms",totalDownloads:148,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with varied neuropsychiatric sequelae, including elevated risk for later suicidal behaviors (SBs). This chapter provides a qualitative narrative review of hypothesized biological and neurocognitive mechanisms linking TBI to subsequent SBs. The following selective review specifically highlights: (1) Structural and functional alterations to neural circuitry secondary to common head injuries (e.g., concussions or mild TBI) as well as severe or repetitive TBI (e.g., chronic traumatic encephalopathy); (2) Overlap between post-TBI neuropsychological deficits and proposed bio-behavioral indicators of suicide risk; and (3) Potential neurocognitive mediators of the relationship between TBI and SBs, with a particular focus on executive functions involved in self-regulation (i.e., cognitive and affective inhibitory control) and their neural substrates, e.g., corticolimbic, frontostriatal, and frontoparietal circuitry. The chapter concludes with theoretical and practical implications of this shared pathophysiology, based on the reviewed empirical literature.",signatures:"Kenneth J.D. Allen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77672",authors:[{id:"414673",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Kenneth J.D.",surname:"Allen",slug:"kenneth-j.d.-allen",fullName:"Kenneth J.D. 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Every day, we are inundated with information about various leaders worldwide who have taken charge and solved yet another global problem in the right way. Solving any problem, unfortunately, can only restore the equilibrium that existed before the problem occurred. There is a lack of information on how crises arising from dynamic changes and emerging risks in the external environment can create favorable conditions for other leaders who see these as an opportunity to seek the path of innovation, develop their potential and transform into a more favorable outcome.
The positive effects of quality management have long been established in the scientific literature. If we compile a basic list of these effects, it would undoubtedly include cost reductions, better relationships with suppliers and customers, just-in-time deliveries, reduced waste, increased added value for customers, and better conditions for developing market potential. These benefits can also be applied to quality management in logistics.
Logistics is a key activity for any business idea. The challenges of market change require continuous improvement of supply chain performance and, in this process, quality improvement through risk analysis is important. Risk is always associated with uncertainty, therefore, to reach a new improved level of logistics services, processes must be managed and analyzed with appropriate methods. Quality management is based on conditional variables that are determined by the changing market conditions in a specific time span. Modern logistics firms are increasingly focused on improving supply chain performance, where improvement with quality management is the primary mechanism for achievement. This study seeks to identify the ways to achieve better business process performance in logistics services through the application of basic quality and risk management tools. There is no single correct approach or the best tool for quality management in logistics. It is necessary to find an approach that incorporates contingencies and the current market situation and to analyze and identify an effective service improvement strategy applicable to the changing circumstances. The research approach is to look for the synergistic effect of quality and risk management by applying appropriate tools for their integration based on the definition of the applicable conditional variables in the specific existing situation.
In late 2019, a new type of viral disease called coronavirus (COVID-19) was discovered in the provincial capital of Hubei [1, 2, 3] and within a few months, its spread spanned the globe. Many researchers support the view that urbanization and increasing population density are major catalysts for the spread of COVID-19 [3, 4, 5]. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has forced authorities worldwide to introduce restrictions and bans on the movement of people and goods throughout the supply chain. In response to these challenges, most countries have announced national travel and transport bans to certain regions [6]. The introduction of restrictions has become a huge challenge for all logistics stakeholders [2, 7], which include producers, municipal authorities, inspection bodies, medical practitioners, household purchasing decision-makers, managers deciding on the organization of order fulfillment in the supply chain, and many others [8, 9, 10]. The constraints and longer vehicle dwell times at border controls and entry and exit points in the country of delivery have necessitated an increase in shipping costs and prevented the necessary quantities of essential goods from being secured and stock reserves replenished. One of the conditions for quality management in logistics—those goods arrive on time—became an unenforceable condition for deliveries from locations where COVID-19 restrictions were imposed.
Quality management decisions in logistics activities during this period were driven by the importance of the role of logistics in supply management and the constraints introduced by government authorities. During a pandemic, stockpiling essentials and personal protective equipment for the population is a difficult challenge for the entire logistics chain [2, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The threat of the rapid spread of disease requires logistics organizations to respond quickly to ensure the seamless supply of personal protective equipment, disinfectants, medicines, medical supplies, essential foods, among others [2, 3, 4, 15, 16].
The constraints create risk-laden conditions managing the quality of logistics processes and making effective decisions related to capacity, choice, and use of means of transport, and compromise the performance of the supply chain processes [17, 18, 19, 20, 21].
The high population density in large population centers and living close to large retail chains have limited the ability to supply less accessible and remote areas with the same resources. A cost-effective method of redistribution through logistics was not implemented in the short term. The effort to limit the spread of the virus has created unaffordable conditions for the implementation of basic logistics activities and services. Household decision-makers reacted quickly to the changed conditions and stocked personal protective equipment and invested in commodities that had a limited shelf life, which required them to be discarded at a later stage. Fear of the shortage of goods anticipated due to the restrictions on the movement of vehicles created panic in the population [22, 23, 24] and, consequently, a glut of goods. This process triggered a new wave of shortages throughout the supply chain caused by the irregularity of consumption compared to the previous period and the depletion of goods due to overstocking [16, 25]. Households did not make purchase decisions based on their actual and expected consumption for future time periods.
The pandemic has forced households to increase their online purchases and reduce their visits to retail outlets [26, 27, 28], even for necessities and everyday purchases. Traditional order fulfillment approaches proved inadequate for the changed market conditions as consumers demanded that logistics service providers fulfill their orders within the day or within a few hours [29]. Some retail logistics chains have proved unprepared to provide their customers with full online real-time delivery traceability and prioritize task fulfillment by optimizing the solution of the same tasks on the fly. The introduction of various supply chain applications has allowed the most proactive in the industry to perform full supply chain traceability and help share information quickly with customers when deliveries are delayed.
The surge in essential goods has hampered all logistics operations in delivering on time [30, 31, 32] and resulted in an inability to meet planned and agreed quantities between the business partners managing them.
The COVID-19 pandemic forced rapid changes in logistics development and catalyzed the creation of new business models for query management. The path to adapt to the new normal requires the introduction of more automated processes and technologies to facilitate the processing of requests coming in via e-commerce [33]. There is a requirement to introduce a new, rethought supply chain business approach based on trust, value-added processes, and tolerance when contractual terms cannot be met because of restrictions. To achieve compliant logistics service performance is increasingly impossible without coordination between all stakeholders and real-time decision-making. Dynamic changes in the environment have become a major factor for quality process performance requiring a high degree of synchronization and collaboration [34, 35, 36, 37].
