Asymmetric RO membranes.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3306",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Physical and Chemical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes",title:"Physical and Chemical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Carbon nanotubes are rolled up graphene sheets with a quasi-one-dimensional structure of nanometer-scale diameter. In these last twenty years, carbon nanotubes have attracted much attention from physicists, chemists, material scientists, and electronic device engineers because of their excellent structural, electronic, optical, chemical and mechanical properties. Carbon nanotube research, especially that aiming at industrial applications, is becoming more important. This book covers recent research topics regarding the physical, structural, chemical and electric properties on carbon nanotubes. All chapters were written by researchers who are active on the front lines. 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Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh completed his Ph.D. in Veterinary Science from Nanjing Agricultural University, China. He has published more than 100 research and review articles in national and international peer-reviewed journals. He is an editor/editorial board member of many scholarly journals in the area of animal health and production.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225390/images/system/225390.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh was born in Mehrabpur, Sindh, Pakistan. He completed his studies in Veterinary Medicine and Masters in Veterinary Microbiology in 2003 and 2007 respectively, with distinguished grades. 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Because of the way they can be technologically developed, they allow for easier handling, lower cost of production, and superior performance capacities when it comes to permeability and selectivity parameters. Cadotte [1] produced one of the earliest reviews of the polymeric RO membrane materials and specifically focused on the composite RO membranes by examining the period from the composite RO membranes’ inception until around 1985. At a later period, in 1993, Petersen [2] put together a more in-depth review of the same composite RO membranes, but this time prioritizing the membrane materials’ chemistry. The following section will track earlier development and overall analysis of membrane chemistry and its effects, as well as utilize graphical illustrations to reflect and visualize the performance improvement potential that exists in RO membranes. Such a chronology-driven overview offers readers an effective summary of the RO membranes created with various mechanisms and their respective effects on the desalination industry throughout the last several decades. A substantially more rigorous assessment of the early RO membrane development can be found in Petersen’s work [2]. Overall, the development of membrane materials may be strategically divided into two key periods that reflect the duality of research directions and activities: (1) the first is shaped by a search for more suitable materials, based on chemical compositions, and membrane formation mechanisms during the period between 1960s and late 1980s [1–4], and (2) the second is shaped by the development of controlled conditions for membrane creation as a method of improving membrane durability and functionality starting in the late 1980s and continuing today [3, 4].
The Sea as a Source of Fresh Water report that came out in 1949 was the beginning of a progressive expansion into the salt-rejecting membranes research [5]. While the experimental project that came out of this report was not successful due to its limited membrane focus, it did offer the necessary grounds for future membrane study. Researchers Reid and Breton reported in the late 1950s that a hand-cast thin symmetrical cellulose acetate (CA) membrane was able to retain salt effectively by attaining a 98% rejection rate. The same experiment, however, showed that the critical permeate flux values were highly discouraging, at the order of <10 mL m−2 h−1 [6]. The development of the Loeb-Sourirajan CA membrane was the next vital step, since it was the first successful effort to create RO in practice [7]. A Loeb-Sourirajan CA asymmetric membrane was then produced, featuring a dense 200-nm thin layer over a thick microporous membrane body. As a result of these experiments, a new morphological approach resulted in water flux values of at least an order of magnitude greater than the initial symmetric membrane [8]. The specific molecular composition of these CA membranes is outlined in Table 1.
Asymmetric RO membranes.
Note: The chemical structures listed represent segments of these membranes. It does not show all possible forms of the structure, for example, the CA structure shown is CDA, rather than CTA or mixed-CA.
Figure 1 shows the primary developments in asymmetric RO membranes, starting with the early research initiatives and projects and up to 1980s. During the decade following Loeb-Sourirajan membrane creation, new research focused on CA materials was conducted with the particular intention of refining membrane transport properties, as well as improving its manufacturing process and then introducing this technology for a widespread industrial applications [1]. In the following research projects, the cellulose triacetate (CTA) membrane was created as an effective alternative that allows for increased stability in a much wider range of temperatures and pH values and offers greater resistance potential of biological and chemical attacks when compared to the membranes composed of earlier cellulose diacetate (CDA) material. On the other hand, CTA membranes are predisposed to being affected by compaction and as a result may experience a substantial decrease in flux even at low operating pressures such as 30 bar or less [13]. The combination of CTA and CDA allowed for greater permeability and selectivity values than the CA membranes. Such a combination also offered greater resistance to the effects of compaction [14]. Additional research studies have been conducted with the aim to control degree of mixed ester substitution for the hydroxyl groups located in cellulose and to assess how well the CA membranes are working [15].
The development of asymmetric RO membranes [
The CA was the best available membrane material for the RO up to 1969, despite the extensive search for potential alternatives in membrane polymers. During this period, acetate group’s susceptibility to hydrolysis, in both alkaline and acidic environments, and its relative sensitivity to microbial contamination had significantly limited its durability as well as its potential applications [16]. As a consequence, despite multiple alternative polymers examined in 1960s, a substantially sturdier material featuring greater chemical stability was severely needed.
Richter and Hoehn developed the first noncellulosic asymmetric membrane that received attention because it was comprised of an aromatic polyamide (PA) asymmetric hollow-fiber membrane [17]. This type of membrane was then commercialized by Du Pont with the trade name of B-9 Permasep® specifically for application during brackish water desalination processes. Although it features small flux and salt rejection values, it does offer stability, durability, and versatility which surpass those of aromatic polyhydrazides or CA [18]. Even though the low flux was problematic, it experienced relative commercial success due to its effectual packing of hollow fibers that helped it outperform the CA spiral wound elements, with respect to flux per unit module volume values. For a more in-depth discussion of the variation in reactants for the PA, asymmetric membranes refer to sources that specialize in this area [19].
The polyamides’ predisposition to being attacked by disinfectants, such as ozone and chlorine (halogens), was noted after prolonged application of the B-9 Permasep® membranes. Subsequently, chlorine-resistant asymmetric membranes based on polypiperazine-amides were developed as a response [10, 20, 21]. These membranes have the permselectivity similar to the permselectivity of the asymmetric CA membrane. Lower quantities of amidic hydrogen in the membrane likewise improved its overall resistance to chlorine attacks [22]. Despite its advantages, this membrane was not commercialized because of its low salt rejection properties (≤95%) [23]. In this case, the phenyl and sulfonic groups in sulfonated polysulfone were projected to improve permeability, as well as chemical, biological, and mechanical stability; however, the salt rejection potential value was far lower than the acceptable level needed for industrial and commercial applications [24]. Carboxylated polysulfone likewise suffers from an uncompetitive salt rejection potential, even though it has promising flux values [25, 26]. On the other hand, polybenzimidazoline (PBIL) membranes created by Teijin reflect great permselectivity in harsh operating conditions, while at the same time remain susceptible to chlorine attacks and pressure compaction [11, 27, 28]. In another instance, polyoxadiazole has been exhibiting superior thermal and mechanical stability, while its permeability and salt rejection values fail to offer a commercially feasible or attractive option when it comes to industrial RO applications [12, 19].
Research indicates that only a small number of soluble polymers can successfully create asymmetric structures during a one-step casting process. Out of these soluble polymers, only a limited number are commercially attractive when it comes to the right combination of salt rejection capability and permeability potential. Furthermore, the densification in the middle transitional layer of the CA asymmetric membranes tends to occur under pressure [29]. These conditions have led to the creation of a two-step casting method that enables individual optimization of the materials being used for the barrier layer and for the microporous support film, the former for the optimal salt rejection potential and permeate flux and the latter for improved mechanical support. In addition, an extensive number of polymers may be tested for the support layer and barrier layer separately. Such anisotropic types of membranes are currently identified as the composite membranes.
Figure 2 shows that the first TFC membrane was created by float-casting a CA ultrathin film onto the water surface and then followed by the process of laminating and annealing the film onto a preformed CA microporous support [30]. Membranes that were produced with the aid of this particular technique did not receive much commercial interest due to their asymmetric counterparts. An extensive empirical study into commercial membrane application suggested that polysulfone was the ideal material for the support layer because of its reasonable flux value, overall resistance to compaction, and its critical stability in acidic environmental settings. The latter key quality allows for the development of the TFC membrane using interfacial polymerization and acid polycondensation [31].
