Classification of gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"923",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Herbicides, Theory and Applications",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'The content selected in Herbicides, Theory and Applications is intended to provide researchers, producers and consumers of herbicides an overview of the latest scientific achievements. Although we are dealing with many diverse and different topics, we have tried to compile this "raw material" into three major sections in search of clarity and order - Weed Control and Crop Management, Analytical Techniques of Herbicide Detection and Herbicide Toxicity and Further Applications. The editors hope that this book will continue to meet the expectations and needs of all interested in the methodology of use of herbicides, weed control as well as problems related to its use, abuse and misuse.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-975-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4537-0",doi:"10.5772/1430",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"herbicides-theory-and-applications",numberOfPages:624,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"54a8eb808c05a5fe01c676e7047d4576",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",publishedDate:"January 8th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/923.jpg",numberOfDownloads:113787,numberOfWosCitations:112,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:104,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:244,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 9th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 9th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 8th 2010",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14764/images/system/14764.jpg",biography:"Marcelo L. Larramendy, Ph.D., serves as Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum (National University of La Plata, Argentina). Appointed Senior Researcher of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council of Argentina. Former Member of the Executive Committee of the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis. Author of more than 450 contributions, including scientific publications, research communications and conferences worldwide. Recipient of several national and international awards. Prof. Larramendy is a regular Lecturer at the international A. Hollaender Courses organized by the IAEMS and former guest scientist at NIH (USA) and the University of Helsinki, (Finland). He is an expert in Genetic Toxicology and is, or has been, referee for more than 20 international scientific journals. Member of the International Panel of Experts at the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, WHO, Lyon, France) in 2015 for the evaluation of DDT, 2,4-D and Lindane. Presently, Prof. Dr. Larramendy is Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Cytogenetics and Genotoxicology at the UNLP.",institutionString:"National University of La Plata",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"20",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14863/images/system/14863.jpg",biography:"Sonia Soloneski has a Ph.D. in Natural Sciences and is Assistant Professor of Molecular Cell Biology at the School of Natural Sciences and Museum of La Plata, National University of La Plata, Argentina. She is a member of the National Scientific and Technological Research Council (CONICET) of Argentina in the Genetic Toxicology field, the Latin American Association of Environmental Mutagenesis, Teratogenesis and Carcinogenesis (ALAMCTA), the Argentinean Society of Toxicology (ATA), the Argentinean Society of Biology (SAB) and the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC). She has authored more than 380 contributions in the field, including scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and research communications. She has served as a review member for more than 30 scientific international journals. She has been a plenary speaker in scientific conferences and a member of scientific committees. 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\r\n\tIncreasing demand for agricultural production for human, animal, and industrial requirements is responsible for the enhancement of agricultural and agro-industrial activities. Each step of such activities produces various types of agricultural waste that include crop residue, on-farm livestock and fisheries waste, forest waste, agro-industrial waste, etc. Currently, handling and managing agricultural waste is a challenging task worldwide, especially in the context of environmental pollution control and sustainable agriculture. Thus, efficient management in terms of reuse, recycling, and reduction of agricultural waste is principally needed not only for the green economy but also for farmers' profitability. This would also contribute to minimizing environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and climate change to meet the 2030 UN-SDGs. Therefore, this book aims to address agricultural waste production and management in the multidimensional aspects of crop residue, biodegradables, biomass, composting and vermiculture, agricultural waste economics, air pollution, environmental safety, waste management, and handling, on-farm waste reuse, and agricultural waste value addition. Authors are encouraged to submit original research, reviews, modeling and simulation, case studies, and recent progress and scenarios in the above-mentioned subject areas.
\r\n\t
T/NK (natural killer) cell lymphomas are uncommon lymphomas accounting for about 6% of all non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). B-cell lymphomas account for the majority being 80% and Hodgkin lymphoma accounts for 7% of NHLs in the United States according to the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results program (SEER) over a 10-year period from 1997 till 2006 [1]. According to the updated 2016 revision of World Health Organization Classification (WHO) of T-cell lymphoid neoplasms, there are about 27 types of mature T and NK cell neoplasms. Amongst all types, gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma (γδ-TCL) accounts for only <1% of lymphoid tumors [2].
\nT lymphocytes recognize antigens through T-cell receptors (TCRs). TCRs are polypeptide heterodimers which mostly constitutes α and β chains and rarely γ and δ chains. Alpha-beta T cells (Tαβ) constitute 95% of all T cells while gamma-delta T cells (Tγδ) make up only a small proportion accounting to <5% of all circulating lymphocytes. Majority of lymphoid tissues are made of αβ T cells than γδ subtype. Gamma-delta (γδ) subtype shows selective tropism for the red pulp of the spleen, mucosal tissues, gastrointestinal epithelial tissues, skin and rarely lymphoid tissue. Hence the γδ T cells have a higher representation of about 30% in some epithelial-rich tissues, such as intestine and sinusoidal red pulp of the spleen [3]. Most of the T-cell lymphomas have alpha-beta TCRs while only 5% of the T-NHL’s have gamma-delta TCRs [4].
\nT-cell receptors are complex membrane proteins which are found on the surface of T lymphocytes through which the T cells recognize the antigens. The antigens are recognized as peptides linked to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules [5]. T lymphocytes recognize antigens through T cell receptors (TCRs). TCRs are polypeptide heterodimers composed of two different protein chains. These two chains mostly consist of alpha (α) chain and a beta (β) chain in 95% of the cases whereas in 5%, these chains are composed of gamma and delta (γ/δ) chains. Alpha and beta chains are encoded by T-cell receptor alpha (TRA) at 14q11.2 and T-cell receptor beta (TRB) gene at 7q34. The gamma and delta chains are encoded by T cell receptor gamma locus (TRG) (7p14) and T cell receptor delta locus (TRD) (14q11.2) genes respectively [6]. TRαβ recognizes processed antigens presented by MHC proteins whereas TR γδ recognizes non-peptide antigens.
\nAfter the T cell lineage commitment is made, the progenitors make their first lineage decision to be either αβ or γδ. CD4− CD8− (double negative) thymocytes rearrange three out of four TCR loci: Tcrb, Tcrg, and Tcrd. The cells which are arrested in proliferation at this stage require expression of TCR to re-enter the cell cycle. If there is a success in an in-frame Tcrb rearrangement, TCRβ is expressed which forms a complex with the germline-encoded pre-TCRα (pTα) chain [3]. Increased upregulation of CD4 and CD8 receptors along with increased proliferation occurs when this complex is expressed. Tcrq is silenced and Tcra rearrangement starts thus resulting in excision of Tcrd locus. CD4+ CD8+ [double positive (DP)] thymocytes express TCRαβ and further differentiate into CD4+ or CD8+ lineages when there is a rearrangement of T cell receptor alpha chain (Tcra). Progression through the DP stage is believed to be a hallmark of αβ lineage commitment. Thymocyte progenitors which have a rearrangement of Tcrg and Tcrd will express γδTCR at the cell surface. These cells also undergo increased proliferation but tend to avoid going through the DP stage thus arriving at the periphery as CD4− CD8− (or, more rarely, with CD4− CD8+ or CD4+ CD8−) cells. Hence the lineage toward αβ or γδ is based on the progression towards the DP stage [7]. See Figure 1 for illustration of T-cell development.
\nIllustration of T cell development.
Gamma-delta T lymphocytes originate from CD4− CD8− (double negative) thymocytes in the bone marrow and do not need recognition by the major histocompatibility complex [8]. The antigenic stimulus that activates these subtype of cells is unknown. These lymphocytes have properties of cytotoxicity, phagocytosis [9, 10] and also play a major role in both innate immunity and non-specific immune responses [11, 12, 13].