These developments have positively impacted inventory turnover but caused a boom in order fulfillment wherein quality control processes for performance management have been limited and, in some cases, even neglected. Reduced process controls have worsened the performance quality of set execution procedures. Quality management in logistics is concerned with delivering products on time, in the required quantity, and at the location specified by the customer. Due to the irregularity of deliveries resulting from the above reasons, warehouse space proved insufficient to cover the restocking of goods for increased consumption. The inadequacy of the existing infrastructure to conduct logistics operations, warehousing bottlenecks, and the breakdown of agreements between stakeholders on the supply and distribution of essential food and medical supplies are among the most debated topics in the literature [38, 39].
The increased frequency of emergency deliveries has necessitated the commitment of additional resources for the implementation of logistics processes, which are not always available during crisis situations and, therefore, has hampered the efficiency of processes and deteriorated the quality of their implementation. Accordingly, planned audits of the logistics quality management systems were not carried out and, in many cases, these were not carried out in their entirety and according to the planned measures. This created the conditions for impaired decision-making that ignored one of the basic data-driven principles of logistics quality management and caused confusion and delays in meeting agreed and contracted delivery quantities. Overstocking of products has also deteriorated the quality of value-added services, such as additional picking, repacking, and labeling. Overstocking of warehouse space has significantly impaired the implementation of replenishment policies as stock capacity is limited. The overloading of warehouse staff has delayed the decision-making about time schedules and workforce allocation.
Maintaining the quality of logistics services during a pandemic requires making the right and meaningful efforts to address the challenges posed by a dynamic changing environment. The application of a multidisciplinary approach and the coordination between all stakeholders actively involved in logistics processes have the potential to limit quality deterioration and other inconsistencies and are, perhaps, the only prerequisite for the success of these activities. Lack of coordination creates uncertainty in the fulfillment of customer requirements and implementation of planned quality management activities in logistics.
The risk of quality deterioration in logistics services increases manifold due to inefficient communication with customers in the event of delivery-related difficulties and reverse logistics of goods returned due to delays. Quality management in logistics has the potential to help ensure the proper distribution of essential goods during the period of retrenchment.
Some factors affecting supply chain management operations during a pandemic [40, 41, 42], have been the subject of many scientific publications and have been studied by several authors [43]. Quality assurance in logistics processes creates the prerequisites of a positive image for logistics brands to achieve a lasting trend of customer loyalty and competitive advantage [44, 45]. During the COVID-19 crisis, quality assurance was mainly related to the safety of supply and the reliability of supply chains.
Therefore, to build the resilience of logistics processes in the face of dynamic environmental changes and emerging supply security risks and threats, organizations need to more clearly and accurately analyze the factors that help establish and ensure logistics service quality and customer satisfaction.
The study identifies the key factors that help to make the right logistics decisions for quality management in times of risk and dynamic changes in the environment. During a crisis from the external environment, the results show that quality management is introduced after the fact and is mainly related to corrective rather than preventive actions. This calls for a more in-depth investigation and concrete solutions for quality management through risk management in logistics, which is the main objective of the analyses in the different chapters of this study.
Replace the entirety of this text with the introduction to your chapter. The introduction section should provide a context for your manuscript and should be numbered as the first heading. When preparing the introduction, please bear in mind that some readers will not be experts in your field of research.
Considering the rapid changes in market conditions worldwide and as a result of the measures taken to physically distance and restrict access to ports due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there is no active physical communication between the user and the logistics service provider. Well-known quality assessment methods in most cases provide for such a communication and survey of user expectations. Some of the variables studied in these methods assess the logistics environment and evaluate the customers’ direct communication at the physical level of the employees performing the services (e.g. uniform and appearance).
This chapter presents some of the main and most popular methods, their key parameters, advantages, and disadvantages in their application for discussion. The most applicable models that have the potential to be used for quality assessment, in particular for the assessment of logistics services, are studied.
The study of the different service quality management models aims to assess their suitability and adequacy or need for improvement. Different standards and good practices for quality management have been practically identified, which, of course, also have different objectives. This makes their application difficult because often no clear distinction is made between a specification (which sets out requirements) and codes of good practice (recommending a course of action) in their use.
Customers have been found to rate the quality of service whether it is good or poor [46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51]. Scholars opine that service quality is determined by the differences between expectations and perception of the service received [52, 53, 54]. It is undisputed that service quality is essential. What happens when the quality of logistics services is higher than expected and how to prevent the negative impact of various risk factors that could compromise high quality? Some researchers believe that customer satisfaction with the quality of certain services will determine the failure or success of a company [44, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. The main problem with measuring the quality of any service is related to its inherent characteristics: intangibility [65, 66], heterogeneity, and indivisibility. Accordingly, quality cannot be measured before the service is provided to the customer, unlike goods whose quality can be measured at any time [67]. Researchers agree that measuring the level of service quality is difficult but they have conflicting views on how logistics organizations overcome this difficulty in practice, regardless of what assessment methodology is used. Some researchers have segmented the market based on different types of logistics services [68, 69], some have studied the level of logistics services by different economic sectors [70], and others have studied the level of quality by geographical market segmentation, such as Vietnam [48], India [71], and Serbia [72].
Quality management activities are related to compliance with many standardization documents—various technical specifications, manuals, process management codes, and guidelines by various international organizations [73]. An important difference between standards and other documents is the level of consensus required for their approval. Standards and technical specifications contain requirements to which processes or services must conform (normative requirements), whereas other types of documents contain only recommendations. The main problem associated with quality assessment in the service area is the contradiction between the customers’ and service providers’ perceptions of quality service. Customers want to receive services of the highest quality according to their perceptions of excellent quality and service providers are looking for solutions that match their requirements and expectations.
Logistics firms have long viewed logistics not just as an area for cost improvement, but as a key source of competitive advantage within the firm’s overall marketing efforts. The quality performance of all these processes requires the integration of different activities and compliance control for pre-set criteria.
Researchers note that there are some basic and critically important indicators for the perception of consistent logistics service quality: timeliness [69, 74, 75, 76, 77], availability [78], and order compliance.
Although many researchers support the view that logistics services complement the marketing efforts of sales organizations, there is a lack of well-founded evidence on the meaning of logistics service quality and its essential attributes for customer evaluation. Little research has been done to identify the differences in quality assessment attributes for different market segments and, consequently, how these attributes change under the impact of risks from the external environment. There is also insufficient research on the impact of dynamic environmental changes on quality management models and concepts in logistics in particular. The different attributes for assessing the quality of logistics services differ for each market segment and they are radically different for services that customers request over the Internet and through direct contact. This suggests that firms need to adapt their logistics services to changes in the external environment and customer orientation primarily toward Internet commerce during the pandemic.
Adding unobservable attributes that are essential to customers’ perceived value of logistics services to the traditionally measured set of operational attributes to evaluate services.
Quality management involves the management of processes in a unified system. Logistics processes require efforts to be focused on the delivery of material flows by managing the selection and supplier performance improvement to just-in-time delivery of goods and customer service.