Development of thin-film composite RO membrane [
In order to overcome the scale-up issues in float-casting technology, a dip-coating methodology based on acid polycondensation of low molecular weight hydroxyl-containing compounds was created [19, 32]. The original patented product based on this method was labeled NS-200 and entailed a product caused by the reaction of polyoxyethylene, sulfuric acid, and furfuryl alcohol (Table 2) [33]. Although NS-200 offered superior salt rejection capabilities, it was problematized by the irreversible swelling as well as hydrolysis of the sulfate linkage. Another example of the membrane created with the aid of acid polycondensation was the PEC-1000 TFC RO membrane produced by Toray Industries Inc., [34]. This membrane used 1,3,5-tris(hydroxyethyl)isocyanuric acid rather than polyoxyethylene.
TFC RO membranes.
While it did show a relatively high salt and organic compound rejection potential with sufficient flux levels, this membrane was vulnerable to chlorine attacks. In the next iteration of research, sulfonated polysulfone membranes were created so as to ensure a more uniform stability values in oxidizing environments [24]. However, substantial Donnan effects were still observed, thus suggesting that the shielding effect of divalent cations may drastically lower the monovalent ion rejection potential. A collective summary of key TFC RO membranes is listed in Table 2.
The barrier layer may likewise be created using plasma polymerization during which the monomer vapor is incited with the help of the gas plasma method and the monomer’s atomic polymerization is brought to the cool surface, frequently in the form of polysulfone support surface.
A variety of polymers have been tested as a part of membrane research, and adequate permselectivity levels have been achieved with vinylene carbonate/acrylonitrile, vinyl acetate/acrylonitrile, acetylene/water/ nitrogen, allylamine, as well as acetylene/water/carbon monoxide arrangements [35–41]. Yasuda’s research collective was especially successful in plasma polymerization studies by producing a membrane created using water, acetylene, and nitrogen. This membrane performed exceptionally well during seawater desalination tests and showed 99% salt rejection with a flux of 1.5 m3 m−2 day−1 at 100 bar operation parameters. Multiple research groups have conducted experiments with applications in gas separation and plasma-polymerized films [42]; however, only the Solrox membrane type of RO membrane has been successfully commercialized using this method. Plasma-polymerized RO membranes primarily feature low chlorine resistance potentials because of their nitrogen-enriched chemical configuration.
Application of polysulfone as a potential support layer paved the way for production of RO membranes and interfacial polymerization because it could withstand the alkaline condition created by caustic soda applied as an acid acceptor throughout the interfacial polymerization processes. In the history of RO process, the production of NS-100, that is, polyethylenimine reacting with toluene diisocyanate (Table 2), is a critical developmental step in membrane research. In fact, this was the first successful instance of noncellulosic membrane featuring comparable monovalent and flux salt rejection potentials. This membrane likewise showcased improved stability at high temperatures, and advanced organic compound rejection capacity in acidic and alkaline environments [43, 44]. On the other hand, NS-100-type membranes provide very limited resistance to chlorine and show a distinct surface brittleness due to their overly cross-linked configuration. An alternative commercialized membrane product created using interfacial polymerization of polymeric amines is polyepiamine and specifically its two types PA-300 and RC-100 (Table 2) [45–47]. The PA-300-type membrane had enhanced permeate flux by 42.8% at about 1 m3 m−2 day−1 and with the salt rejection of 99.4% at 70 bar, if compared to the NS-100-type membranes. This noticeable improvement has contributed to the effective installation of PA-300 spiral wound modules at the TFC SWRO plant in Jeddah [48]. RC-100, on the other hand, exhibited high resistance to biofouling and was thus installed at Umm Lujj II as well as other desalination plants [49]. The two other notable interfacially polymerized TFC membranes are polyvinylamine and polypyrrolidone. While polyvinylamine offers higher flux capacity, polypyrrolidone is the type of membrane where the amino/carboxy groups may be controlled in a way that permits variable selectivity and amphotericity properties. Early efforts to use interfacial polymerization of monomeric amines, including aromatic and aliphatic diamines, with terephthaloyl chloride did not help facilitate the creation of membranes with the required salt rejection values [2]. Furthermore, once the polymerization conditions were improved, then the method was able to produce an improved type of membrane in the form of NS-300 [20, 21, 50]. This polypiperazine-amide membrane showed substantial Donnan exclusion effects because of the presence of anionic carboxylic groups at the membrane’s surface. Due to this presence, the NS-300 membrane could produce outstanding rejection potential of divalent anions, including sulfate at higher flux values. Such a result makes NS-300 substantially more useful for practical industrial applications based on nanofiltration (NF) (Table 2). As a result, a variety of NF membranes based on this chemistry have been effectively commercialized, for example, NTR-7250 by NittoDenko [51], NF-40 series by DOW FILMTECTM [52], and UTC-20 by Toray Industries [53]. Research has shown that membranes with improved permselectivity can be created with the help of monomeric aromatic amines and aromatic acyl halides, while comprised of at least three carbonyl halide groups, with trimesoyl chloride allowing for the best results [54–56]. This method is further unlike other interfacial polymerization approaches since it helps to avoid the use of heat curing. Similarly, surfactants and acid acceptors were not compulsory as both cross-linking and polymerization were quick even when acyl halide was provided at low concentration values. FT-30-type membrane (Table 2) was created using the interfacial reaction between trimesoyl chloride and 1,3-benzenediamine and has resulted in distinct surface characteristics. This particular membrane can be defined through a “ridge and valley” configuration, instead of the slightly grainy and smooth surface achieved from the aliphatic amines [20]. Research studies have indicated that the rougher “ridge and valley” type of surface contributed to a larger surface area used specifically for water transport needs and as a consequence for the water flux [57]. During seawater desalination testing, FT-30 membrane produced fluxes of almost 1 m3 m−2 day−1 and 99.2% salt rejection rate at 55 bar operation parameter. FT-30’s aromatic polyamide structure offers a higher degree of thermal and chemical resistance, resistance to compression, and a much wider pH operating range. While the membrane was not entirely resistant to the effects of a chlorine attack, the FT-30 showed a substantial degree of tolerance to chlorine that proved to be enough to successfully endure accidental exposure to this kind of chemical substance [58]. DOW FILMTECTM has commercialized a number of products based on this membrane and its properties [59]. The commercialization of membrane such as this can have a substantial effect on the cost projections and design involved in RO desalination [60]. In fact, this was the first spiral wound-type membrane element that was able to rival the DuPont asymmetric hollow-fiber polyamide B-9 Permasep® membranes originally produced in 1972. The overall success of FT-30 contributed to the creation of a wide range of comparable membrane products [61], including the UTC-70 by Toray Industries [62] and CPA2 membrane produced by Hydranautics [63]. Furthermore, the Permasep A-15 TFC membrane (Table 2) was manufactured using the reaction of 1,3-benzenediamine with a saturated cross-linking agent, cyclohexane-1,3,5-tricarbonyl chloride, and thus facilitated an aralkyl polyamide membrane which offers improved flux capacity [64, 65]. The application of isocyanato aromatic acyl halides (e.g., 1-isocyanato-3,5-benzenedicarbonyl chloride) as cross-linking agents for 1,3-benzenediamine was likewise patented so as to design the type of membrane that includes urea and amide linkages, both of which improve salt rejection and flux properties (Table 2) [66]. This particular membrane was labeled as X-20 and has showcased noticeably better resistance to chlorine and fouling because of its stronger polyamide–urea bond linkage and comparatively neutral surface charge [66].
The research and development of innovative polymeric materials for RO membranes has declined drastically after the groundbreaking success that came with the market production of cross-linked fully aromatic polyamide TFC RO membranes. Existing membrane products from RO desalination membranes’ major manufacturers are still being designed around the original chemistry developed in 1980s. As a result, current membranes rely on the interfacial polymerization of monomeric aromatic amines [72]. DOW FILMTECTM, as the largest manufacturers of desalination membranes, is currently marketing and selling membrane products based on FT-30. Other companies, like Toray Industries, are using UTC-70, while Hydranautics membranes are based on NCM1, a membrane that is similar to CPA2. Trisep membranes are still using X-20. Alternatively, asymmetric membrane products have remained unchanged and are still based on conventional CA materials. For instance, the Toyobo HollosepTM products use CTA while remaining the primary asymmetric RO membrane presently in usage.