\nThere are two variable receptor regions within the T cell receptor in gamma delta T cells which divide them into two subtypes—Vdelta1 and Vdelta2 gamma delta T-cells [14, 15]. These two subtypes further differ in their phenotypes and the regions of distribution within the body. While Vdelta1 T cells are more predominant in gastrointestinal tract, Vdelta2 T cells are seen mostly in skin, lymphoid tissue and tonsils. See Figure 2 for illustration of summary of γδ T-cell functions and the roles of specific subsets.
\nIllustration γδ of T cell function and the roles of specific subsets. Vdelta1 T cells are more predominant in gastrointestinal tract and Vdelta2 cells in skin, lymphoid tissue and tonsils.
Gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas constitute a very rare and aggressive subtype of lymphomas with a very poor prognosis [16]. The gamma delta T-cell lymphomas were classified into two groups in 2008 by the World Health Organization (WHO) as hepatosplenic Tγδ cell lymphoma (HSγδTL) and primary cutaneous TCL (PCTCL) [17]. In 2016, the WHO classification of T Tγδ cell lymphoma added few more subgroups.
\nAs per 2016 revision of the WHO classification of lymphoid neoplasms, the four recognized entities of Tγδ cell lymphoma identified includes,
Hepatosplenic Tγδ cell lymphoma (HSγδTL)
Primary cutaneous gamma delta TCL (PCTCL)
Aggressive variant
Mycosis fungoides like (Indolent variant)
Monomorphic epitheliotropic intestinal TCL (MEITL)
Gamma-delta large granular lymphocytic leukemias (T-LGL)
Although the WHO classification is helpful in defining the subtypes of lymphomas, there are other rare variants of gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas in literature in the form of case reports which still remains unclassifiable. Based on an extensive literature search, we classify gamma delta T-cell lymphomas into the five subtypes as illustrated in Table 1.
Hepatosplenic Tγδ cell lymphoma (HSγδTL)
Primary cutaneous gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma (PCTCL)
Aggressive variant
Mycosis fungoides like (indolent variant)
Subcutaneous panniculitis-like
Mucosal gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma
Gastrointestinal
Nasal
Pulmonary
Laryngeal
Gamma-delta T-LGL
Nodal gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma
Classification of gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas.
Research studies have shown that the different molecular profiling exists between γδTCL and αβTCL as well as the existence of a distinct molecular signature in hepatosplenic gamma delta T cell lymphoma.
\nKana Miyazaki et al. analyzed RNA from seven patients with gamma delta T cell lymphoma (four hepatosplenic, one cutaneous, one intestinal and one thyroidal) and 27 patients with alpha beta T cell lymphoma (11 peripheral TCL unspecified, 15 angioimmunoblastic TCL and one hepatosplenic) using oligonucleotide microarrays. Based on the genetic analysis, they classified hepatosplenic γδTCL as a single cluster, whereas other γδTCL were more heterogeneous and were scattered within the αβ distribution. Gene expression profiles were compared between γδTCL and αβTCLs, using 291 genes. Webgestalt analysis using Gene Ontology (GO) hierarchies for categorizing functional gene groups and Kyoto Encyclopedia of gene and genomes (KEGG) pathway was used for identifying signaling pathways. They concluded that five in γδTCL and 20 in αβTCL gene groups were expressed under the GO category and three γδTCL pathways and one αβTCL pathway were found to be altered in KEGG-signaling analyses. These studies concluded that no signature genes were shared between γδTCL and αβTCL thereby confirming different functional profiling between them. Genes encoding KIRs and killer cell lectin-like receptors were seen in four out of five γδTCL enriched GO categories and two out of three KEGG signaling pathways, thus becoming a very important marker in differentiating γδTCL from αβTCL [18].
\nHepatosplenic gamma delta T cell lymphoma is one of the types of gamma delta T-cell lymphoma with an aggressive clinical course and poor overall survival rates [19]. The average length of survival seems to be <16 months [20]. The unique feature of this type of T cell lymphoma is the extranodal involvement with a specific sinusoidal pattern of infiltration of the liver, red pulp of spleen and bone marrow [21]. It also has unique immunophenotypical and chromosomal abnormality distinguishing it from other subtypes of gamma delta T cell lymphomas [22].
\nHepatosplenic Tγδ cell lymphoma seems to be predominantly a disease of young age mostly affecting teenage and young adults. They represent <5% of all peripheral T cell lymphomas. Males are affected more than females with a male/female ratio of 10/1. Although chronic antigenic stimulation and immune dysregulation seems to be likely causative factor in the evolution of this disorder [23], most of the cases (72%) of HSGDTCL occurs in patients with no underlying immunosuppression. Only around 18% of patients have underlying immunosuppression in the form of either previous organ transplants, chronic steroids use, inflammatory bowel disease, autoimmune disorders and hematological malignancies especially of acute myeloid leukemia, multiple myeloma, and Hodgkin lymphoma. About 10% of the patients have a history of previous treatment with immunosuppressive or biologics especially azathioprine and infliximab [24]. There are few cases reporting associations with Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and hepatitis B infections in the literature [25].
\nThe histopathological feature of HSGDTL includes monomorphous infiltration of medium-sized lymphocytes with a moderate amount of large pale basophilic cytoplasm [23, 26, 27, 28]. These cells have loosely condensed nuclear chromatin with small inconspicuous nucleoli. Spleen shows an involvement of sinuses of red pulp with atrophic white pulp. Involvement of liver is predominantly in the sinusoids. Bone marrow involvement occurs with predominantly intrasinusoidal distribution. An interstitial pattern of bone marrow involvement with a shift towards blastic cells are features of disease progression. Lymph node involvement is very rare.
\nImmunophenotypic origin is from double negative CD4− CD8− cells which show CD2+ CD3+ CD5− CD7+, TCRγδ+ [28, 29]. NK cell markers (DC16, CD56, CD57) may occasionally be expressed. They also show expression of cytotoxic granule-associated proteins such as TIA1 and granzyme M but are negative for granzyme B and perforin [22, 29]. A minority of variant forms of HSGDTL shows TCR αβ expression.
\nThe most common cytogenetic abnormality seen in HSGDTL is isochromosome 7q abnormality [i(7q)]. Trisomy 8 and deletion of Y chromosome are other genetic abnormalities sometimes encountered. The primary cytogenetic event which occurs initially is i(7q) while the other genomic alteration occurs when the disease progresses [30, 31, 32].
\nAlthough isochromosome 7q is the most common chromosomal abnormality detected so far in HSTL, recent genomic analysis by Julio Finalet Ferreiro et al. identified a rare variant aberration of ring 7 [r(7)], thereby narrowing down the critical 7p/7q regions and identifying the targeted genes. They did genomic and transcriptomic study of six i(7) (q10) and ring 7 [r(7)] cases of HSTL, thereby mapping the common deleted region (CDR) at 7p22.1p14.1 (34.88 Mb; 3,506,316–38,406,226 bp) and the common gained region (CGR) at 7q22.11q31.1 (38.77 Mb; 86,259,620–124,892,276 bp). They postulated that loss of 7p22.1p14.1 enhanced the expression of CHN2 (7p14.1)/b2-chimerin leading to downmodulation of the NFAT pathway thereby increasing proliferation. They also hypothesized that the multidrug resistance gene ABCB1, RUNDC3B, PPP1R9A have an increased expression with the amplification of 7q22.11q31.1, thereby providing a growth advantage for the tumor cells further increasing their intrinsic chemoresistance. They distinguished HSTL from other malignancies by identifying a set of 24 genes by doing gene expression profile of HSTL, including three located on chromosome 7 (CHN2, ABCB1, and PPP1R9A) [33].
\nMcKinney et al. did detailed study on the whole exome sequencing of 68 HSTL cases and identified the commonly mutated genes including SETD2, INO80, and ARID1B in 62% of HSTL cases. Mutations were also identified in STAT5B (31%), STAT3 (9%), and PIK3CD (9%) which has targeted treatments currently. The most commonly silenced gene was found to be SETD (tumor suppressor gene). Cell survival in HSTL was linked to the mutations in STAT5B and PIK3CD which activates the critical signaling pathways [34].