When measuring and analyzing quality in logistics, the first step is to determine the appropriate attributes for their corresponding level. Delivery time is the most used metric. There is no need for evidence confirming delivery delays as the most frequent cause of deterioration in the expected level of quality and customer dissatisfaction. Timeliness of delivery is cited by many researchers as the most important indicator for measuring quality [79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. Among the most important quality indicators in logistics, the following have been mentioned by various sources: the quantity of orders fulfilled (matching the requested items), the quantity of orders processed per unit time, timely and complete product delivery information given to customers, personal contact with staff, the accuracy of fulfilled orders, the status of products received in orders, and prompt and timely response to order discrepancies. The impact of the logistics firm’s corporate image, the ability to handle non-standard logistics services, and the ability to technically execute the service are examined as additional indicators to assess quality.
These metrics have priorities differing by industry, such as when logistics is part of the functional departments of manufacturing companies the metrics are related to on-time delivery, error-free delivery, and lead time. In transport logistics, the quality assessment attributes are mainly: reliability of delivery, assurance of performance, payment options, and transfer of insurance and other risks. An interesting indicator that has become increasingly important in recent years is the possibility of reverse logistics and buyback.
Logistics service quality indicators are associated with several possible attributes:
Indicators related to export and import procedures. Nordås and Grosso have an interesting study on the impact of lengthy export and import procedures on logistics processes and the creation of strict trade barriers [97]
Indicators related to lead time:
Process performance indicators:
Quality of feedback and personal contact with employees in the logistics company [80, 111]
Conditions in the customer request related to minimum quantity or promotional offer [78]
Accuracy of the prepared request in accordance with the customer’s preferences [112]
The use, acceptance, and exchange of information with customers [78, 113, 114, 115]
The procedures for the preparation of requests [116]
Increase the number of requests sent by customers [117, 118]
Quality of requests related to promotional items and value of the total requested quantity [74, 119]
Speed and authority in handling discrepancies in the preparation of requests [111]
Customer satisfaction [54, 67, 120, 121, 122, 123]. Customer satisfaction depends on many factors related to the perceived quality of services provided, the emotional state of customers, social interaction, customer experience, and other specific subjective factors. Several researchers support the view that customer satisfaction with service quality is not an objective assessment of the actual situation but an emotional factor. Customer satisfaction is primarily associated with the evaluation of process outcomes and can be viewed as a positive evaluation of the service by the customer (Figure 1).
Key indicators for measuring logistics service quality.
The literature describes many quality assessment methods that can be used to help service providers understand whether they are partially or fully meeting client requirements. The differences in methods are based on different criteria for assessing the mismatch between clients’ expectations of the service and their perception of the service consumed. It is generalizable about all methods that to conduct them, information from the customers’ service evaluation needs to be analyzed, which means that customers are actively involved in the process. How can prospective customers who have not yet received the service evaluate it? These surveys, therefore, involve customers who have already received services. The whole market is relevant for the logistics organization, specifically, why did the other customers in logistics choose the competitor’s company? Another question that arises is how the opinion of those who do not use logistics companies but build their own logistics departments within production sites can be investigated.
The Grönroos model surveys a sample of business managers who are users of an existing and used service to test its perceived quality [46, 124]. Grönroos’ study supports the view that quality indicators are interrelated and there is a causal relationship between them. Quality assessment under this model compares the customer’s expected and perceived quality of service to measure user satisfaction. Grönroos identifies three components of service quality, namely: technical quality; functional quality; and image quality [124] (Figure 2).
Components of the Grönroos model (adapted [
The main criticism of Grönroos model is that this model does not assign different weighting factors to the overall evaluation of the service delivered, but only emphasizes the importance of functional quality. This critical flaw prevents the result of the measurement by the model to be an objective evaluation with practical application, but only stating the factors are interrelated. Several researchers have studied the method [125] and others have explored its practical application [126, 127]. Some researchers have criticized the method, empirically proving that there is no causal relationship between technical quality, image, and perceived quality and the relationships between these three aspects of quality are not significant [128]. To date, the paper describing the method has been cited 12,219 times in other scientific publications according to the Google Science website.
The European Customer Satisfaction Index (EPSI) model, first introduced in 1999 as a method for modeling and predicting customer satisfaction, has been extensively studied by many researchers in the field of quality management [129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134]. This method is based on the seven indices of the EPSI summary index. Sweden was the first country to introduce the index as the main method to measure customer satisfaction in different industries (SCSB). In 1994, the method was adapted to the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) [134, 135]. A few years later, after several publications and recommendations from the EOQ (European Organization for Quality) and EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management), the EPSI was established as the main tool for measuring customer satisfaction in Europe [136, 137, 138]. When customer satisfaction is measured through surveys, several key issues arise, the main one being the collection and aggregation of survey data.
This issue is defined more clearly and determined by the structure and content of the satisfaction survey questionnaire and the method by which the sample size will be determined.
The Logistics Performance Index (LPI) is an indicator that measures the performance of retail supply chains or logistics performance and is produced by the World Bank every 2 years. Comparative data on the composite indicators of the index for the last 5 years are presented in Figure 3. The data defining the index was collected through a survey of international academic institutions, organizations, and individuals active in the global logistics market. Respondents assign scores by rating the result on a scale from 1 (worst) to 5 (best). Each of the indicators measured relates to an assessment of the overall level of skills and quality of logistics services and the scores are averaged across all respondents.
Logistics performance index. Source: Compiled from World Bank data (database: LPI), last updated: 10/29/2019, available at:
Trade and transport have been found to stimulate economic development and improve national competitiveness. The index allows these developments to be compared against the same reliable logistical criteria. The World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index (LPI) is this unique comparative tool. For example, the aggregated Logistics Efficiency Index (2018) ranks Bulgaria 52 out of 160 countries with an average score of 3.03. Some of the examined parameters by year, assessed on a 5-point rating scale, are presented in Figure 3.
The competence indicator of those engaged in logistics services at the national level throughout the reporting period has little variation in the scores awarded by the experts. The report, published after the survey, examined the direct correlation between deteriorating service quality indicators as a trade barrier and foreign direct investment in the sector [139].
The assessment of the logistics quality level must, of course, be evaluated by each market segment and, as a prerequisite, customer satisfaction must be surveyed. Negative assessments of quality are, in most cases, caused by risks that have not been sufficiently managed, for which a root cause analysis is necessary. Opportunities exist to assess user satisfaction and take prompt corrective action in cases with understated ratings. Quality is defined as “the degree to which a set of intrinsic characteristics of an object satisfy requirements” and a necessary condition for measuring quality is to define these requirements.
The requirements for logistics services originate from not only customers but also legislation applicable to the activity, stakeholders, and many others. The task is to ensure compliance with quality requirements and eliminate or minimize the impact of risks from logistics services or processes.
The need to integrate a multitude of activities requires quality management to focus on rapid change and flexibility in addressing the risks for the logistics organization to adapt to rapidly changing external circumstances.