Although there have been no original polymeric membranes commercialized recently, the overall performance of RO membranes was noticeably enhanced over time (Figure 3). For example, the water permeability capacity has been doubled and the freshwater recovery potential can be as high as over 60%. Enhancements such as these are caused directly by surface modification as well as closer monitoring of interfacial polymerization reaction parameters. They are also linked to a substantially more effective module structure design [72, 73]. Furthermore, an in-depth research into the membrane structure has led to improvements in membrane characterization techniques [74]. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), for example, has remained a critical tool for confirming that membrane surface roughness properties may greatly improve permeability while at the same time ensuring higher salt rejection potential due to an increase in the effective membrane surface [75].
Development of RO membranes by reaction optimization and postsynthesis surface modifications: (a) Dow Filmtec seawater series and (b) Toray brackish water series.
Tracking the development of commercially relevant RO membranes after 1990 has been difficult because of the low patenting activity among membrane manufacturers. To share posttreatment and chemical composition data that have been used with commercial RO membranes, researchers have chosen to merge the use of multiple methodologies and analytical techniques. One of these tools is the Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, and it can be used for elemental composition analysis of various layers and physicochemical characterization [76–79]. In order to gain a better understanding of chemical and physical membrane structure characteristics and how these characteristics are connected to the membrane’s overall performance, a combination of analytical techniques, ATR-FTIR, XPS, TEM, and streaming potential measurement have likewise been applied [80–82]. The relevance of several analytical tools was also reviewed with respect to membrane characterization [83]. While there is ongoing proactive academic research conducted in the field, this review specialized in the engineering developments that offered the most innovation and were integrated into commercial products with direct industrial applications.
A key research area focused on membrane postsynthesis encompasses hydrophilization since it may help obtain an increase in chlorine resistance and permeability properties. Currently, the applied monomer reactants are not easily available and their preparation method is overly complex, despite the fact that there was some success in synthesizing membranes using monomer reactants that included hydrophilic groups, like eliminated amide hydrogen and carboxylate [84–87]. As a consequence, the preference is given to posttreatment that chemically modifies the membrane’s surface properties, as well as numerous physical and chemical techniques established for this. Water-soluble solvents, including alcohols and acids, have been used for treating the membrane’s surface. Mixtures of acid (hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acid) and alcohol (ethanol and isopropanol) in water have likewise been tested as a way to enhance rejection and flux performances because of the skin modification and partial hydrolysis initiated using acid and alcohol [88]. The existence of hydrogen bonds has been argued to instigate interactions between water and acid and thus to incite higher surface charges and enhance water flux and hydrophilicity values. For example, Mickols patented membrane surface posttreatment that includes alkyl or ammonia compounds, such as ethanolamine and ethylenediamine, that improved membrane salt rejection and flux capacity [89]. Specifically, a 70% flux improvement may be obtained when composite membranes are soaked in solutions containing a range of organic species, like sodium lauryl sulfate, triethylamine salt of camphorsulfonic acid, and glycerol [90, 91]. The membrane posttreatment base on an aqueous solution of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and a buffer solution can help improve the overall flux stability of the membrane as well as abrasion resistance potential [92, 93].
Hydrophilization has been produced by effectively coating the membrane’s surface with additional hydrophilic compounds. The process of coating has been a favored method when it comes to addressing various fouling-related issues. A key example of this can be seen in the launch of the Hydranautics LFC series in 1996 [94], as well as the creation of the LFC3-LD membranes in 2005 [95] with the aim of targeting wastewater treatment/reclamation applications. Membranes such as these are neutrally charged and as such are designed to minimize the organic foulant adsorption. The relatively stable performance reported in research over time has been [96] connected to the poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) coating located on the surface of conventional fully aromatic polyamide membranes [81]. Coatings with poly(N,N-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) and PVA have likewise signaled greater resistance capabilities against chlorine attacks [97]. Recent research suggests that hydrophilic dendritic polymers were able to effectively modify the membrane’s surface and enable fouling reduction [98, 99].
Substantial flow improvement was obtained when chemical treatment was used on a FT-30-type membrane. The FT-30 membrane was soaked in a 15% solution of hydrofluoric acid for seven consecutive days, after which period it showcased a slightly higher salt rejection capacity and a fourfold improvement in terms of flux. An analysis of the membrane’s surface indicated that the fluorine ratio was higher due to the effects of the treatment. Furthermore, the etching of the surface helped to facilitate a thinner barrier layer [100]. While this method improved flux capacity without changing chemical structure, this approach is undermined over time by the leaching of hydrophilizing components that can cause the loss of any gained flux advantages [101].
Additional surface modification methods currently employed to covalently attach useful monomers onto the membrane’s surface may include the applications of free radical-, redox-, radiation-, photochemical-, and plasma-induced grafting. Gas plasma treatment was similarly employed so as to encourage surface modifications. In this case, water permeability was enhanced using oxygen plasma treatment that relies on the addition of hydrophilic carboxylate groups, while the argon plasma treatment improved chlorine resistance potential by increasing the extent of cross-linking at the nitrogen sites [102, 103]. Recent research by Lin et al. suggests that the application of graft polymerization and atmospheric gas plasma surface activation on the conventional polyamide TFC membranes’ surface is capable of significantly improving antifouling properties [104]. Once the gas plasma surface activation occurs, a polymeric brush layer will form with the help of the free radical graft polymerization based on acrylamide monomers or methacrylic acid. A brush layer of this type can successfully decrease the foulants’ capacity to cling to the membrane’s surface. This has been verified during multiple fouling tests, where such a membrane managed to outperform commercial low-fouling membrane LFC1, in particular during the mineral fouling tests. Both, graft polymerization and atmospheric gas plasma treatments can be easily adapted to large-scale membrane industrial applications and manufacturing.
Optimization of interfacial polymerization reactions is another critical area of research, and it requires a controlled assessment of parameters such as kinetics, reaction time, reactant diffusion coefficients, solution composition, solvent solubility, polymer molecular weight range, curing time, nucleation rate, and other features of the microporous support [105–109]. Tomaschke and Chau obtained early success when they experimented by introducing additives into the casting solution (amine reactants), which then incited extensive research into the application and addition of a range of additives [63, 110]. For instance, the application of amine salts, including the camphorsulfonic acid triethylamine salt, as an additive in an aqueous casting solution allowed for postreaction drying at temperatures greater than 100°C. As a consequence, a substantially more cross-linked membrane was created with improved characteristics in terms of the salt rejection properties and without the loss of flux capacities. Chau’s research tried adding polar aprotic solvents, and particularly N,N-dimethylformamide, to the casting solutions. This experimental addition allowed for a greater carboxylate content in the membrane and subsequently improved water permeability.
The method of introducing additives into the casting solution can play a critical role when it comes to adjusting diffusivity, monomer solubility, protonation, and hydrolysis and to aiding the scavenging of reaction-inhibitory by-products [108]. A high number of patents reveal that the introduction of ethers, alcohols, polyhydric alcohol, water soluble polymers, or sulfur-containing compounds to the amine solution may enhance the membrane’s overall permeability without substantively affecting its salt rejection capacity [111–115]. For instance, the miscibility of hexane and water was enhanced by the inclusion of dimethyl sulfoxide into the casting solution. In this case, the diffusion of amine monomers was improved and allowed to create a thinner barrier layer and better water flux potential [116]. Figure 4 outlines the micrographs of RO membranes fabricated with the aid of various additives and that in turn facilitates diverse permselectivities [117]. Rather than mixing additives directly into the amine reactant solutions, the inclusion of a “complexing agent” into the acyl chloride solution, usually trimesoyl chloride, was patented. Research suggests that the phosphate-containing compounds are the ones used most frequently. These compounds include triphenyl phosphate that has the capacity to modify and reduce the repulsive interaction of acyl chloride with the other compounds by eliminating the halides that were formed during the formation of amide bonds. This minimizes concurrent hydrolysis and ensures that there is a sufficient reaction between amines and acyl halide, which improves membrane formation and helps increase permeate flux potential [118, 119].
FE-SEM micrographs of RO membrane surface with various permselectivity. (reprinted with permission from Kwak et al., 1999) [
Research conducted as part of recent membrane projects indicates that the successful addition of surface-modifying macromolecules into the reactants has been performed. During this method, additives can transfer toward the active surface area during polymerization and as a result change the surface chemistry. For example, the inclusion of hydrophilic surface-modifying macromolecules, like poly(ethylene glycol) end-capped oligomers, in the interfacial polycondensation reaction had overtime enhanced stability of salt rejection and membrane flux potential.