\nStaging of HSGDTL is based on the physical examination, hematological and biochemical parameters, imaging studies including computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans, bone marrow biopsy and gastrointestinal tract examination. Experience of PET imaging in T cell lymphomas is anecdotal when compared to B cell lymphomas [35, 36, 37]. Ann-Arbor staging system is used for staging of HSGDTL like any other NHL [38]. As per this staging, HSGDTL is classified as stage IV disease commonly presenting with systemic symptoms, hepatosplenic involvement with rare occurrence of bulky disease.
\nHSGDTCL is believed to arise from the immature non-activated gamma-delta T cells (Tγδ) of Vdelta1 subtype which are predominantly seen in the gastrointestinal tract [39, 40, 41].
\nHSGDTL is mainly a disease of young men affecting in their second or third decade of life [42]. Main presenting features include systemic symptoms, hepatosplenomegaly and the absence of lymphadenopathy. The presenting feature of HSGDTL as per literature review include cytopenia, splenomegaly, fever, weight loss, fatigue and easy bruising. Laboratory abnormality included anemia, thrombocytopenia, neutropenia, mildly elevated AST, ALT and alkaline phosphatase. Markedly elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a frequently observed phenomenon. Fifty to 80% of cases can have peripheral neoplastic lymphocytes [20]. Very rarely can present with autoimmune hemolytic anemia [43]. Bone marrow involvement is very frequent at diagnosis [20, 44] Cytopenia is related to bone marrow infiltration, hypersplenism, and cytokine-induced hemophagocytic histiocytosis [45]. Re-appearance of thrombocytopenia is used as an indicator of relapse of disease in a patient who is in complete remission. Cutaneous and mediastinal involvement is very unusual. Presence of lymphadenopathy is very rare and would virtually rule out the possibility of HSGDTL.
\nThere exists no consensus in the treatment of these lymphomas due to its rarity and limited possibility of prospective trials. Most commonly used treatment regimen is CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) regimen with an acceptable response rate between 30 and 45%. But even with those who achieve complete remission, the median time to relapse remains around 4 months [22, 46, 47]. Few other treatment options previously tried includes corticosteroids, alkylating agents, anthracycline-containing agents like CHOP/HYPERCVAD regimen, purine analogs and cytarabine-cisplatin combination. Few cases have reported clinical response with alemtuzumab combined with purine analogs but no overall survival benefit was noted [48, 49, 50]. But this combination causes significant hematological toxicity causing deeper immunosuppression and the risk of infection reactivations.
\nAutologous and allogeneic stem cell transplantations have been used as a modality of treatment with good response. There are case reports which support bortezomib in combination with high dose CHOP chemotherapy followed by BEAM autograft as well as CHOP regimen followed by high dose methotrexate, high dose cyclophosphamide with subsequent autograft using conditioning regimen containing etoposide, ifosfamide, and ranimustine [51]. Allogeneic stem cell transplantation has previously been tried with encouraging results but at the expense of treatment-related mortality. Various myeloablative conditioning regimen has been tried usually including total body irradiation. Relapse-free interval has been shown to be between 12 and 58 months after treatment of aggressive disease with allogeneic transplant. Relapsed/refractory disease is usually resistant to conventional chemotherapy and there are previous case reports of successful second allogeneic transplant for patients who failed the first allograft [52]. Relapse of the disease is usually seen in the initially involved sites but lymphadenopathy is uncommon which signifies the homing of these neoplastic cells.
\nTreatment of relapsed/refractory disease with single agents like bevacizumab, vorinostat, lenalidomide, bortezomib, bendamustine and etoposide has been reported in single cases but no large case series data exist about their efficacy [53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59]. HSGDTL is a very aggressive disease which is resistant to most of the conventional chemotherapeutic agents. The median survival has been estimated to be <1 year for those treated with a CHOP-like regimen. Most of the patients do not live longer than 2 years [14]. Even though there is a lack of clear prognostic factors, data from small case series suggests male sex, lack of TCR rearrangements and failure of response has been shown to have negative outcomes [42]. New onset thrombocytopenia has been linked to the recurrence and severity of the disease in few cases [20].
\nAs per 2016 WHO classification of mature lymphoid, histiocytic and dendritic neoplasms, cutaneous T cell lymphomas are classified as subcutaneous panniculitis-like T cell lymphoma, mycosis fungoides (MF), Sezary syndrome, primary cutaneous gamma delta T cell lymphomas (PCGD-TCL), lymphoid polyposis, CD30+ primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma, primary cutaneous CD8+ aggressive epidermotropic cytotoxic T cell lymphomas, primary cutaneous acral CD8+ T-cell lymphoma, primary cutaneous lymphomas, not otherwise classified (PCTL, NOS), extranodal nasal-type NK/T-cell lymphomas and primary cutaneous CD4+ small/medium T-cell lymphoproliferative disorder.
\nPrimary cutaneous gamma delta T-cell lymphomas is a rare malignancy with a very aggressive course. There also exists rarer variants which have an indolent course as per few case reports [60]. Primary cutaneous gamma delta T-cell lymphomas have a preference for extremities and can present either as plaque, tumor or subcutaneous nodules. They do not exhibit EBV positivity and mostly have a mature cytotoxic phenotype.
\nPCGD-TCL accounts for <1% of all cutaneous TCLs [17]. It arises from clonal proliferation of cytotoxic gamma-delta T-cells in the skin. Mostly all cases are grouped as either mycosis fungoides-like or subcutaneous panniculitis-like cutaneous lymphomas. Generally, these mucocutaneous subtypes are not related to Epstein-Barr virus infections [61].
\nChronic antigenic stimulation along with decreased immunity remains the underlying risk factor for developing this disease. Some of the other risk factors seem to be underlying autoimmunity, malignancy, viral hepatitis and other lymphoproliferative disorders.
\nHistologically the infiltration patterns can involve epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue. These patterns can be present separately or can be seen within the same lesion [23]. The presentation can be disseminated, necrotizing or ulcerative. Pathological features involve angioinvasion, angiodestruction, and necrosis. Epidermal involvement may vary from being mild epidermotrophic to a marked pagetoid variety [62]. In the subcutaneous panniculitis type, infiltration with medium to large neoplastic cells with clumped chromatin is seen around adipose tissues. Occasionally blastoid cells with prominent nucleoli are noted.
\nThe neoplastic cells usually express CD2 and CD3 and are usually negative for CD4 and CD8. They also express CD7, CD56 and frequently are positive for cytotoxic proteins like TIA-1, granzyme B, and perforin. They do not express βF1.
\nTCRγ expression has also been reported in other primary cutaneous TCLs especially in mycosis fungoides and lymphomatoid papulosis. Even though these lymphomas are CD8 negative, few cases of CD8+ PCGD-TCLs have been reported [16].
\nNeoplastic cells always express TCRγ and TCRδ genetic rearrangements. They are also negative for EBV encoded RNA emphasizing that EBV infection does not play any role in their pathogenesis [23]. PCGD-TCLs show very complex cytogenetic alterations which include translocations involving breakpoints at 9p21, 14q11.2, 14q32.1 or 16q23.1. This suggests that the tumor evolvement is related to WWOX, TCL gene cluster, and BCL11B [63].
\nOther pathways involved in tumorigenesis includes pathways related to RAS, P13KT/MTOR, TP53 and MYC related signaling [26]. There are no characteristic mutations identified so far.
\nStaging involves a complete workup including hematological evaluation, biochemical evaluation, gastrointestinal evaluation, bone marrow biopsy, PET CT and/or computed tomography scans. Most commonly used staging system for PCGD-TCL is the International Society for Cutaneous Lymphoma/European Organization of Research and Treatment of Cancer (ISCL/EORTC) TNM classification system of cutaneous lymphoma other than mycosis fungoides and Sezary syndrome [64].