In the last decade, the SERVQUAL model has been the most popular method for assessing service quality, which was first stated by Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry in 1985 [67]. One of their articles, of only 14 pages, has nearly 6000 references to date [120] and the original article of 9 pages has nearly 37,000 references [67], while the improved methodology 3 years later has 40,000 [121].
The SERVQUAL model is a framework for service management [140] incorporating the core tasks of quality management with a focus on service quality. The main purpose of the SERVQUAL model is the comparison between perceptions and expectations that determine quality assessment and customer satisfaction.
The issue at hand is to measure customer expectations of logistics services given that the manifestation of these expectations is directly dependent on how customers interpret the environmental factors influencing the formation of expectations. The problems are exacerbated by the fact that some influencing factors may be within the control of the logistics firm, and therefore predictable, but other factors, such as psychological factors, are directly dependent on the customers themselves. Thus, logistics companies are challenged to ensure a clearer picture of their customers’ expectations, which can be the basis to chart a concrete path toward meeting it more fully. The SERVQUAL model may be applied to achieve this goal, which refers to the following three main postulates (Figure 4).
Main postulates of the SERVQUAL model source: [
The main analyses to be performed by logistics firms when applying the model are shown in Figure 5.
CAP analyses of the SERVQUAL model in logistics services source: Adapted [
The model used to conduct the main analyses and which can be used by logistics companies are shown in Figure 6.
SERVQUAL model processes in logistics services. Source: Adapted from Parasuraman, Zeithaml, Berry [
There are many different views on quality management in logistics. Perceptions of consistent quality in logistics services are quite different from the perspective of the activity manager and customer. Too often the quality criteria of the customer are quite different from those of those providing the logistics service. These reasons necessitate an exploration of different perspectives and appropriate means and methods to resolve the differences in these perceptions. Defining service quality is even more difficult than product quality. The main criteria for service quality are reliability and individual treatment by the organization providing them. To achieve compliance with these indicators, all employees must be involved in its management to conduct the activity, which meets the customer’s expectations. Unfortunately, there are fundamental differences between the ways that different departments of an organization perceive quality. The main reason for the emergence of non-conforming logistics processes is precisely this difference in perceptions of conforming quality as well as underestimation of its importance to the prosperity of the company.
The ways to solve these problems are related to effective communication and smoothing the differences between the different functional areas to achieve a service that meets the customer’s needs. The task becomes more complex when you add the impact of external and internal environmental changes on the matching quality criteria for a particular supply, service, or process by regulators and stakeholders.
Risk management in logistics and supply chains has been studied by many researchers. Their results confirm that mitigation opportunities depend on multiple interrelated factors and each of them can be the cause of drastic risk reduction if used wisely.
Most studies agree that adequate planning for the diversity of service offerings is the critical causal factor and can unlock a series of risk mitigation responses throughout the supply chain [141, 142, 143, 144]. The next most important cause is the flexibility of supply contracts [142, 145, 146, 147, 148].
These major risks can be managed if, based on the cause-effect relationships between different factors, work is done to reduce the overall impact of the risk. Risk management actions make it possible for the support function of logistics services to remain in the background and become a crucial factor for the market success of the business operation. According to Fuchs and Wohinz [149], it is also necessary to clarify that research does not often clearly distinguish between the concepts of supply chain-wide risks and logistics risks.
Risks are described as unplanned events in the scientific literature, which does not imply a lack of preparation to manage them. For supply chains, logistics risks are related to the main service objectives: the lack of appropriate and customer-required goods, in the required delivery time, in the specified location, in the required quality.
Quality management activities and their associated risks identify the likelihood of risks before they occur and may, accordingly, affect the conditional allocation of losses in advance. The costs of remediation can be summarized in three main groups:
Financial costs: once the non-conformity has been identified and action is taken to rectify it, the logistics organization must cover any damages to the customer. Studies find that the cost of correcting non-conformities is greater than what could have been spent on prevention in the planning process. The costs of recalling products and covering all reverse logistics activities are often excluded from the selling price of logistics services and are covered by the contingency and extraordinary costs line item.
Survival costs: in most cases, inconsistencies in processes entail, at least, legal consequences. Larger inconsistencies can be a challenge to business survival as restitution damages can drag a logistics organization into insolvency.
Reputation costs: inconsistencies in logistics operations and processes will, in most cases, result in customer backlash and a reduction in profit to cover losses from a reduction in planned sales.
Risk minimization and opportunity identification activities can be carried out in four phases:
Plan risk management actions by setting the risk management framework.
Implement actions to address risks in each logistics process.
Monitor and analyze performance management actions to minimize risks and uncover opportunities by monitoring and analyzing the strategic risk management framework.
Continuous improvement.
Logistics risks are generally associated with disruption of the planned material flow for any period [150, 151, 152]. Unexpected events or the reasons for their occurrence affect and hinder the supply of material flows of goods at an acceptable price.
Risk management in logistics is needed as an alternative to commercial insurance in cases where insurance coverage is limited or very costly. Preventive measures to manage risks are a form of insurance applied to assumed but unspecified events for which the probabilities and financial consequences are unknown. Various authors have studied the classification of the causes of supply chain risks in particular logistics, such as Essaber and Fuchs, whose work is one of the most generalized [149, 153, 154]. Based on these studies, four main causes of risk in logistics are outlined as shown in Figure 7.
Causes of risks in logistics services.
Operational risks are caused in the normal course of logistics operations and are often related to disruptions in the supply chain of the goods to be transported and stored [155, 156, 157, 158, 159]. This risk creates insurmountable conditions that make the delivery of the goods in the volume and assortment desired by the customer impossible.
Operational risks can be caused by the malfunction or insufficiency of warehouse equipment and transport vehicles and also by external factors, such as incorrect choice of transport of the supplier of goods, excessive complexity in transport routes, failure of transport infrastructure, incorrect choice of transport packaging of supplies, failures, malfunctions, and accidents during the delivery of cargo [155, 156, 157, 158].
Financial risks have been studied in many aspects along with different ways to overcome them by researchers who consider several main causes, such as poor cash flow management, investments in inappropriate time periods under restrictive conditions, inflating costs for the use of investments, and falling out of interest rates that do not meet market conditions, poor management of liabilities [159]. Financial risks adversely affect the firm’s overall operations and financial stability. These risks are often related to inadequate management of cash flows between organizations, excessive investments to enter new market segments, mismanagement or lack of coordination between the repayment of liabilities and expected receivables, the movement of cash between subsidiaries and related companies, sudden changes in tariff rates and tax legislation in the country of the raw material supplier.
Stakeholder-related risks stem from a deteriorating collaboration between supply chain partners. Environmental risks in logistics have the potential to negatively impact the environment [160, 161]. Stakeholder risks arise from supply chain disruption resulting from unanticipated rapid changes in the political environment and regulations, such as changes in tax rates, bans imposed by decree, embargoes, government bans and seizures, litigation, hacking, theft, and many others [162, 163, 164, 165].