According to the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), additive manufacturing (AM) is defined as “the process of joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies.” Often this term is substituted by 3D Printing (3D Printing is typically associated with people printing at home or in the community; additive manufacturing is typically associated with production technologies and supply chains, but they both produce parts by the addition of layers). AM technologies can be classified into seven categories, namely, binder jetting, material jetting, direct energy deposition, sheet laminations, material extrusion, powder bed fusion, and vat photopolymerization. Each category includes several processes that share the same principle used for layer modeling and different materials that can be processed (Table 1).
Process | Technologies | Materials |
---|---|---|
Binder jetting | Ink-jetting 3D printing | Metal Polymer Ceramic |
Material jetting | Polyjet Ink-jetting | Photopolymer Wax |
Direct energy deposition | Direct Metal Deposition Electron Beam Direct Melting | Metal |
Sheet laminations | Laminated Object Manufacture Ultrasonic Consolidation | Metal Polymer Ceramic Paper |
Material extrusion | Fused Deposition Modeling | Polymer |
Powder bed fusion | Selective Laser Sintering Selective Laser Melting Electron Beam Melting | Metal Polymer Ceramic |
Vat-photopolymerization | Stereolithography Digital Light Processing | Photopolymer Ceramic |
Seven categories of AM technologies [1].
AM has been first applied for rapid prototyping of visualization models and tooling. Recently, the improvement in the process’s accuracy and material properties of the manufactured objects have expanded the field of applications. Indeed, AM is currently used to manufacture personalized prostheses, replacement organs, and implants in the medical sector and produce complex lightweight components for the aerospace, automotive, and sports industries. Recently, AM has been applied by RF industries for the development of next generations of microwave and millimeter-wave components for sensors, imaging systems, and satellite communication (SATCOM) [1].
A generic AM process starts with a model generated using a three-dimensional Computer-Aided Design (3D CAD) system. Then the model is converted into the STL file format that approximates the 3D model with a mesh of triangles. Then, this file is transferred to the AM machine to set the process parameters. Such settings are defined according to the geometry of the model (e.g., position and orientation of the components, design of support structures) and to the building process (e.g., energy source, material constraints, and layer thickness). At the end of the printing process, the part is removed from the building platform and prepared for the post-processing operations, for example, cleaning, sandblasting or shot-peening, thermal treatments, and plating [2].
The main advantage of AM process is manufacturing lightweight components with complex internal surfaces in a single part. Moreover, by eliminating tools, the design flexibility is increased. On the other hand, the main concerns are the manufacturing accuracy and the surface roughness that are worse than standard manufacturing processes and strongly depend on the material and process parameters.
In the microwave area, Selective Laser Melting (SLM)1, Stereolithography (SLA), and Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM™) are the most investigated technologies. The application of AM processes in manufacturing microwave and millimeter-wave components strictly depends on the accuracy, cost, and performance requirements. From this point of view, basic knowledge of the characteristics of a single process is necessary. This overview is reported in Sections 2–4. Section 5 is, instead, devoted to giving a survey of the principal results (in terms of realized components) actually achieved in the specialized literature. In this summary, all the important aspects for microwave engineering are reported, i.e., operative band, measured results versus the expected ones, and an explanation of this difference. This section is split into subsections for reader convenience according to the component category.
SLM is an AM process that allows the manufacturing of all metal parts. This technology can easily realize complex geometries with interior features and channels. Regarding Figure 1, the manufacturing process starts with a thin layer of metal powder spread by a recoater along with the building platform. Then, a high-energy laser beam selectively fuses the deposited powder layer. The laser follows the contour defined in the STL file. Once a layer is completed, the building platform is lowered, the new powder is spread, and the laser melts this new layer. The process is repeated until the parts are completely manufactured. Due to the high temperatures necessary for melting, the process takes place in a protected atmosphere, normally argon, to prevent oxidation of the parts [1]. At the end of the process, the excess powder is removed; the parts still attached to the building platform undergo a stress-relieving job in an oven. This thermal treatment is necessary to reduce deformations of the parts caused by the high thermal stresses arising during the manufacturing process. Finally, the components are detached from the building platform and eventually subjected to surface finish treatment as polishing and shot peening [3].
Selective laser melting process.
Metal powder properties are important in the final quality and cost of the part built via SLM. The main properties influencing the process can be subdivided into three categories, which are as follows: [4]:
geometrical (size and shape);
metallurgical (microstructure, composition);
mechanical/physical (flowability, absorption of light).
As far as the first point is concerned, fine particles enable high-density parts with good surface quality, while the spherical shape improves flowability and, hence, mechanical properties [5]. Irregular powder particles can lead to poor surface finish, low density, and increased defects [6].
Extremely important steps in the SLM process are the orientation of the part in the building platform and the design of the supporting structures. Supports have mainly three purposes, which are as follows:
to fix the part to the building platform;
to conduct excess heat away;
to prevent deformation or collapse of the part.
Typical drawbacks are as follows:
an increment of the building and the post-processing time;
their removal is not, in general, an easy task, and the risk of damage is quite high.
A possible solution to reduce the number of supports consists of choosing an optimal building orientation. It is worth noticing that the staircase effect has to be also well-considered for specific applications. The generation of the staircase effect is described in Figure 2. The STL file format is a triangular approximation of the nominal CAD. If the layer thickness is too high or the inclination angle is too small, the staircase effect becomes more remarkable. On the other hand, overhanging surfaces is another important aspect to consider. These surfaces are areas not supported by solidified material during the building process. The heat-conduction rate of powder-supported zones is lower than the solid-supported zones, while the absorbed energy is higher. The melt pool created by the laser becomes too large and sinks into the powder. Therefore, deformation occurs if these surfaces are not supported. Supporting structures are usually built with a low density during the manufacturing of the part, and they must be manually removed at the end of the manufacturing process. A clever solution is represented by self-supporting angles (Figure 3). Based on experimental results, downward sloping faces with angles α > 45° are self-supporting. At the same time, staircase effects can be reduced by increasing sloping angles. Moreover, in this way, the value of surface roughness decreases. On the contrary, angles lower than 30° should quickly be avoided since the staircase effect increases [7].
Generation of the staircase effect.
Self-supporting angles.
Materials commonly used in the SLM process are aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, stainless steel, Ni-based alloys, and cobalt-chromium alloys [1]. From an RF point of view, the most interesting ones are the aluminum ones as the AlSi10Mg alloy. This material exhibits high electrical conductivity, low-specific weight, high corrosion resistance, and good mechanical properties. The typical achievable accuracy guaranteed for this aluminum alloy is in the order of ±0.1 mm [3]. However, better manufacturing accuracy has been observed in literature for components designed with an AM-oriented approach.
Stereolithography (SLA) was developed in 1984 by Charles Hull and was the first available commercial AM process. SLA is a vat photopolymerization process based on the solidification of a liquid resin using a UV laser. Since the process takes place in a liquid, support structures are necessary during the building phase. These are made by the same material of the parts and are specified in the machine parameter settings [1].
Concerning Figure 4, the manufacturing process starts with the building platform lowered from the top of the vat by a layer thickness. Then, a recoater blade smooths the surface of the vat, and a UV laser cures the material. Then, the platform is lowered by a layer thickness, and the process is repeated until the part is completed. At the end of the process, the platform is lifted, the part is drained and removed from the platform [8]. Then, it is placed in a UV oven to complete the curing. During the solidification process, usually, the photopolymer shrinks. This shrinkage induces compression stresses on the previous layers that may cause curling and distortion. These effects can be reduced by adopting clever scan strategies, such as Star Weave or ACES [1].
Stereolithography process.
Acrylates resins were the first photopolymers developed. These resins had high reactivity but produced inaccurate parts due to a significant shrinkage (5–20%) and a tendency to warp and curl. They are low viscosity resins used for visual or anatomic models, with a low accuracy but high-speed manufacturing. On the contrary, epoxy resins present high viscosity and are used for functional parts. They have slow photo speed but allow more accurate, harder, and stronger parts than the acrylate ones.
Furthermore, they exhibit low levels of shrinkage (1–2%), reducing the risk of warp and curl. Most of the commercially available resins are epoxides with acrylate content to combine the advantages of both materials [2]. Moreover, it is possible to suspend ceramic particles in a resin to obtain a ceramic–polymer composite material and improve mechanical and thermal properties.