\nMost of the cases occur in older adults with a median age of 60 years. There seems to be no gender preference and both sexes are equally affected [65]. PCGD-TCL shows diffuse skin involvement with a predilection for extremities, thighs, and buttocks and spares the trunk. They may present either as a papule, plaque or nodule with ulceration and overlying epidermal necrosis. Few cases present as panniculitis either with dermal or subcutaneous infiltration [61].
\nIn one of the study gamma delta cutaneous T-cell lymphomas have been shown to have a poor survival when compared with alpha-beta subtype. The median survival for the former was 15 months whereas it was 166 months for latter. It was also found that patients who had subcutaneous involvement had decreased survival (13 months) compared to those who had epidermotrophic or dermal involvement (29 months). Poor prognostic factors included gamma delta phenotype, subcutaneous involvement, and presentation as clinical tumors [16].
\nMost of the patients have B symptoms like fever, weight loss, and an elevated LDH. Hemophagocytic syndrome is more likely with panniculitis like presentation [61]. Although most of the cases of PCGD-TCL is aggressive, there are also cases which are indolent. This indolent variety has been described previously as “ketron-goodman type” presenting as verrucoid lesions [53]. Mucosal and extranodal dissemination mainly to GI tract and nasopharynx are seen [66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72]. Widespread dissemination is rare and involvement if spleen, liver and bone marrow are infrequent. Only very few cases have lymph node involvement [73]. Rare cases of metastasis to testis and central nervous system have been reported.
\nNo standard treatment exists due to the rarity of this disease. Hence the treatment guidelines are mostly based on case reports. Most commonly used regimen remains to be doxorubicin-based regimen like CHOP. About 50% of the patients showed response but subsequently had a relapse of the disease with tumor progression and death. Steroids have been used with increased remission rate [74]. Low dose methotrexate and narrow-band ultraviolet radiation have also been used in few types of PCGDTL presenting as patch/plaque [75]. Bexarotene as a single agent and in combination was used as maintenance after CHOP-like regimen showing good response [76].
\nDue to the aggressive nature of the disease, autologous and allogeneic stem cell transplant has also been tried. In a small case series (n = 13) complete remission rate of 92% was achieved with stem cell transplant. But this study included alpha/beta phenotype as well which impairs the application of the results. The more indolent subtype remains responsive to steroids without the need for a more aggressive approach [60].
\nThe overall prognosis seems to be very poor due to aggressive nature and chemotherapy resistance of these lymphomas. They have a median survival of 15 months and a 5-year overall survival is around 10% [16]. But the more indolent subtypes usually have slightly better prognosis when compared to aggressive subtype. Poor prognostic factors included subcutaneous involvement, age > 40 years, associated cytopenias, tumors expressing CD56, CD95 without expressing CD8, extensive ulcerated lesions at presentation, central nervous system (CNS) involvement and the presence of hemophagocytic syndrome as per the largest reported series [77, 78].
\nThis type of lymphoma affects the mucosal tract lining nasopharynx, intestine, breast, larynx, lung, and testis indicating the homing of these γδ T-cells. These are very aggressive lymphomas and due to the rarity of the disease, information regarding the presentation and treatment is only from small case series.
\nMucosal gamma-delta lymphoma is very rare aggressive tumor whose incidence cannot be predicted due to rarity and limited literature evidence. Chronic antigenic stimulation along with prolonged immune suppression seems to be a major risk factor in the development of this disease. Patients with underlying hypogammaglobulinemia, selective IgA deficiency, and T cell deficiency are more prone to develop this disease. In one of the case series, it was found that patients who developed nasal lymphoma had past history of chronic sinusitis. Similarly, pulmonary lymphomas developed in a background of opportunistic pulmonary infections. Gastric and intestinal lymphomas had a predisposing factor of
Morphologically they are variable in nature presenting either as small to medium-sized cells or as large pleomorphic variants. Occasionally cells had abundant clear cytoplasm with irregular nuclei with condensed chromatin. Other features commonly seen include angioinvasion, angiocentrism, epitheliotropism and necrosis [42].
\nMost of them express TCRγδ (δTCR1+) but are negative for TCR αβ. They commonly express CD2 and CD3 but did not express CD4, CD8, and CD5. CD7 may be variable. CD56 is expressed mostly by nasal T-cell lymphomas and are infrequent in other types. Since the tumor arises from activated cytotoxic T cells, there is a positive expression for T cell intracellular antigen 1 (TIA1), granzyme B, and perforin. EBV association has been reported in nasal, laryngeal and gastrointestinal mucosal gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma. EBV-encoded latent membrane protein studied by immunohistochemistry is found positive in these variants [42].
\nNeoplastic cells showed clonal γ chain rearrangement showing evidence of T cell lineage and clonality. They show positivity for EBV encoded RNA emphasizing that EBV infection does play a role in their pathogenesis. No other characteristic mutations have been identified so far.
\nMucosal gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas usually have an aggressive course with high recurrence rate presenting both with a local and systemic disease. In one of the case series, the median age of the patient was 48 years. Nasal lymphomas present as destructive nasal lesions as well as nasal obstruction. Gastrointestinal lymphomas usually involve either localized or diffuse areas of the gut thereby presenting as peritonitis and perforation [66]. Most of the patients present with B symptoms but rarely have any lymphadenopathy or bone marrow involvement. Elevated LDH and hypogammaglobulinemia were observed in few cases [66].
\nDue to the rarity of the disease, no guidelines exist. Literature evidences are available for treatment with CHOP-like regimen and stem cell transplantation. Clinical outcome is mostly associated with short overall survival. Durable remission was seen only in few cases. In a small case series of 11 patients, most of the patients died within 1 year and only three had some durable response lasting more than a year [66].
\nGamma-delta T-LGL represents 2–3% of all mature lymphocytic leukemia. Most of the T-LGL have αβ rearrangements and are positive for CD8, CD16, CD57. γδ T-cell large granular lymphocytic (T-LGL) is a very rare heterogeneous disorder of mature lymphocytes with unique morphology and an indolent clinical course. Although this variant is similar to the common T-LGL, some differences exist in clinical presentation, immunophenotype and organ involvement.
\nγδ T-LGL accounts for <5% of all T-LGLs. Usually, this type of lymphoma presents in patients >50 years old. Underlying immunosuppression is an associated risk factor for its development. Association with rheumatoid arthritis has been reported in about 20% of cases of γδ T-LGL and 25% of αβ T-LGL [80, 81, 82].
\nNeoplastic cells can be infiltrated most commonly in bone marrow and spleen. When present in peripheral blood, they appear as large granular lymphocytes with azurophilic granules. Bone marrow involvement is characterized by lymphoid aggregates especially in the interstitial and intrasinusoidal areas [83]. Splenic involvement is characterized by infiltration of small lymphocytes with dense chromatin mostly concentrated in the red pulp rather than the white pulp [84, 85].
\nThe neoplastic cells show positivity for pan T cell antigens CD2, CD3, and CD7. CD5 may be variable. They are usually CD8 positive and CD4 negative but cases with CD8 positivity has been reported previously [80, 81, 83, 86]. They show variable expression for CD16, CD56, and CD57. Cytotoxic markers like granzyme B and TIA-1 are seen in all cases. Flow cytometry usually shows positive expression for TCRγδ (δTCR1+) and is negative for TCR αβ. Immunohistochemical studies show TCRγ and negative for βF1 (marker for TCRβ).
\nNeoplastic cells showed clonal γ chain rearrangement showing evidence of T cell lineage and clonality. Due to similar immunophenotype, especially of CD4-CD8− T-LGL with hepatosplenic gamma-delta T-cell lymphoma, further cytogenetic and FISH analysis need to be done to prove negativity for isochromosome 7q (i7q) [80, 83].