Risks associated with unexpected events arise primarily from risks posed by force majeure (e.g. natural disasters; international terrorist actions; economic crises; and port, terminal, and land border closures and strikes). The severity of the risk is calculated by the outcome of the adverse event, which often affects the financial stability of the company and its ability to deliver services, the timeliness of delivery of goods, and impairs the quality of performance of commitments made [166]. Another type of risk is the increasing degree of cooperation between supply chain partners which can make it difficult to take quick and adequate decisions due to the different interests and priorities of the partners involved. Risks that lead to a breakdown in performance can also be caused by the bankruptcy of a supplier, deterioration of quality control by the supplier, a series of planning errors, and overly complex automated decision-making systems for delivery routes. Another risk that is difficult to predict relates to the failure of supply chain partners to meet their commitments and/or agreed terms.
Although many researchers support the view that logistics services complement the marketing efforts of sales organizations, there is a lack of well-founded evidence on the meaning of logistics service quality and its essential attributes for customer evaluation. Adding unobservable attributes that are essential to customers’ perceived value of logistics services to the traditionally measured set of operational attributes to evaluate services. Quality management involves the management of processes in a unified system. Logistics processes require efforts to be focused on the delivery of material flows by managing the selection and supplier performance improvement to just-in-time delivery of goods and customer service.
An important condition for the measurement and analysis of quality in logistics is the determination of the appropriate attributes for its measurement and their respective weights in the complex assessment. A review of the more common attributes in the scientific literature is made, highlighting that delivery time is the most used metric and delivery delays are the most common cause of deteriorating customer satisfaction. A critical review of the main models for assessing logistics service quality is provided.
The main aspects of logistics risk management are discussed. It is found that risk reduction opportunities depend on multiple interrelated factors and each of them can be the cause of drastic risk reduction if used wisely. It focuses on the four stages that should be followed as a continuous process to minimize the negative impact of risks and identify opportunities for improvement.
Risk management in logistics and supply chains has been studied by many researchers. Their results confirm that mitigation opportunities depend on multiple interrelated factors and each of them can be the cause of drastic risk reduction if used wisely. These major risks can be managed if, based on the cause-effect relationships between different factors, work is done to reduce the overall impact of the risk.
The study focuses on the integration of quality and risk management in the supply chain to examine the theoretical and practical guidelines and address the main risks of non-compliance with the customer and legislative requirements that arise in a constantly changing external environment.
Secondary metabolites are natural products synthesized mainly by plants, fungi and bacteria. Secondary metabolites are molecules with low molecular weight and various biological activities and chemical structures [1]. Secondary metabolites are also called specialized metabolites; they generally mediate ecological interactions by increasing their ability to survive [2]. Secondary metabolites function as a defense against herbivores and other interspecies in plants; and it was first established by A. kossel in 1910, and was discovered 20 years later as an end product of nitrogen metabolism by Friedrich Czapek a Botanist [3].
Plants are capable of manufacturing diverse types of organic compounds which are grouped into primary and secondary metabolites [3]. Some secondary metabolites are phenylpropanoids or cinnamic acids, which protect plants from UV damage [4]. Since ancient times, the plant secondary metabolite’s biological effects in humans have been known. The herb
Plants are natural products and the oldest source of alkaloids, examples of the most widely recognized alkaloids are morphine, quinine, strychnine, and cocaine [7]. Alkaloids are present as water-soluble salts of organic acids, esters, tannins (Cinchona bark) or in plant tissues [7, 8].
Most alkaloids are isolated in the form of crystalline, non-odorous, nonvolatile and amorphous compounds, low molecular weight alkaloids, such as arecoline and pilocarpine, non-oxygen atom alkaloids such as sparteine and nicotine occur in the liquid form, these are all from plant matrices. Majority of alkaloids are colorless with a bitter taste, apart from colchicine and berberine. Alkaloids are derived from plant sources and a diverse group of nitrogen-containing basic compounds, which contain one or more nitrogen atoms. Chemically they are heterogeneous. Based on chemical structures, they are classified into two broad categories [9]:
Examples of plants with alkaloids include,
Alkaloids (about 20,000) are isolated from plants, but it have also been found in microorganisms, marine organisms such as algae, dinoflagellates, and pufferfish, and terrestrial animals such as insects, salamanders, and toads [10].
Classification based on the botanical origin of the alkaloids, their Sources and pharmacological properties are listed below (Table 1). For example.,
Alkaloid | Source | Properties |
---|---|---|
Ajmaline | Antiarrhythmic, antihypertensive | |
Caffeine | Stimulant, insecticide | |
Camptothecin | Antineoplastic | |
Cocaine | Analgesic, narcotic, local anesthetic | |
Codeine | Analgesic, antitussive | |
Emetine | Antiamoebic, expectorant, emetic | |
Hyoscyamine | Anticholinergic | |
Morphine | Analgesic, narcotic | |
Nicotine | Stimulant | |
Pilocarpine | Cholinergic | |
Quinidine | Antiarrhythmic | |
Quinine | Antimalarial | |
Reserpine | Tranquilizer | |
Scopolamine | Sedative, anticholinergic | |
Strychnine | Stimulant, poison | |
Taxol | Antineoplastic | |
Vinblastine and vincristine | Antineoplastic |
Spurces and pharmacological uses of selected plant-derived alkaloids.
Structures of some alkaloids. Note that the structures of morphine and codeine are based on the same skeleton, but are decorated with different functional groups in the position represented by ‘R’. In morphine, this group is −OH, while in codeine it is CH2O. Similarly, vinblastine and vincristine are based on the same skeleton, but differ in the nature of the R-group, which for vinblastine is −CH3 and for vincristine is −CHO.
Plant secondary metabolism produces phenolic compounds with chemical structures of one hydroxyl aromatic ring. These phenolic compounds are classified based on their carbon chain. [11]. Phenolic compounds are found in plant tissues, fruits and vegetables and are also ubiquitously distributed phytochemicals. Phenolic compounds are synthesized through phenylpropanoid and shikimic acid pathways [12]. Phenolic compounds possess numerous bioactive properties and health-protective effects, although they are not nutrients, therefore postharvest treatments have been used to enhance or preserve the phenolic compounds in fruits and vegetables [12]. Phenolic compounds possess an aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl substituents that can be divided into several classes, which are common chemical structures essential for health benefits [13].
Plant materials like (Tropical Root and Crops) contain two classes of phenolic compounds as hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids. Phenolic compounds are present in Nigerian
The phenolic compounds found in plants are represented in Table 2, while the categories of phenolic compounds and their representative compounds are shown in Figure 2. Phenolic compounds survive in plant material, in either a soluble or a bound form [15, 16].