SLA allows the manufacturing of parts with good accuracy ranges from 25 to 50 μm and smooth surfaces; the typical average surface roughness Ra is lower than 10 μm. However, the metal plating of the internal channels can be critical in terms of adhesion, uniformity of the metal coating, and long-term stability [9], limiting the applicability of SLA in the manufacturing of some RF applications (e.g., waveguide components for space).
FDM, also known as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), is a material extrusion process in which material is heated and then dispensed through a nozzle layer by layer. The process was invented and patented by Scott Trump in 1989, who then founded Stratasys Inc. The basic process is based on a robot arm that moves two nozzles where a filament of polymeric material is fused and then deposited layer by layer on a platform (Figure 5). The filament is supplied by an unrolled spool and pressed into the extrusion head. The material is then heated utilizing electrical resistance [1]. Heat is conducted to the liquefier chamber to obtain a liquid state. The material inside the chamber should be maintained in a molten state, with particular care on the temperature since some polymers degrade at high temperatures and could burn [2]. The filament is softened, the molten material gets off through a nozzle of reduced diameter and deposits on the building platform [1].
FDM process.
The nozzle diameter determines both the shape and size of the extruded filament and the minimum feature size that can be printed—the larger the nozzle diameter, the faster the process, but with lower precision. Material extrusion is controlled by the pressure difference between the chamber and the atmosphere. If the pressure is maintained constantly, the material flows at a constant rate with a constant cross section. The same happens if the nozzle speed is kept constant. Any change in the direction of the extrusion head must result in a change in the corresponding material flow rate. Otherwise, a different amount of material will be deposited in that region. Once the material is extruded, gravity and surface tension can cause a change in the shape, while the cooling and drying effects can change the size of the material deposited. This effect can be reduced by minimizing the differential temperature between the chamber and the atmosphere. Bonding with the previous layer and the adjacent region can be ensured by residual heat energy or solvents and wetting agents in the extruded filament [2].
FDM machines can be equipped with one to three nozzles. In this case, two nozzles deposit two different building materials, while the third one is filled with a soluble material for supporting structures. The former case is employed for a low-cost solution for large industrial machines. In this way, the support material is not removed manually but is dissolved in a chemical bath after the fabrication process.
Many thermoplastic materials are available for FDM and FFF processes; the most commonly used for RF applications are listed below [1].
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) is a generic thermoplastic material used in injection molding processes. The main properties are hardness, strength, and heat resistance. Companies developed different kinds of ABS, each with specific properties, and many colors are available for FDM printers. ABS exhibits good adhesion so that it can be used with high printing speed.
PolyActic Acid (PLA) is a common biodegradable plastic obtained from corn or sugar cane. It is used for shopping bags and packaging, but it can also be used for biocompatible medical implants. PLA is one of the materials most used for low-cost printers because of its environmental sustainability. However, it is not ideal for high-temperature environments or outdoor applications. Like ABS, different colors and different types of PLA are available. ABS exhibits good adhesion so that it can be used with high printing speed
Polycarbonate (PC) is a polymer with good temperature resistance and high impact resistance. However, PC is very hygroscopic and absorbs moisture from the air. Moreover, it must be used with a heated bed to avoid warping problems. PC is available in black or transparent colors.
Polyamide (PA) is commonly known as Nylon. PA is the most common nylon material used in FDM printers because it has good strength, a low-friction coefficient, and can take up vibrations or impacts. However, it tends to warp more than ABS and PLA. For this reason, the use of a heated building volume is recommended.
ULTEM is a thermoplastic material developed by Saudic and commercialized by Stratasys. It has high heat and chemical resistance, good strength, flexibility, and impact resistance. It is used for aerospace and medical parts.
PEEK is an organic thermoplastic material developed by Victrex. It has high heat and chemical resistance and good strength. It is a biocompatible material used for manufacturing medical, aerospace, and automotive parts.
FDM allows the manufacturing of multi-material parts. The use of a soluble support material offers good design flexibility. The main concern with this technology is that the nozzle dimensions limit the accuracy. The typical resolution of the process is about 100–200 μm. As in the case of SLA, a metal plating of the internal channels is mandatory for waveguide RF application.
The manufacturing of RF components by AM process is particularly challenging for different reasons. The internal channels of the parts have to be designed considering the typical AM post-processing operations, for example, powder removal in SLM or metal plating in SLA and FDM. Moreover, due to the typical accuracy of the AM processes, an electromagnetic robust design approach is mandatory in the case of high RF-performance components.
The simplest strategy consists of splitting the component into two or more parts. This way is usually employed in the case of SLA and FDM to ease electroless metal plating processes. Sometimes this is also used in SLM products, particularly for complex internal structures. The main drawback is misaligning the different parts with consequent leakage effect and, subsequently, higher losses. Moreover, the intrinsic features of AM processes are not employed, making their employment, therefore, less effective and convenient.
The designed part should be realized monolithically to take full advantage of the AM process. To achieve this goal, the electromagnetic design has to be adapted to the process in a so-called “
The following subsections summarize the most common 3D-printed RF components, namely—waveguides, filters, horn antennas, dual-polarization components (OMTs and septum polarizers). Finally, the last subsection describes some examples of the integration of different RF functionalities into a single component.
Waveguide lines are the simplest candidates for evaluating the best achievable accuracy of the AM technologies for microwave components. An important parameter is the realized metal loss per wavelength/cm. Different factors influence these values:
the material conductivity;
the surface roughness;
the dimensional accuracy;
Deep research has been done considering different AM technologies and a frequency range that spans from Ku- to E- band (10–170 GHz). A summary of these works with relevant results is reported in Table 2. As observed, SLM and SLA are the most commonly exploited technologies since they ensure good accuracy and low roughness compared to other AM processes.
Ref. | Frequency (GHz) | Waveguide | Technology | Material | Loss (dB/cm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[10] | 18–26 | WR42 | FDM | Silver plated | 0.11 |
[14] | 18–26 | WR42 | SLM | AlSi10Mg | 0.02 |
[15] | 26–38 | Circular | SLM | AlSi10Mg | 0.01 |
[11] | 75–110 | WR10 | SLM | GRCOP-84 Inconnel 625 AlSi10Mg | 0.141 0.369 0.103 |
[12] | 75–110 | WR10 | SLA | Copper plasted | 0.055 |
[12] | 75–110 | WR10 | SLA (DLP) | Copper plated | 0.063 |
[13] | 75–110 | WR10 | SLA | Copper plated | 0.06 |
[12] | 120–170 | WR6 | SLA (DLP) | Copper plated | 0.26 |
Losses of AM waveguides.
Going more into detail, an interesting example of a waveguide manufactured by FDM is reported in ref. [10]. Firstly, a WR42 waveguide has been printed using ABS. Then, the same printer was customized to deposit a low-cost conductive silver ink. The manufactured waveguide exhibits a measured loss of 0.11 dB/cm for the entire K-band.
As far as the SLA is concerned, mainly the W- and D-band (75–170 GHz) have been considered. In Refs. [11, 12, 13], the copper plating has been applied, showing a W-band loss mean value of 0.06 dB/cm. An interesting comparison between commercial and SLA waveguides is reported in [12], showing that SLA components present a measured loss that is almost double of the commercial ones: 0.06 dB/cm versus 0.03 dB/cm and 0.26 dB/cm and 0.15 dB/cm in W- and D-band, respectively.
As far as the SLM is concerned, the main test refers to the frequency range from 18 to 110 GHz. Aluminum is the material most used. However, few examples have been carried out by using copper and nickel alloys [11]. An interesting comparison is presented in Ref. [11], where the authors compare the losses of a commercial WR42 waveguide with SLM (in aluminum) and a CNC machined realization. As it could be expected, the lowest attenuation occurs in the commercial waveguide (0.004 dB/cm), while the SLM and CNC parts exhibit a loss of about 0.02 dB/cm and 0.03 dB/cm, respectively. Still considering SLM, in Ref. [15], a study on the circular waveguide, operating in Ka-band, is carried out. The measured aluminum prototypes exhibit a loss of 0.01 dB/cm. The co-polar and cross-polar transmission coefficients have been measured to understand the SLM’s feasibility for dual-polarization systems, thanks to the double symmetry shape. The measurements show a spurious cross-polarization term of −25 dB/−40 dB.