\nB symptom is common particularly with fever and fatigue predominating. The lab abnormality includes anemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia with some cases presenting with increased severity. Not all patients present with lymphocytosis and occasionally lymphopenia is also observed. The peripheral smear shows large lymphocytes with prominent azurophilic granules in patients presenting with lymphocytosis. Splenomegaly is a common finding, but lymphadenopathy is rare. Bone marrow involvement is present mostly and shows predominantly an interstitial or less commonly intrasinusoidal pattern of infiltration. Associated autoimmune disorders like autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA), immune thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), rheumatoid disorder, pure red cell aplasia is also commonly observed [83].
\nThe clinical course is mostly indolent. T-LGL generally is a chronic disorder with a good 10-year survival of 80% with around half of the patients not requiring any therapy [80, 81, 83, 87]. Spontaneous regression has been seen in few cases [88, 89]. The common reason for therapy remains to be low blood counts followed by hemolysis and splenomegaly. Several treatments like methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, fludarabine, pentostatin either alone or in combination with steroids have been tried [90, 91, 92, 93]. More resistant or advanced disease needs cytotoxic chemotherapy. Clinical course can be aggressive especially if they express CD56 antigen [94]. Splenectomy was also done as part of the treatment of ITP associated with this disorder.
\nNodal gamma delta TCL is a very rare subtype within gamma delta T-cell lymphomas. Very limited information is available in the literature due to the extreme rarity of this variant. So far only six cases of nodal gamma delta lymphomas have been reported. Usually, the presentation is in the form of disseminated nodal involvement.
\nIncidence difficult to predict due to the rarity of the disease. Chronic antigenic stimulation associated with immunosuppression plays a major role in the pathogenesis. Few case reports also suggest the role of EBV in lymphomagenesis.
\nNeoplastic cells are very variable. They can present as a diffuse pleomorphic proliferation of small to medium-sized lymphoid cells with an irregular nucleus and moderate cytoplasm. They can also present as large pleomorphic cells or anaplastic or angioimmunoblastic like cells [42]. In one case report describing two cases of nodal gamma delta T-cell lymphoma, nodal preservation was noted in the first case whereas complete destruction of architecture was observed in the other [95]. The second case presented with lymphadenopathy and hepatosplenomegaly and had infiltration of lymphoid cells in the intrasinusoidal area of the lymph node. Predominant involvement of T zones was observed in one case [96]. Hence there may be two different patterns of presentation with diffuse pleomorphic involvement mimicking classical αβ T-cell lymphoma or hepatosplenic involvement mimicking hepatosplenic gamma-delta lymphoma [97].
\nThe neoplastic cells express CD2, CD3, CD43, CD45. They also exhibit positivity for TIA-1, granzyme B and displayed a gamma delta phenotype (deltaTCR1+, Vdelta1+, Vdelta2−, Vdelta3−, betaF1−).
\nThe genotypic analysis shows TCR gamma-chain gene rearrangement pattern. The neoplastic cells also show expression of the latent membrane protein-1 by immunohistochemistry and EBV-encoded small RNAs by in situ hybridization. EBV positivity was also observed in tumor recurrence as reported in one case report [98]. A complex cytogenetic abnormality is seen in few cases, but no specific cytogenetic abnormality exists for this variant.
\nPatients most commonly present with lymphadenopathy. Usually, there is a past history of immunosuppression. In one case report, nodal gamma delta T-cell lymphoma presented post renal transplant in one case and after cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in another case. Bone marrow infiltration and hepatosplenomegaly have also been reported [95].
\nThis subtype is very resistant to conventional chemotherapy and has a very poor prognosis. Patients presenting with this type of lymphoma died within a short time after diagnosis [95].
\nEven though WHO 2016 classification of lymphoid malignancies recognizes four entities of gamma delta lymphomas, few more subtypes have been reported in literature which remains unclassified. These clinically important lymphomas pose a clinical challenge in diagnosis and management due to rarity and critical gap in consensus of treatment. Combination of clinical picture, morphology, immunophenotyping, molecular techniques are used in combination due to the diagnostic difficulties of these lymphomas. The poor prognosis associated with these subtypes is related to the rapidly evolving clinical picture and refractoriness to standard chemotherapies. Cytarabine combined with platinum-based regimen followed by stem cell transplantation seems to be the optimal management option for eligible patients. Encouraging prompt reporting of these rarer entities needs to be encouraged to further advance our understanding thus allowing newer perspective in the management.
\n\n
Ramachandran Lakshmipathy, FRCPath, Bristol, UK.
Saravanan S. Karuppagounder, PhD, Burke Neurological Institute and Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, White Plains, NY 10605.
Oleg Reznik, Illustrator.
None.
In designing and operating electric power networks or implementing major expansions to existing networks, a number of key issues regarding the technical performance of the network at both the transmission and distribution (T and D) levels must be ascertained. These include voltage regulation, voltage fluctuations, rapid voltage rise, electrical loses, distribution plant loading and utilization, fault level, generation stability, harmonics, phase balancing, system security, and supply availability [1]. The approach of Power Utilities to address any constraints or violations, experienced within medium voltage networks, would be based on extensive technical evaluation. While overvoltage is a concern if roof-top solar-photovoltaic (RTPV) penetration is not regulated [2], this study shows the benefit of RTPV and/or including battery energy storage systems (BESS), as this offers relief for constrained networks.
Real-time power system analysis deals with two critical criteria, from the network appraisal, this being Voltage and Thermal constraints/violations. From the analysis, a network was identified which has both voltage and thermal violations. This study explores the technical influence that RTPV has on MV networks. From the appraisal analysis, a most fitting network type was identified which is found most common amongst the feeders that were analyzed. The predominate network classification is found to be a C2, TZ2 type network [3, 4]. In-line with the investigative violations (voltage and thermal) these networks have a tolerable minimum voltage of 95.5% during normal conditions, and 93.5% during abnormal conditions.
The thermal limit defined in Table 1 indicates this to be alarming above 90% of its rated capacity.
Network type | Feeder type | Network class | Network voltage (kV) | Conductor size/type | Maximum allowed MV across backbone | Maximum allowed MV line/cable loading |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Urban | Cable | C1 | 11 | 185 mm2 | 2% | 50% of normal to allow for N-1 |
Urban | Cable | C1 | 22 | 95 mm2 | 2% | 50% of normal to allow for N-1 |
Rural | Overhead | C2 | 11 | Hare | 7.5% | 90% of rate A3 |
Rural | Overhead | C2 | 22 | Hare | 7.5% | 90% of rate A |
Network characteristics for calculating customer number limits [5].
The MV network selected for this study is Madadeni NB36. Table 2 shows the appraisal results of Madadeni NB36; this network has been selected due to having both voltage and thermal violations. This study goes on to showcase how RTPV and/or BESS influences the violations identified on NB36.
Parameter | Value | Units |
---|---|---|
Nominal Voltage | 11 | kV |
Time of Feeder Peak | Winter-WD-18:30 | Seasonal Time |
Feeder Peak S | 4.35 | MVA |
Feeder P at Peak S | 4.23 | MW |
Feeder Q at Peak S | 0.58 | MVARs |
Feeder PF at Peak S | 0.97 | pf |
OC Setting | 250 | A |
Load % of OC Setting | 93 | % |
Feeder Minimum Voltage p.u. | 92.7 | % |
Max Equipment Loading % | 102 | % |
MV/LV (11-22 kV/400-230 V) Xfr Count | 65 | Count |
Installed Capacity | 5.29 | MVA |
Total Line Length | 23.77 | km |
Backbone Length | 13.79 | km |
Customer Base | 3378 | Count |
Madadeni NB36 appraisal data [6].
As stated in Table 2, NB36 peaks during a winter’s weekday at 18:30. Annual statistical metering data was analyzed and using statistical analysis methods, data has been fashioned into four, twenty-four hours, thirty-minute intervals; seasonal profiles, based on the four weather seasons. The load profile for a winter’s weekday demonstrates the peak loading period and is used throughout this chapter to demonstrate the effective influence of RTPV and/or BESS.