Polyphenolic Compounds | Example | Fruit Source |
---|---|---|
Phenolic acids | Caffeic acid Chlorogenic acid Ferulic acid Sinapic acid Caftaric acids Neochlorogenic acid | Blackberry, raspberry, strawberry, blackcurrant, blueberry, cranberry, pear, sweet cherry, apple, orange, grapefruit, lemon, and peach |
Ellagic acid Gallic acid | Strawberry, raspberry, grapes, longan seed, and pomegranate | |
Flavonoids | Myricetin Quercetin Kaempferol Isorhamnetin | Apples, apricots, grapes, plums, bilberries, cranberries, olive, elderberries, currants, cherries, blackberries, and blueberries |
Naringenin Hesperetin | Lemon, orange, grapefruit, and tangerine | |
Apigenin Luteolin Tangeretin Nobiletin | Citrus fruits and pear | |
(+)-Catechin (−)-Epicatechin (−)-Epicatechin 3-gallate (−)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (+)-Gallocatechin (−)-Epigallocatechin Procyanidins Prodelphinidins | Apples, apricots, grapes, peaches, nectarines, raspberries, cherries, blackberries, blueberries, cranberries, pears, plums, and raisins | |
Cyanidin 3-galactoside Cyanidin 3-glucoside Cyanidin 3-arabinoside Cyanidin 3-xyloside Malvidin Delphinidin Pelargonidin | Blackberries, blackcurrant, blueberries, black grape, elderberries, strawberries, cherries, plums, cranberry, pomegranate, and raspberry | |
Phloretin Phloridzin | Apple | |
Stilbenes | Resveratrol | Grapes |
Tannins | Catechin polymers Epicatechin polymers Ellagitannins Proanthocyanidins Tannic acids | Grape seed/skin, apple juice, strawberries, raspberries, pomegranate, walnuts, peach, blackberry, and plum |
Lignans | Secoisolariciresinol Matairesinol | Pear |
Selected phenolic compounds found in plants.
Categories of phenolic compounds.
Terpenes are a unique group of hydrocarbon-based natural products whose structures are derived from isoprene. Terpenoid secondary metabolites occur in plant tissue types often secured in secretory structures [17]. Over 30,000 members of terpenes are in an enormous class of natural products, they have been used for a broad variety of purposes including medicine, flavoring and perfume [18]. Terpenes as a broad group with ecological roles, that exhibit a range of deadly to entirely edible toxicity, which include antimicrobial properties and other properties [19, 20].
Plants and flowering plants (angiosperms) subdivisions have colonized the majority of the terrestrial surface, courtesy of rich levels of specialization and the relationships with other organisms [21].
Terpenes are important plant metabolites that include substances like floral fragrances that serve as plant hormones (gibberellic and abscisic acid), growth inhibitors, insect attractants, pine oil, and insecticides [22].
Terpenoids or isoprenoids are high in plants where many can be considered secondary metabolites and have fundamental roles in the metabolism of all organisms [23]. Terpenoid secondary metabolism in plants began with the recruitment of genes from primary metabolism [24] and accelerated due to the proliferation of cytochrome P450 and terpene synthase gene families in the genomes of plants [25].
Terpenoids play various physiological and ecological functions in plant life and human through direct and indirect plant defenses, because of their enormous applications in the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries [26]. Examples of terpenoids from plant species are 1). Artemisinin, present in
The pungent smell of plants (mustard, cabbage, and horseradish) is due to mustard oils produced from glucosinolates [29]. Glucosinolates are biosynthesized from amino acids, which consists of three glucosinolate subtypes (aliphatic, indole and aromatic glucosinolates) that have their corresponding precursors. Aliphatic glucosinolates are derived from isoleucine, alanine, valine, methionine, and leucine. Indole and aromatic glucosinolates are obtained from phenylalanine or tyrosine and tryptophan. Examples of the three classes of glucosinolates represented by 3methylsulfinylpropyl glucosinolate; indol3ylmethyl glucosinolate; and benzyl glucosinolate in Figure 3.
Glucosinolates.
Glucosinolates are responsible for the pungent properties present in mustard, rucola, horseradish, cruciferous vegetables, and nasturtium and they are sulfur and nitrogen-containing glycosides, which protect against carcinogenesis [30].
The glucosinolates of sulforaphane (Glucoraphanin) present in broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower (cruciferous vegetables) are responsible for protection against carcinogenesis. The Brown (
Secondary metabolites in plants (glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, S-methyl cysteine, allyl sulfurs, phytates, phytoestrogens) likely to protect against cancers, and antioxidant properties (phenolic compounds, flavonoids) [32].
Isothiocyanates are present in cruciferous vegetables, which is the product of the degradation of glucosinolates.
Glucosinolates contain metabolites found in the plant
Over 130 glucosinolate compounds have been identified in plants, and one way that they vary is by the amino acid precursor that is incorporated during glucosinolates biosynthesis [37].
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can utilize various solid substrates of their biochemical and biological evolution and are also known to inhabit almost all ecological niches of the Earth. Some of the solid substrates utilized by fungi are decaying and dead material, such as live plants (endophytic, parasitic, and mycorrhizal fungi), lichens (lichenicolous and endolichenic fungi), insects (entomopathogenic fungi) and herbivore dung (saprophytic and coprophilous fungi). A characteristic feature of many of these fungi (filamentous growth and complex morphology), is their ability to produce secondary metabolites which are useful in pharmaceutical, agrochemical industries and food with different biological activities [38, 39].
In the production of secondary metabolites which occurs after fungal growth has stopped because of nutrient limitations but an abundant carbon source available, it is then possible to manipulate their formation. Some endophytic fungi can produce secondary metabolites known from plants. Examples include production paclitaxel (Taxol®) and camptothecin, by
The several classes of fungal secondary metabolites are polyketides (aflatoxin and fumonisins), nonribosomal peptides (sirodesmin, peramine, siderophores) and terpenes (T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON)), indole terpenes (paxiline and lolitrems) as represented in Figure 4. Polyketides are building blocks of natural products and are the largest group of metabolites occurring in their greatest number. They are the most sought-after molecules because of their wide spectrum of activities (clinical, industrial and economical activities). Non-ribosomal peptides are catalyzed without mRNA template by a complex enzyme called Nonribosomal peptide-synthetase (
Several classes of fungal secondary metabolites; a) Polyketides b) non-ribosomal peptides c) Terpenes and d) Indole terpenes.
The first FDA-approved secondary metabolite was Lovastatin, to lower cholesterol levels. In oyster mushrooms [42], red yeast rice [43], and Pu-erh [44], Lovastatin occurs naturally in low concentrations. Their mode of action is inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, and it is the enzyme responsible for converting HMG-CoA to mevalonate.