A comparison, in W-band, between parts SLM realized with different alloys (aluminum, copper, and nickel alloys) is reported in Ref. [11], showing the better behavior of the aluminum prototype.
Filters are one of the most demanding elements from a manufacturing point of view. The high-standing waves developing inside the components lead to high sensitivity to mechanical tolerances and high susceptibility to multifactor discharge and passive intermodulation products (PIM). For this reason, they are an important benchmark for the AM manufacturing of passive waveguide components [3].
A detailed review of 3D-printed microwave filters has been recently reported [16]. The frequency range considered in literature is mainly 7–22 GHz, although a few examples at higher frequency bands (up to 110 GHz) have also been discussed. Metal, plastic, and ceramic materials have been employed in published works.
FDM has been used in Ref. [17] to manufacture two X-band filters with PLA filament. Each component has been manufactured in two halves with an E-plane cut. The parts are coated with a copper spray to create a conductive surface for the galvanization process with further copper. Despite the accuracy of the printing and painting process, good results have been obtained for both filters. In Ref. [18], a two-pole X-band filter in the WR90 waveguide insert has been manufactured using PC filament. The printed insert has been coated with a nickel spray and then electroplated with copper.
As far as the SLA process is concerned, in Ref. [19], a four-pole quasi-elliptic filter, working at 810 MHz ± 16 MHz, is presented. The filter is composed of two mushroom-shaped resonators. The filter has been realized in two blocks, metalized with silver painting and then electroplated with copper. The same manufacturing approach has been reported in Ref. [20] for a two-pole filter.
Considering SLM realizations, an example of a W-band filter is presented in Ref. [21]. The filter is based on five rectangular resonators coupled using inductive irises. Two stainless steel prototypes have been manufactured, one coated with 5 μm of copper showing different measured electrical conductivity: 1.25 × 107 S/m and 5.96 × 107 S/m, respectively. As far as, the scattering parameters are concerned, the stainless steel filter shows a center frequency shift down by 1.66 GHz and a minimum return loss of 24.41 dB in the passband, while the copper-plated presents a frequency shift of 0.9 GHz with a return loss is 26.56 dB.
Some examples of monolithic realization and comparison between materials and processes are reported in Refs. [9, 22]. In Ref. [9], a comparison for Ku/K filter prototypes realized both in SLM (in aluminum, titanium, and maraging steel alloys) and SLA (copper plated) is shown. The study proves that an AM-oriented architecture provides excellent results in both roughness and mechanical accuracy; at the same time, the metallization of the SLA component is extremely complicated in the inner surfaces of the filter. A similar comparison is reported in Ref. [22], where two prototypes, operating in X-band, have been manufactured—one by SLM with an aluminum-copper alloy, the other by SLA, and then copper electroplated. The most interesting contribution of this paper was the excellent performance, even for the SLA filter.
Ceramic materials have also been used for the 3D printing of waveguide filters with two different approaches. The first method consists of manufacturing ceramic components, subsequently, metal plating. For example, in Ref. [23], a ceramic-filled resin has manufactured hemispherical resonator waveguide filters. Four Ka-band filters have been manufactured, metal plated, and measured with good RF results. The electroless plating process consists of a deposition of palladium, nickel, and copper, followed by a passivation layer of silver. In the second approach, the materials’ dielectric properties are exploited to reduce the overall envelope.
For instance, Ref. [24] manufactured a dielectric perturber for a third-order filter with a bandpass shifting from 10 to 12 GHz. The filter was manufactured using copper with a standard manufacturing process, while the perturber was manufactured by SLA using zirconia (εr = 32, tan δ =0.002). In Ref. [25], the authors used alumina (εr = 9.1, tan δ =0.0001) to manufacture the dielectric resonators in a sixth-order quasi-elliptic bandpass filter. The housing has been 3D printing in two blocks using plastic material and then metal plated. An important aspect of this work is that no supports or glue are needed. The dielectric resonators are placed in the middle of their cavities to maximize their Q-factor.
Waveguide horns are commonly used in high-performance antenna feed chains in SATCOM applications. This class of antennas, indeed, can provide excellent performances in terms of gain, bandwidth, return loss, and cross-polarization [26]. Therefore, much effort has been made to study the 3D printing of waveguide horns. Most of the works are from X-band to K-band (7–27 GHz), although some examples can be found up to 300 GHz [27].
As far as the SLA process is concerned, three works are particularly interesting. In the first one [28], a 2–12 GHz double-ridge horn antenna is presented. The internal surface has been coated with a layer of silver ink with a conductivity of 4 × 105 S/m.
In Ref. [29], a comparison between SLA and standard process (lathe in aluminum) has been considered to realize a spline horn operating in the Ku-band. Both prototypes exhibit good agreement between the simulated and measured value of the co-polar pattern, while worse performances in terms of losses and cross-polarization level can be noticed in the AM one. The latter is mainly related to the higher surface roughness, which has been estimated equal to 1.79 μm. In Ref. [30], a metal-plated 240 GHz choke horn antenna has been reported. The antenna has been designed to obtain 12 dBi gain from 200 to 280 GHz. The measured radiation pattern is in good agreement with the simulation.
Considering the SLM process, six works are particularly significant [26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34]. The first four refer to the manufacturing of classical architecture to understand the applicability of the SLM technique. The last two show some interesting work in the exploration of AM features.
In Ref. [26], the manufacturing of three smooth-wall horns, working in Ku-, Ku/K-band, and Q/V-band, is presented. The smooth-wall design allows the alignment of the building direction with the propagation axis, ensuring a good cross-sectional symmetry and low cross-polarization level. The horns have been manufactured using aluminum alloy. All the antennas exhibit good agreements between measured and simulated values. In particular, return-loss higher than 33 dB, cross-polarization lower than −28 dB, and peak gain of 25 dBi have been obtained. Moreover, a 3D scan of the outer section of the horns reveals an accuracy between 0.06–0.08 mm.
In Ref. [27], the manufacturing of 300 GHz corrugated horn antennas. Four prototypes have been manufactured using a tin-bronze alloy with an electrical conductivity of 7 MS/m. The dimensions of the prototypes differ by 5% with respect to the theoretical model. Nevertheless, the measurement results have observed good symmetry between E-plane and H-plane. However, the antenna efficiency is relatively low due to the conductivity of the material used in manufacturing. To improve the RF performances, all the prototypes have been plated with 3 μm of gold (conductivity of 44 MS/m).
In Ref. [31], an X/Ku-band (8–18 GHz) chocked horn SLM manufactured in the aluminum alloy is presented. To investigate process manufacturing accuracy and repeatability, 15 prototypes have been manufactured, showing an overall accuracy of 0.1–0.3 mm and a roughness Ra of 3.5 μm. The feeding gap and the radiating aperture have been milled after the manufacturing process, with an accuracy of ±0.02 mm.
In Ref. [32], a Ku-band spline horns SLM manufactured in aluminum and titanium alloys are presented. The manufactured components’ roughness is about 16 μm for both the materials, but it reduces to 3.4 μm for the Al one after the post-processing. The radiation pattern of the two prototypes is in good correlation with the simulation, but the titanium horn exhibits a worse cross-polarization level due to a slight ellipticity of the aperture. In the same paper, the manufacturing of a cluster of four spline horns is presented, showing a mass reduction of 30% with respect to classical manufacturing.
In Ref. [33], a perforated X-band (8-12GHz) horn antenna has been presented to lighten the component. The holes’ dimensions are lower than 1/15th of the wavelength at 12 GHz. Not considering the SMA connector, the antenna weight is just 8 g. The good agreement between simulated and measured RF results demonstrates an efficient method to reduce weight without affecting performance. A similar idea has been applied in Ref. [34] for a steel pyramidal horn antenna.
FDM process has been used to manufacture waveguide horns up to 15 GHz. In Ref. [35], the authors presented the first additively manufactured dielectric-loaded profiled conical horn antenna in the frequency range from 9 to 15 GHz. The component has been manufactured using polylactic acid (PLA) with relative permittivity
Orthomode transducers (OMT) and septum polarizers are classical components used in dual-polarization antenna feed-chain systems. Separate the two linear polarization of the incoming signal routing them to two different rectangular waveguides [37]. Septum polarizers are employed to route the two circular polarizations in the common waveguide (typically circular or square) to the TE10 modes in two different rectangular waveguides and vice versa. The most important parameters are insertion loss, isolation between the rectangular ports, and cross-polarization in transmission [38].