Figure 1 shows a typically generated PV profile which have been defined to represent each season [7, 8]. The duration of sunlight hours differs between each season. To be consistent with the network analysis, the winter PV profile was selected to match the network breakers winters statistical load profile.
Typical p.u. generated seasonal PV output profile.
When considering RTPV, some configurations should be considered to decide on the most cost-effective or technically beneficial solution for both the Utility and Customer. This chapter considers the following configurations:
BESS alone
RTPV alone
RTPV with BESS
Varied levels of BESS
Power simulation has been conducted in Power Factory, the results have been extracted, analyzed and stated in the legends field within the applicable figures.
The scope of this study relates to RTPV installations connected to every customer connected to an MV network, this is defined as the high penetration of RTPV. The equipment type used in this study is found to be commonly available in South Africa.
While some studies consider large PV installation’s sizes to show benefits to customers [9], this study utilizes an average solar panel output of a single 200 W panel installed at every connected customer [10], this is a very conservative approach taking into account that panel outputs degrade over time due to aging and associated output reduction [11], the build-up of dirt/residue and orientation.
Further to this the battery technology assumed in the assessments, also commonly available, are lead-acid type batteries. These batteries have a depth of discharge rate (DOD) and while it is common to find a DOD of 80%, for the purposes of this study it is assumed that a 100-ampere hour battery with a DOD or 50% is utilized offering 600 W of power. Inverter capabilities [12] have been assumed to operate at 7 amps due to low household breaker sizing and inverter costings. This simulation design, though very conservative, leads to defining the required design for households. The criteria of the PV, battery and inverter that have been utilized in this study are considered as a base design which can be improved upon implementation.
Considering battery energy storage systems (BESS) without any external generating source would require that its charging is supported by the electrical grid. Analysis in [13] shows that there is not any reduction in the total daily energy supplied by the Utility, hence the only benefit that can be achieved would be for the Utilities’ peak load shaving. This arrangement shows no customer benefit and does not result in any energy saving for the Power Utility either. For a consumer with a BESS installation only, a likely benefit is to run on charge cycles during periods of low load and inject at periods of high utility demand especially if tariffs are based on time of use.
Analysis has been considered for each residential customer having 200 W (watts) of installed roof-top photovoltaic (RTPV) capacity, an overview of this connection can be seen in Figure 2. It is assumed that if the power generated by the RTPV would exceed their instantaneous demand then the excess power would feed into the electrical grid.
Conventional RTPV installation [
Figure 3 shows the comparison of RTPV and the network normal power curves. The network normal (P) is the load profile for the study. It can be seen that during daylight hours RTPV dispatches power; hence the reduction of power can be seen when compared to the network normal curve.
Active power of NB36 with 200 W RTPV penetration, considered for a winter weekday.
From this analysis, it is seen that the Utility loses 5.76% in revenue resulting from an overall reduction in dispatched power. While the supplied power to the customer from the utility is reduced by 5.8%, referring to data in Figure 4. Hence the benefit to the customer is credited to the RTPV injection. The disadvantage when considering RTPV alone is that it feeds only during daylight hours, there is no effect to the network morning and evening peaks period; the peak violations mainly exist during the evening peak time. This leaves the question of what will be the influence of RTPV combined with BESS.
Sending active power, power consumed by customers and P losses, considered for a winter weekday.
Considering the same RTPV installed capacity of 200 W per residential home. In addition to this, it is assumed that each home is equipped with a battery which has 600 W of dispatchable power; an overview of this connection is seen in Figure 5. This inclusion of BESS is limited only by its charge and discharge rate. Based on the available power generated by a 200 W RTPV source, it was then assumed that the battery would reasonably charge and discharge at less than 7 amps.
RTPV with battery storage [
The network normal (P) is the load profile for the study. Figure 6 shows the comparison of RTPV with and without BESS. During daylight hours 80 W of power is allowed to charge the battery while the remaining power supplies the customer or overflows onto the electrical grid. During the evening peak period, the same 80 W is dispatched from the stored energy over a period of 7.5 hours.
Active power of NB36 with 200 W RTPV penetration and BESS, considered for a winter weekday.
As demonstrated in Figure 6, RTPV including BESS can be seen to benefit both the Utility and Customer. The Utility benefits by the reduced voltage regulation and thermal violations which are experienced during the evening peak, and the Customer benefits by an overall reduction in power consumed. From this analysis, it is seen that the Utility loses 5.76% in revenue. While the customer’s power consumption, referring to data in Figure 4, is reduced by 5.8%. Further investigation of Figure 4 shows a negligible difference of power consumed if the customer has RTPV alone or including BESS.
While the results from the above analysis speak of how the Utility and Customers are affected, there still raises the fundamental concern related to the constraints experienced on NB36. At normal, when the load is peaking, it’s found that the minimum Voltage is 92.7% and the network is thermally loaded to 102%. The analysis shows that if customers provide back-feeding, from their stored energy, during peak times, it will reduce the constraints on the network. Analysis has considered the back-feeding of 80 W, following the discussion above, and 250 W for each residential customer.
Figure 7 reflects the effect of the voltage along the backbone of NB36, also showing the ability of BESS to dispatch power at 80 W and 250 W. It can be seen that with an increasing ability of the BESS to dispatch power, it alleviates the voltage constraint by <1% at 80 W, and 2.1% at 250 W.
NB36 minimum voltage at peak (winter weekday – 18:30).
Figure 8 shows that the normal network condition exceeds the rating of the conductor at peak loading.
NB36 thermal rating vs. load current.
With BESS dispatching power we see that the thermal constraint is reduced from 102–94% when 80 W of power is dispatched, and improved further when 250 W is dispatched to 79.8%.
Figure 9 shows the network sending power, consumed power (including with RTPV, and RTPV+BESS). The difference between the sending power and consumed power is attributed to the technical losses resulting from transmitting power down the network.
Sending active power, power consumed by customers and P losses, considered for a winter weekday.
Technical losses are calculated as a percentage of the total load of the feeder including both no-load and load losses. The results from the analysis help to obtain a view of the network losses; this can be used as a basis for historic trending and benchmarking and can be used as one of the triggers for network strengthening. Therefore, this statistic also aids the conditioning of the priority ranking criteria. DER’s may have a significant effect on network losses. A generator can lower or increase losses, depending on its location and the network configuration [16].
The technical losses vary slightly between the different options analyzed:
Network sending power vs. Consumed power (Network normal) = 5.41%
Network sending power vs. Consumed power (with RTPV) = 5.47%
Network sending power vs. Consumed power (With RTPV+BESS) = 5.49%
This chapter has demonstrated the benefit of roof-top solar photovoltaic and/or including battery energy storage systems. It offers relief for constrained networks in dense and radial distribution systems. While optimization techniques can be used to reduce violations, these are still limited do not provide effective short-term solutions when dealing with constrained networks in dense and radial distribution systems. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) and solar rooftop photovoltaics (RTPV) are a viable distributed energy resource to alleviate violations which are constraining medium voltage (MV) networks. The results show the following:
This option does not benefit the customer, as the batteries require grid connection to charge and discharge, not to mention efficiency losses. If discharging the stored energy occurs during peak periods, this can benefit the utility by reducing the peak violations. Therefore, it is recommended that a tariff/time-of-use incentive is introduced to motivate customers for BESS only installations.
This is an excellent way for a customer to reduce his overall electrical utility bill. Unfortunately, the utility is negatively affected by the reduced sale of electricity.
The results show that with the addition of RTPV including BESS the utility still loses revenue. However, with the addition of BESS, Utilities have the ability to reduce technical violations during peak periods. Installing BESS, in this manner, shows no benefit to the customer. Therefore, it is recommended that a tariff/time-of-use incentive is introduced to motivate customers for RTPV+BESS installations.