Fungal secondary metabolites are dangerous to humans. The fungi
Fungi are organisms that produce a wide range of natural products often called secondary metabolites; many natural products are of agricultural, medical, and industrial importance. Examples of natural products causing harm (mycotoxins), while others are advantageous (antibiotics) to humans [46, 47]. The biosynthesis of natural products is usually associated with cell differentiation or development, the establishment of a G-protein-mediated growth pathway in
Secondary metabolism is connected with sporulation processes in microorganisms [49, 50], including fungi [51, 52]. Secondary metabolites connected with sporulation can be classified into three groups: (i) Sporulation activated by metabolites (
Secondary metabolite | Producing fungus | Association with development | References |
---|---|---|---|
Linoleic-acid derived psi factor | Induces sporulation; affects ratio of asexual to sexual spore development | [54, 55, 56, 57] | |
Zearalenone | Induces sporulation; enhances perithecial formation | [60] | |
Butyrolactone I | Induces sporulation and lovastatin production | [61] | |
Melanin | Associated with appressorial formation | [62] | |
Melanin | UV protection of spore | [62] | |
Melanin | Required for spore survival | [63] | |
Spore pigment | Required for virulence | [64] | |
Mycotoxins | Produced after sporulation | [65, 66] | |
Patulin | Antibiotic; produced after sporulation | [53] |
Fungal secondary metabolites.
Natural products are essential for sporulation, examples of fungal strains that are sporulated and deficient in secondary metabolite production are
Secondary metabolites have easily visible effects on morphological differentiation in fungi, mycelium excretes compounds that can prompt sexual and asexual sporulation in other fungi [63, 64, 65], these compounds have not been identified but are assumed to be natural products produced as the mycelia ages. Other natural product such as
Butyrolactone I, produced by the fungus
The bacterial secondary metabolites are natural products source of anticholesterol agents, immune suppressants, antibiotics, antitumor agents, and other medicines; secondary metabolite-producing microorganisms synthesize these bioactive and complex molecules at the late phase and stationary phase of their growth [70, 71, 72] as shown in Figure 5a. In bacteria, the actinomycetes (streptomycetes) produce a significant number of chemically distinct secondary metabolites [73, 74, 75, 76]. Other major sources include soil pseudomonas, bacilli, and myxococci [77, 78, 79, 80]. An example of a bacterial secondary metabolite is botulinum toxin synthesized by
a) the secondary metabolite-producing microorganisms synthesize these bioactive and complex molecules at the late phase and stationary phase of their growth. b) Secondary metabolic pathway reactions are conducted by an individual enzyme or multienzyme complexes. Intermediate or end-products of primary metabolic pathways are channeled from their systematic metabolic pathways that lead to the synthesis of secondary metabolites.
Bacterial production of secondary metabolites starts in the stationary phase in response to environmental stress and lack of nutrients. Secondary metabolite synthesis in bacteria, allow them to better interact with their ecological niche and it is not essential for their growth. The b-lactam, shikimate, polyketide and non-ribosomal are the synthetic pathways for secondary metabolite production [82] as shown in Figure 5b. B-lactam family of cephalosporins antibiotics have been used to treat bacterial infections for 40 years and above. Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and fungi are the major sources of b-lactam antibiotics. The shikimate pathway contributes to the basic building blocks for aromatic metabolites and amino acids, which can serve as antibacterial agents. In the bacterial secondary metabolite, two enzymes can transfer a complete enolpyruvoyl moiety to a metabolic pathway, 5-enolpyruvoyl shikimate 3-phosphate synthase and chorismate synthase that require a reduced cofactor, flavin mononucleotide, for its activation. When secreted those found in the prokaryotic cell wall are endotoxins, while those poisonous compounds are known as exotoxins. Other examples of bacterial secondary metabolites are phenazine, polyketides, nonribosomal peptides, ribosomal peptides, glucosides, and alkaloids.
Bacteria are natural phenazines, phenazines are heterocyclic, nitrogenous compounds that differ in their physical and chemical properties. Phenazines are significant for their potential impact on bacterial interactions and biotechnological processes. It exhibits a wide range of biological activities, Pyocyanin, from
Phenazines produced by various bacteria species and excrete them in high quantities in the environment in a visible form to the naked eye, they are nitrogen-containing colored aromatic secondary metabolites. The main use of phenazines is to protect plants (biocontrol field), because of their antimicrobial properties. Examples of bacteria species able to produce phenazines are
Polyketides from plants, bacteria, fungi, and animals, are a large group of secondary metabolites known to possess remarkable properties [85, 86]. Polyketides possess some bioactivities such as antibacterial (e.g., tetracycline), antifungal (e.g., amphotericin B), immune-suppressing (e.g., rapamycin), anti-cholesterol (e.g., lovastatin), anti-inflammatory activity (e.g., flavonoids), antiviral (e.g., balticolid), and anticancer (e.g., doxorubicin) [87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93]. Some organisms that can produce polyketides are plants (e.g., emodin from
Polyketides are a family of natural products which are synthesized by polyketide synthase (PKS) enzymes with different biological activities and pharmacological properties. They are divided into three types: type I polyketides (macrolides produced by multimodular megasynthases), type II polyketides (aromatic molecules produced by the iterative action of dissociated enzymes), and type III polyketides (small aromatic molecules produced by fungal species) [100]. Polyketides are also found in bacteria, fungi, plants, mollusks, protists, sponges, and insects. They have notable variety in their structure and function. Some examples of polyketides antibiotics are Erythromycin, Avermectin, Nystatin, and Rifamycin [100].
Nonribosomal peptides (NRPs) are peptide secondary metabolites that are synthesized by nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs) (multidomain mega-enzymes), without messenger RNAs and cell ribosomal machinery [101]. Nonribosomal peptides are naturally synthesized by bacteria, fungi, and higher eukaryotes [101]. Nonribosomal peptides are also synthesized by indigoidine (pigment). Some examples of nonribosomal peptide antibiotics are; Vancomycin, bacterium, Ramoplanin, Teicoplanins, Gramicidin, Bacitracin, Polymyxin [102].
Natural products originate as secondary metabolites Plants possess different indigenous defensive mechanisms to cope with certain environmental stresses. Secondary metabolites are natural tools used by plants to combat biotic and abiotic stresses. Microorganisms can produce several antibiotics and other pharmaceutically important drugs to treat bacterial and fungal infections. The secondary metabolites from natural products help us to understand their classes, sources, pharmacological importance and examples associated with the secondary metabolites derived from plants, fungi, and bacteria.
These Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
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\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
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\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
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Therefore, more studies are needed to assess the benefit of antibiotic prescription and whether it is safe to refrain from its use.",book:{id:"5185",slug:"dental-implantology-and-biomaterial",title:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial",fullTitle:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial"},signatures:"Dalia Khalil, Bodil Lund and Margareta Hultin",authors:[{id:"179031",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Khalil",slug:"dalia-khalil",fullName:"Dalia Khalil"},{id:"185113",title:"Dr.",name:"Bodil",middleName:null,surname:"Lund",slug:"bodil-lund",fullName:"Bodil Lund"},{id:"185114",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareta",middleName:null,surname:"Hultin",slug:"margareta-hultin",fullName:"Margareta Hultin"}]},{id:"47915",title:"Rationale for Dental Implants",slug:"rationale-for-dental-implants",totalDownloads:3076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4548",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Ilser Turkyilmaz and Gokce Soganci",authors:[{id:"171984",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ilser",middleName:null,surname:"Turkyilmaz",slug:"ilser-turkyilmaz",fullName:"Ilser Turkyilmaz"}]},{id:"18430",title:"An Important Dilemma in Treatment Planning: Implant or Endodontic Therapy?",slug:"an-important-dilemma-in-treatment-planning-implant-or-endodontic-therapy-",totalDownloads:6264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Funda Kont Cobankara and Sema Belli",authors:[{id:"28846",title:"Dr.",name:"Funda",middleName:null,surname:"Kont Çobankara",slug:"funda-kont-cobankara",fullName:"Funda Kont Çobankara"},{id:"75862",title:"Prof.",name:"Sema",middleName:null,surname:"Belli",slug:"sema-belli",fullName:"Sema Belli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"998",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",abstract:"This chapter will address evidence-based prosthetic concepts in dental implantology as well as clinical evidence with focus on appropriate logic and technical skills. Those prosthetic factors are as just important as surgical factors, and long-term success can only be achieved if both of those factors are considered, respected, and strictly followed from planning to prosthetic phase of treatment. This chapter will deal with materials selection for prosthetic part, shape, size, and design of supracrestal parts of abutments and their influence on soft tissue and bone stability around dental implants. Furthermore, one of most important decisions is about choosing the proper way of retention: screw- vs. cement-retained restorations, and it will be discussed in detail. Additionally, emergence profile and its function in soft tissues adaptation and adhesion to different prosthetic materials also have important role in long-term success of dental implant restorations.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Ivica Pelivan"},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",abstract:"Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition faced by a common man. A tooth decay, periodontitis, mechanical trauma, or any systemic complications lead to such a complication. These bone defects when left untreated lead to severe resorption of the alveolar bone. A proper dental filling with an appropriate bone substitute material could prevent such resorption and paves a way for subsequent implant placement. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth or prevent bone resorption. A variety of bone substitutes are available differ in origin, consistency, particle size, porosity, and resorption characteristics. Herbal composites in dentistry fabricated using biphospho-calcium phosphate, casein, chitosan, and certain herbal extracts of Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna bark, Myristica fragans also were reported to possess a higher ossification property, osteogenic property and were able to repair bone defects. C. occidentalis was reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice. This implant proved better osteoconductivity and bioactivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. Terminalia Arjuna was also worked in the incorporation in the graft to enhance the osteogenic property of the implant and gave good results. Another implant bone graft was synthesized containing BCP, biocompatible casein, and the extracts of Myristica fragans and subjected to in vitro investigations and the results revealed the deposition of apatite on the graft after immersing in SBF and also the ALP activity was high when treated with MG-63 cells, NIH-3 T3, and Saos 2 cell lines. This study indicates that the inclusion of plant extract enhances the osteogenic property of the graft. Thus, these novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites evaluated by researchers revealed an enhanced bone healing, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. This application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implants and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya"},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",abstract:"The main goal of modern removable prosthodontics is to restore the normal appearance, function, esthetics and speech in each completely edentulous patient. However, if all teeth are missing in a patient, it becomes very complicated to achieve it using traditional protocols. Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. Different indications, types of the overdentures and the attachment systems will be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo"},{id:"79724",title:"Implant Stability Quotient (ISQ): A Reliable Guide for Implant Treatment",slug:"implant-stability-quotient-isq-a-reliable-guide-for-implant-treatment",totalDownloads:60,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101359",abstract:"Implant stability is a prerequisite for successful dental implants and osseointegration. To determine the status of implant stability, continuous monitoring in an objective and qualitative manner is important. To measure implant stability two different stages are there: Primary and secondary. Primary implant stability at placement is a mechanical phenomenon that is related to the local bone quality and quantity, the type of implant and placement technique used. Primary stability is checked from mechanical engagement with cortical bone. Secondary stability is developed from regeneration and remodeling of the bone and tissue around the implant after insertion and affected by the primary stability, bone formation and remodeling. Implant stability is essential for the time of functional loading. Classical benchmark methods to measure implant stability were radiographs or microscopic analysis, removal torque, push-through and pull-through but due to lack of feasibility, time consumption and ethical reasons other methods have been propounded over period of time like measurement of implant torque, model analysis and most important ISQ which has the ability to monitor osseointegration and the life expectancy of an implant. ISQ is a valuable diagnostic and clinical tool that has far-reaching consequences on implant dentistry and this article throws light on advanced and reliable methods of assessing ISQ.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gaurav Gupta"},{id:"79817",title:"Peri-Implant Soft Tissue Augmentation",slug:"peri-implant-soft-tissue-augmentation",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101336",abstract:"The peri-implant soft tissue (PIS) augmentation procedure has become an integral part of implant-prosthetic rehabilitation. Minimal width of keratinized mucosa (KM) of 2 mm is deemed necessary to facilitate oral hygiene maintenance around the implant and provide hard and soft peri-implant tissue stability. PIS thickness of at least 2 mm is recommended to achieve the esthetic appearance and prevent recessions around implant prosthetic rehabilitation. The autogenous soft tissue grafts can be divided into two groups based on their histological composition—free gingival graft (FGG) and connective tissue graft (CTG). FGG graft is used mainly to increase the width of keratinized mucosa while CTG augment the thickness of PIS. Both grafts are harvested from the same anatomical region—the palate. Alternatively, they can be harvested from the maxillary tuberosity. Soft tissue grafts can be also harvested as pedicle grafts, in case when the soft tissue graft remains attached to the donor site by one side preserving the blood supply from the donor region. Clinically this will result in less shrinkage of the graft postoperatively, improving the outcome of the augmentation procedure. To bypass the drawback connected with FGG or CTG harvesting, substitutional soft tissue grafts have been developed.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Marko Blašković and Dorotea Blašković"},{id:"79611",title:"Growth Factors and Dental Implantology",slug:"growth-factors-and-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101082",abstract:"Normal healing procedure of bone involves various sequential events to develop bone and bridge the bone -to- bone gap. When this healing occurs with a metal (titanium) fixture on one side, it is called as osseointegration. After extensive studies on this topic, it is found that this procedure occurs in presence of various biologic constituents that are spontaneously released at the site. Thus, to accelerate normal healing after implant placement and make results more predictable, it has been proposed to use these autologous factors in the osteotomy site. Since it is the beginning of a new revolution in dental implantology, right now it is essential to analyze all possible combinations of host conditions, bone quality and quantity and bio factors being used. This can definitely be a boon for the patients with compromised systemic or local conditions.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Deeksha Gupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). 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