Starting with SLM realizations, a C-band septum polarizer operating in the frequency band 3.6–4.4 GHz is shown in Ref. [39]. The component has been manufactured of Scalmalloy® with a measured dimensional error of 0.6 mm. The return loss is better than 25 dB and the isolation greater than 23 dB, while the deviation between measured and simulated axial ratio is about 1 dB mainly caused by a not perfectly circular common section. Moving up in frequency, in Ref. [40], two single sidearm OMTs are presented. The components are designed in the frequency band 10–15 GHz. The two OMTs have been compared with a realization by conventional manufacturing techniques. In this work, the OMT geometry realized was not figured out for AM process.
Nevertheless, both components exhibit RF performances in good accordance with the traditionally machined components. An example of an OMT realization of an AM-oriented geometry is reported in Ref. [41], where the RF measured performances well match the simulated one. Isolation over 50 dB and return loss better than 20 dB have been achieved in the operative frequency range. Considering the Ka-band, an asymmetric side-coupling OMT has been presented in Ref. [37]. The OMT geometry has been conceived to be AM-oriented by using a multi-slope junction. The manufactured prototype exhibits good accordance with measured and simulated RF results. In particular, the insertion loss is lower than 0.25 dB, and the return loss is better than 27 dB. Then, in Ref. [42], the OMT design has been integrated with a twist in the coupled arm. The measured results are in good agreement with the simulation. In particular, the return loss for both polarizations is better than 27 dB, and the insertion loss is lower than 0.15 dB and 0.2 dB for the inline and coupled channels, respectively, which corresponds to an equivalent resistivity of 16 μΩcm. The prototype has been controlled by a computer tomography scanner showing a mechanical accuracy in the range 0.02–0.04 mm.
By considering the SLA process, in Ref. [43], a V-Band (50–75 GHz) OMT manufactured is presented. The OMT has been metal plated with a process developed by SWISSto12. This consists of copper plating and passivation using a thin layer of gold or silver. The novelty of this OMT is the multi-step conical post on the turnstile junction. This permits easy printing by SLA.
Septum polarizers have also been realized. In Ref. [38], a Ka-band prototype realized in SLM is presented. Two 45° bends have been integrated to accommodate standard WR28 flanges. The device has been designed to align the propagation axis with the building direction to guarantee the best cross-sectional symmetry. Thanks to this choice, the measured cross-polarization level is better than 30 dB and the isolation better than 28 dB.
In Ref. [44], a broadband septum polarizer has been manufactured in SLA and copper plated. The paper shows a novel design with a triangular common port design that allows a higher bandwidth than circular or square waveguide polarizers. The polarizer has been firstly designed in W-band and manufactured with a standard machining process. Then, the design was scaled in K-band and manufactured with an SLA printer. The prototype has been coated with conductive ink and then subjected to galvanic copper plating. Both the components exhibit isolation greater than 17 dB and a return loss better than 14 dB over 37.8% of bandwidth. Moreover, the insertion loss is lower than 0.4 dB for the 3D-printed prototype.
As reported in Ref. [40], one of the main advantages of the AM technologies is the free shape feature that can lead to an additional degree of freedom in the design of RF components, for instance, the integration of different functionalities (electromagnetic, mechanical, and thermal) in a monolithic component [45].
The previous survey has shown the evolution of the employment of AM process in the realization of guided microwave components, improving the quality of the realized parts, but this potentiality of AM is still not fully explored. A survey of some interesting and successful examples of this initial work is reported.
In Ref. [46], a mono-block Ku-band front-end, a combination of two integrated sub-assembly, a diplexer, and a 2 × 2 horn antenna array, has been presented. The components have been manufactured using the SLA technology and metalized with copper and tin with an electrolytic process. Measurement results agree with the simulated performances with a frequency shift of 150 MHz that can be related to the thickness of the metal deposition, not considered during the design.
In Ref. [38], a Ka-band feed horn integrated with a septum polarizer, manufactured with the SLM process using aluminum alloy. The septum polarizer, presented in the previous section, has been integrated with a smooth-wall horn. The measured values of return loss, cross-polarization, and isolation are comparable with the results of the septum polarizer alone, namely a return loss better than 25 dB, an isolation between the rectangular waveguide higher than 27 dB, and a cross-polarization better than 28 dB. The measurement results are comparable with those obtained with a standard manufacturing process in a split block layout.
In Ref. [47], an interesting study of an integrated feed system working in the frequency band in X-band (from 7.2 to 8.2 GHz) is presented. The device is composed of a circular horn antenna and an OMT. The authors compare the 3D printing of the feed system as a mono-block with the manufacturing in two symmetric pieces. Both the components have been printed using SLA and copper plated with a three-step metallization process. Although the two-pieces prototype has the advantages of an easier manufacturing process and the thickest metal coating, the monolithic component exhibits better RF performances.
A similar component has been developed and presented in Ref. [48]. The integrated Ku-band feed chain consists of a spline horn and an OMT and has been manufactured using the SLM process. The RF performances are compared with those obtained with standard machining processes. An X-band feed chain has been presented in the same paper. The developed component consists of a spline horn and a compact E-plane waveguide coupler. The feed chain is three times lighter than a comparable, conventional manufactured component. Perfect agreement with the simulated performance has also been obtained with these components.
In Ref. [49], an entire Ku-band feed cluster manufactured by SLM technology, suitable for SFB scenarios, is presented. The feed cluster operates in Tx- and Rx- frequency bands. The component consists of 18 feed chains composed of a horn, a transition, a single sidearm OMT and waveguide routing to provide interfaces for the measurement. The scattering parameters have been measured for both the frequency bands showing a return loss better than 19.5 dB and the isolation below −50 dB. The feed cluster exhibits excellent agreement between simulated and measured values of the pattern at 11.30 and 14–25 GHz.
In Ref. [50], a high gain K-band feed chain has been manufactured by SLM using aluminum alloy. The measurement results show return loss and port-to-port isolation better than 23 dB. The axial ratio is between 0.1 and 0.5 dB, while the cross-polar discrimination (XPD) is better than 30 dB. The measurements show good manufacturing accuracy with good rotational symmetry.
In Ref. [51], a passive front end for satellite communication, manufactured by SLM technology using aluminum alloy, is discussed. The component comprises four conical horns, four rectangular-to-circular waveguide tapers, two-stage 1 × 4 power dividers, and a WR-42 waveguide interface. The scattering parameters have been measured in the frequency band 19–21 GHz. Discrepancies between simulated and measured RF performances have been observed. They are mainly due to the dimensional tolerance and surface roughness of the fabrication process.
In Ref. [52], a leaky-wave antenna integrated with an OMT operating in K-band is presented. The antenna consists of a triple-ridge square waveguide perforated on its top wall with crossed slots. The component has been printed by SLA with the propagation axis aligned with the building direction to enhance the good symmetry of the antenna. Then, copper plating was applied. The measurements prove the high precision of the process. In particular, the 3D-printed prototype exhibits a return loss better than 16 dB, port isolation better than 40 dB, and a cross-polarization level below −35 dB.
A K/Ka-band dual-circular polarization antenna feed chain has been reported in Ref. [53]. The device has been designed with an AM-oriented approach. A prototype has been manufactured by SLM with aluminum alloy. The chain is composed of a dual-band orthomode junction (OMJ) which symmetrically extracts the K-band signal while the Ka-band one propagates inline to a series of circular steps connected to a Ka-band septum polarizer. Each of the four arms, where the K-band signal propagates, is integrated with a low-pass filter to isolate the channels from the Ka-band signals. Subsequently, these four arms are recombined in a turnstile junction connected to a K-band septum polarizer. The measured performances of the prototype show very satisfactory performance with values typically required for SATCOM application (i.e., isolation between the bands better than 50 dB, return loss, and isolation between the two polarizations of the same bands than 20 dB).