Though RTPV inclusive of BESS reduces the violations on the network; it can be seen from Figures 7 and 8 that voltage and thermal violations persist for this specific network. Therefore, it is necessary to consider an increased installation of BESS. 250 W of dispatchable power offered the most appropriate quantity of power to alleviate the violations. The effect on technical power losses: seen in Figure 9, shows a constant 5.41%–5.49% of technical power losses for each of the above considerations. This demonstrates that technical losses are similarly proportioned to its source sending power when conducting analysis on the various installation types relating to RTPV/BESS. While these amounts are typical and expected for a reticulation network – losses will defer due to topology, loading and design of networks.
For Utilities and Municipalities, the extent of challenges encountered when considering large scale installations of RTPV would be related to availability and visibility of data for adequate analysis. Current standards do not address the practical design solutions needed for all variations within customer installations and expectancy from RTPV. This can result in non-standard customer installations which will lead to undesirable impacts on the source and shared utility power systems.
Visibility and compliance of electricity supply regulations are required at the point of supply which is conditioned to be met at the point of supply and not the point of generator connection which is embedded in the customer’s installation. Therefore, smart metering systems with predefined charge and discharge times/durations need to accompany RTPV installations. This requires an evaluation of currently employed metering technology, to ensure they accommodate these operational scenarios.
The cost for an electrical system, in which a customer is partially or completely off-grid, will still be attributed to the Utility to ensure the security of supply. Hence Utilities should take the lead in this segment of small-scale embedded generation to remain viable and relevant. Utilities may consider engaging suppliers to carry out maintenance and/or repairs during initial warranty periods.
Data visibility, both topological and metered data, is crucial for power system analysis, and need to be available and validated from time to time to cater for load growth. Utilities must ensure competent staffing for data acquisition and analysis. There may be a lack of data validity for non-telemetered devices, such as unknown tap positioning of reticulation transformers, conductors or cables which has been replaced with different ratings and types. This can be challenging when configuring simulation models.
For this study analysis was given to the network classification that was predominately found with residential type loads, which has been identified as C2 TZ2 type. This study, therefore, adopted a common sending voltage regulation set point of 1.03pu applied at reticulation busses. The voltage limit allowable for a normal condition is 95.5% and for abnormal conditions are 93.5. From an operations view, the abnormal limit is the benchmark to be adhered to, while network planners work with the normal limit of 95.5%.
Continuous network changes due to rising electrification and illegal connections discredits network analysis and requires more frequent update of simulation models. Pre-existing RTPV installations may pose a problem if they do not meet compliance requirements. Utilities need to conduct surveys of pre-existing RTPV installations and update its electrical connection to the power grid.
It is recommended that during site visits, meter re-programming including ‘time-of-use’ tariffs and amendments to supply agreements, can be implemented. Presently, there is no information on households which has become “self-suppliers” due to lack of a registry for small-scale embedded PV plants. This will assist in ensuring that customer contributions to unbalance be limited to 1% voltage unbalance at the point-of-common coupling.
Thanks to Dayahalen Chetty of Eskom Holdings SOC Ltd.,
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In this chapter, the common uses of this natural product in agriculture and its potential uses in plant disease control are reviewed. The last advanced researches as seed coating, plant resistance elicitation and soil amendment applications are also described. Chitosan is a deacetylated derivative of chitin that is naturally present in the fungal cell wall and in crustacean shells from which it can be easily extracted. Chitosan has been reported to possess antifungal and antibacterial activity and it showed to be effective against seedborne pathogens when applied as seed treatment. It can form physical barriers (film) around the seed surface, and it can vehicular other antimicrobial compounds that could be added to the seed treatments. Chitosan behaves as a resistance elicitor inducing both local and systemic plant defence responses even when applied to the seeds. The chitosan used as soil amendment was shown to give many benefits to different plant species by reducing the pathogen attack and infection. Concluding, the chitosan is an active molecule that finds many possibilities for application in agriculture, including plant disease control.",book:{id:"5412",slug:"biological-activities-and-application-of-marine-polysaccharides",title:"Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Biological Activities and Application of Marine Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Laura Orzali, Beatrice Corsi, Cinzia Forni and Luca Riccioni",authors:[{id:"189361",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Orzali",slug:"laura-orzali",fullName:"Laura Orzali"},{id:"189612",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Riccioni",slug:"luca-riccioni",fullName:"Luca Riccioni"},{id:"189614",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Corsi",slug:"beatrice-corsi",fullName:"Beatrice Corsi"},{id:"189615",title:"Prof.",name:"Cinzia",middleName:null,surname:"Forni",slug:"cinzia-forni",fullName:"Cinzia Forni"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64570",title:"Banana Pseudo-Stem Fiber: Preparation, Characteristics, and Applications",slug:"banana-pseudo-stem-fiber-preparation-characteristics-and-applications",totalDownloads:9567,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Banana is one of the most well-known and useful plants in the world. Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66580,totalCrossrefCites:47,totalDimensionsCites:98,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"68437",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch and Its Application in the Food Industry",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch-and-its-application-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:4831,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:51,abstract:"Starch is an important food product and a versatile biomaterial used world-wide for different purposes in many industrial sectors including foods, health, textile, chemical and engineering sector. Starch versatility in industrial applications is largely defined by its physicochemical properties and functionality. Starch in its native form has limited functionality and application. But advancements in biotechnology and chemical technological have led to wide-range modification of starch for different purposes. The objective of this chapter is to examine the different chemical reactions of starch and expose the food applications of the modification products. Several literatures on starch and reaction chemistry including online journals and books were analyzed, harmonized and rationalized. The reactions and mechanisms presented are explained based on the principles of reaction chemistry. Chemical modification of starch is based on the chemical reactivity of the constituent glucose monomers which are polyhydroxyl and can undergo several reactions. Starch can undergo reactions such as hydrolysis, esterification, etherification and oxidation. These reactions give modified starches which can be used in baked foods, confectionaries, soups and salad dressings. This chapter discusses the different chemical reactions of starch, the associated changes in functionality, as well as the applications of chemically modified starches in the food industry.",book:{id:"8170",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch",fullTitle:"Chemical Properties of Starch"},signatures:"Henry Omoregie Egharevba",authors:[{id:"300976",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Henry",middleName:"Omoregie",surname:"O. Egharevba",slug:"henry-o.-egharevba",fullName:"Henry O. Egharevba"}]},{id:"63169",title:"The Dairy Industry: Process, Monitoring, Standards, and Quality",slug:"the-dairy-industry-process-monitoring-standards-and-quality",totalDownloads:9193,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Sampling and analysis occur along the milk processing train: from collection at farm level, to intake at the diary plant, the processing steps, and the end products. Milk has a short shelf life; however, products such as milk powders have allowed a global industry to be developed. Quality control tests are vital to support activities for hygiene and food standards to meet regulatory and customer demands. Multiples of chemical and microbiological contamination tests are undertaken. Hazard analysis testing strategies are necessary, but some tests may be redundant; it is therefore vital to identify product optimization quality control strategies. The time taken to undergo testing and turnaround time are rarely measured. The dairy industry is a traditional industry with a low margin commodity. Industry 4.0 vision for dairy manufacturing is to introduce the aspects of operational excellence and implementation of information and communications technologies. The dairy industries’ reply to Industry 4.0 is represented predominantly by proactive maintenance and optimization of production and logistical chains, such as robotic milking machines and processing and packaging line automation reinforced by sensors for rapid chemical and microbial analysis with improved and real-time data management. This chapter reviews the processing trains with suggestions for improved optimization.",book:{id:"6817",slug:"descriptive-food-science",title:"Descriptive Food Science",fullTitle:"Descriptive Food Science"},signatures:"Niamh Burke, Krzysztof A. Zacharski, Mark Southern, Paul Hogan,\nMichael P. Ryan and Catherine C. 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Saad and Ahmed M. Elshahed",authors:[{id:"144204",title:"Prof.",name:"Abobkar",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"abobkar-mohamed",fullName:"Abobkar Mohamed"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"33",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81786",title:"Mycotoxins … Silent Death",slug:"mycotoxins-silent-death",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104382",abstract:"There are many types of fungi that produce secondary metabolites called mycotoxins. These compounds are very dangerous to humans and animals, as exposure to them causes acute or chronic toxicity. Temperature, humidity and pH are important environmental factors in the production of mycotoxins. There are about 500 types of mycotoxins that are found in many agricultural products such as peanut, cereals, wines, fruit juice, dried fruits, feed, and other foodstuffs. Among the most important genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Altenaria, Fusarium, and others. Some of them infect plants in the field and produce mycotoxin, while others infect agricultural crops, foodstuffs, and feed in the store and produce mycotoxin during storage conditions. Mycotoxins are divided into various groups according to the degree of their impact and danger, into highly toxic, low toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic. This is depends on the chemical composition of the different types of mycotoxins, which are an open hydrocarbon chain with low molecular weights ranging between 100 and 697 Da. The biological effects of mycotoxins include damage to living tissues, suppression of immunity, and neurological disorders. Aflatoxins are one of the most dangerous mycotoxins as they are the main cause of hepatocellular carcinoma and the fifth most common carcinogen in the world.",book:{id:"11023",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11023.jpg"},signatures:"Azhar A. Alhaddad"},{id:"81871",title:"The Influence of Some Contaminants in Food Quality",slug:"the-influence-of-some-contaminants-in-food-quality",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102911",abstract:"The concept of food quality has been following scientific and technological evolution. Currently, producers, users, consumers, as well as public authorities, have well defined their expectations regarding the quality requirements in the food sector. These projections are related to several parameters that are no longer seen only from a safety and nutritional point of view. Thus, the characteristics of food products must fulfill criteria that embrace their origin, esthetics, convenience, functionality, ethics, organoleptic and must result in benefit. The needs of consumers increasingly reflect public interests, which are supervised by public authorities that hold technical and scientific information that allows them to advocate normative regulations regarding defects, adulteration, and fraud, increasing awareness in the food quality field. Since food quality and safety are two increasingly interconnected domains, the different EU legislation and regulations impose procedures for the determination of contaminants. In this chapter, we will only cover three main topics, namely heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and mycotoxins.",book:{id:"11023",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11023.jpg"},signatures:"Marisa Nicolai, Paula Pereira and Lídia Palma"},{id:"81679",title:"The Implications of Replacing Synthetic Antioxidants with Natural Ones in the Food Systems",slug:"the-implications-of-replacing-synthetic-antioxidants-with-natural-ones-in-the-food-systems",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103810",abstract:"Antioxidants are substances that delay/prevent the autoxidation process of other compounds or neutralize free radicals which are applicable in food processing industries to hinder oxidation, enhance flavor, aroma and color. Types of antioxidants include synthetic and natural ones as the major types, and others as endogenous, exogenous, dietary antioxidants etc. Whereas synthetic antioxidants are products of artificial synthesis, natural antioxidants are products of natural synthesis occurring in plants, animals, and also in bacteria. Though synthetic antioxidants have been associated with side effects that affect health at the long term, their usage in food system was higher from the inception of applications of antioxidants as food preservatives. Hence, the increasing suggestion of their replacement with the natural ones, which the literature associated with benefits like enhancement of food quality, broadening orientations of food to include health interest, promotion of eco-friendly food system/circular economy, processing more composite foods for maximum exploitation of natural antioxidants, in addition to, repositioning food systems as means of reducing/preventing occurrences of some chronic diseases. The replacement may promote interest in increasing values derivable from food systems and facilitate the accomplishment of food safety and food security in every society that makes it part of its food policy.",book:{id:"10362",title:"Natural Food Additives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10362.jpg"},signatures:"Thomas Amarachukwu Uzombah"},{id:"81408",title:"Molecular Breeding of Sweetpotato Carotenoids",slug:"molecular-breeding-of-sweetpotato-carotenoids",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101849",abstract:"Sweetpotato [sweet potato; Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] is the seventh most valued food crop of the world. It has an inherent ability to grow under diverse agro-ecological and microclimatic zones ranging from tropical and subtropical zones to temperate areas with its tuberous roots enriched with the secondary metabolites of immense nutritional value. Among these, carotenoids are the most conspicuous one for having their use in nutritional, pharmaceutical, food, feed, aquaculture, and cosmetic industries. In food industries, carotenoids are used as food additives being antioxidants with attractive colors. Despite the immense economic importance, sweetpotato has received lesser attention in terms of its breeding with improved varieties. The conventional method of breeding by crossing has not been much successful due to the complexity of genome sterility and cross-incompatibility. Hence, the modern molecular breeding approaches, e.g. genetic, genomic, and metabolic (pathway) engineering, have been applied to this crop by some of researchers in Japan, Korea, and China to generate various cultivars with improved quantities and qualities of carotenoids. This has also opened a new gate for molecular breeders to engineer new sweetpotato cultivars enriched with carotenoids under current global scenario of dramatically rising climatic changes where novel food resources are bitterly needed, especially under alarmingly growing world population, the majority of which suffers from malnutrition.",book:{id:"10362",title:"Natural Food Additives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10362.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Zubair Khan, Miho Takemura, Takahashi Maoka, Jun-ichiro Hattan, Motoyasu Otani and Norihiko Misawa"},{id:"80942",title:"Mycotoxin Decontamination of Foods Using Nonthermal Plasma and Plasma-Activated Water",slug:"mycotoxin-decontamination-of-foods-using-nonthermal-plasma-and-plasma-activated-water",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103779",abstract:"Mycotoxins are food safety and public health concerns due to their widespread contamination in agricultural products and adverse health effects on humans. Several decontamination techniques, including physical-, chemical-, and thermal-based treatments, are employed to minimize the levels of mycotoxins in food. However, these treatments present disadvantages, such as negative impacts on the quality and leftover chemical residues on the treated food after physical- and chemical-based treatments. Furthermore, mycotoxins are resistant to heat, thus contributing to the insufficiency of thermal treatments for complete mycotoxin degradation. The use of alternative nonthermal-based treatments, such as nonthermal plasma (NTP) and plasma-activated water (PAW) for mycotoxin degradation in food, have been recently explored to overcome these limitations. NTP and PAW treatments are known to minimize the unfavorable changes in food quality while ensuring safety from food contaminants. The basics of NTP and PAW technologies, their mycotoxin decontamination efficiencies, their underlying mechanisms of action, effects on food quality, and the safety of mycotoxin degradation byproducts and treated food are hereby discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"11023",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11023.jpg"},signatures:"Hsiu-Ling Chen, Rachelle D. Arcega, Samuel Herianto, Chih-Yao Hou and Chia-Min Lin"},{id:"80268",title:"Animal Feeds Mycotoxins and Risk Management",slug:"animal-feeds-mycotoxins-and-risk-management",totalDownloads:84,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102010",abstract:"The demand for livestock products is the main factor affecting the demand for livestock feeds worldwide. However, animal feed safety has gradually become more important, with mycotoxins representing one of the most significant hazards. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced naturally by fungi that grow on various agriculture commodities. Aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin, trichothecene, and zearalenone are the more prevalent mycotoxins in animal feeds. Some of mycotoxins impacts include; loss of animal and human health, reduced animal productivity, increased veterinary service costs, feed disposal and increased research costs which enhance the importance of mycotoxins detoxification. Contamination of feeds may occur both during pre-harvest and post-harvest. The purpose of this chapter is to review the most prevalent mycotoxins in animal feeds, reveal the origin of mycotoxins contamination and the possible risks they pose to feeds and livestock. This chapter also gives an overview of the most important factors that influence mold growth and mycotoxin production as well as the economic impacts of mycotoxins. To the end of this chapter, mycotoxins preventive methods, both preharvest and postharvest, are well discussed.",book:{id:"11023",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11023.jpg"},signatures:"Zacharia Waithaka Ng’ang’a and Eric Niyonshuti"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:18},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"9",type:"subseries",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",slug:"cecilia-cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"gil-goncalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",slug:"johann-f.-osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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