Finally, a complex RF component is presented in Ref. [54], where a Ku/K-band filter is integrated with an H-plane bend and 90o twist. The conceived geometry makes AM process the only feasible manufacturing technique. The design shows a 70% weight/volume reduction compared to a solution obtained assembling three different parts realized by standard machining. The idea has been stressed by considering the realization of three prototypes with different bend radii to make the device as smaller as possible. Good agreement between measured and simulated RF performance has been achieved even for the prototypes with a bend radius of 30 mm. The three components exhibit a rejection better than 60 dB and an insertion loss better than 0.2 dB. The return loss is better than 25 dB for the prototype with a bend radius of 40 mm, while it is better than 20 dB for the other prototypes.
After a brief introduction on the main AM processes, this chapter has summarized the huge work realized by the microwave community on the applicability of AM process on the manufacturing of RF components. For reader convenience, Table 3 reports the obtained results in terms of accuracy in the relevant frequency range. The most used technology is SLM since it allows the manufacturing of all metal parts. SLA exhibits the best manufacturing accuracy and the largest bandwidth. FDM is used for cheaper components in a low-frequency range, due to the worst manufacturing accuracy. The study/research on AM for microwave components manufacturing is still ongoing, many thematic special sessions are organized within the main conferences in the microwave area. Large margins of improvement are expected in the near future from the manufacturing and design points of view in particular from the integration of different functions in the same realized part.
Technology | Accuracy (μm) | Main frequency range (GHz) |
---|---|---|
SLM | <100 | 10–50 |
SLA | <50 | 10–90 |
FDM | 100–200 | 2–20 |
Accuracy and exploited frequency range of the three AM processes reported in this chapter: SLM, SLA, FDM.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Jansen",authors:[{id:"25232",title:"Prof.",name:"Sukumaran",middleName:null,surname:"Anil",slug:"sukumaran-anil",fullName:"Sukumaran Anil"},{id:"28373",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Jansen",slug:"john-jansen",fullName:"John Jansen"},{id:"77058",title:"Dr.",name:"Seham",middleName:null,surname:"Alyafei",slug:"seham-alyafei",fullName:"Seham Alyafei"},{id:"82073",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhash",middleName:null,surname:"Narayanan",slug:"subhash-narayanan",fullName:"Subhash Narayanan"}]},{id:"18415",doi:"10.5772/16936",title:"Osseointegration and Bioscience of Implant Surfaces - Current Concepts at Bone-Implant Interface",slug:"osseointegration-and-bioscience-of-implant-surfaces-current-concepts-at-bone-implant-interface",totalDownloads:12502,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu and Yoshiki Oshida",authors:[{id:"26726",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshiki",middleName:null,surname:"Oshida",slug:"yoshiki-oshida",fullName:"Yoshiki Oshida"},{id:"29841",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ramazanoglu",slug:"mustafa-ramazanoglu",fullName:"Mustafa Ramazanoglu"}]},{id:"18426",doi:"10.5772/18746",title:"Factors Affecting the Success of Dental Implants",slug:"factors-affecting-the-success-of-dental-implants",totalDownloads:17474,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Carlos Nelson Elias",authors:[{id:"32438",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Elias",slug:"carlos-elias",fullName:"Carlos Elias"}]},{id:"18414",doi:"10.5772/17512",title:"Dental Implant Surfaces – Physicochemical Properties, Biological Performance, and Trends",slug:"dental-implant-surfaces-physicochemical-properties-biological-performance-and-trends",totalDownloads:13080,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Ahmed M. Ballo, Omar Omar, Wei Xia and Anders Palmquist",authors:[{id:"19042",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Xia",slug:"wei-xia",fullName:"Wei Xia"},{id:"28549",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ballo",slug:"ahmed-ballo",fullName:"Ahmed Ballo"},{id:"81291",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Omar",slug:"omar-omar",fullName:"Omar Omar"},{id:"81292",title:"Dr.",name:"Anders",middleName:null,surname:"Palmquist",slug:"anders-palmquist",fullName:"Anders Palmquist"}]},{id:"18417",doi:"10.5772/18309",title:"Implant Stability - Measuring Devices and Randomized Clinical Trial for ISQ Value Change Pattern Measured from Two Different Directions by Magnetic RFA",slug:"implant-stability-measuring-devices-and-randomized-clinical-trial-for-isq-value-change-pattern-measu",totalDownloads:13176,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Jong-Chul Park, Jung-Woo Lee, Soung-Min Kim and Jong-Ho Lee",authors:[{id:"31057",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong-Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"jong-ho-lee",fullName:"Jong-Ho Lee"},{id:"48351",title:"Prof.",name:"Jong-Chul",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jong-chul-park",fullName:"Jong-Chul Park"},{id:"83313",title:"Dr.",name:"JungWoo",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"jungwoo-lee",fullName:"JungWoo Lee"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"18432",title:"Clinical Complications of Dental Implants",slug:"clinical-complications-of-dental-implants",totalDownloads:56478,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Su-Gwan Kim",authors:[{id:"27797",title:"Prof.",name:"Su-Gwan",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"su-gwan-kim",fullName:"Su-Gwan Kim"}]},{id:"47927",title:"Miniscrew Applications in Orthodontics",slug:"miniscrew-applications-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:4697,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4548",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner and Belma Işık Aslan",authors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan"},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner"}]},{id:"50308",title:"Antibiotics in Implant Dentistry",slug:"antibiotics-in-implant-dentistry",totalDownloads:2369,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Antibiotics have been recommended either as an extended treatment for several days or as a single antibiotic prophylaxis dose since the development of dental implant osseointegration technique in the 1970s. It is also performed as part of surgical protocol during the peri-operative phase in the treatment of peri-implantitis. To date, there is a lack of scientific evidence regarding the additive effect of antibiotics in the treatment of dental implant. This has thus left the clinician with inconclusive recommendations, leading to increase antibiotic prescription. With this increase, the development of antibiotic resistance is becoming a threat to modern healthcare that requires revisiting of current indications and implementation of rational treatment strategies. Therefore, more studies are needed to assess the benefit of antibiotic prescription and whether it is safe to refrain from its use.",book:{id:"5185",slug:"dental-implantology-and-biomaterial",title:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial",fullTitle:"Dental Implantology and Biomaterial"},signatures:"Dalia Khalil, Bodil Lund and Margareta Hultin",authors:[{id:"179031",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Khalil",slug:"dalia-khalil",fullName:"Dalia Khalil"},{id:"185113",title:"Dr.",name:"Bodil",middleName:null,surname:"Lund",slug:"bodil-lund",fullName:"Bodil Lund"},{id:"185114",title:"Dr.",name:"Margareta",middleName:null,surname:"Hultin",slug:"margareta-hultin",fullName:"Margareta Hultin"}]},{id:"47915",title:"Rationale for Dental Implants",slug:"rationale-for-dental-implants",totalDownloads:3076,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"4548",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Ilser Turkyilmaz and Gokce Soganci",authors:[{id:"171984",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ilser",middleName:null,surname:"Turkyilmaz",slug:"ilser-turkyilmaz",fullName:"Ilser Turkyilmaz"}]},{id:"18430",title:"An Important Dilemma in Treatment Planning: Implant or Endodontic Therapy?",slug:"an-important-dilemma-in-treatment-planning-implant-or-endodontic-therapy-",totalDownloads:6264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"179",slug:"implant-dentistry-a-rapidly-evolving-practice",title:"Implant Dentistry",fullTitle:"Implant Dentistry - A Rapidly Evolving Practice"},signatures:"Funda Kont Cobankara and Sema Belli",authors:[{id:"28846",title:"Dr.",name:"Funda",middleName:null,surname:"Kont Çobankara",slug:"funda-kont-cobankara",fullName:"Funda Kont Çobankara"},{id:"75862",title:"Prof.",name:"Sema",middleName:null,surname:"Belli",slug:"sema-belli",fullName:"Sema Belli"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"998",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",abstract:"This chapter will address evidence-based prosthetic concepts in dental implantology as well as clinical evidence with focus on appropriate logic and technical skills. Those prosthetic factors are as just important as surgical factors, and long-term success can only be achieved if both of those factors are considered, respected, and strictly followed from planning to prosthetic phase of treatment. This chapter will deal with materials selection for prosthetic part, shape, size, and design of supracrestal parts of abutments and their influence on soft tissue and bone stability around dental implants. Furthermore, one of most important decisions is about choosing the proper way of retention: screw- vs. cement-retained restorations, and it will be discussed in detail. Additionally, emergence profile and its function in soft tissues adaptation and adhesion to different prosthetic materials also have important role in long-term success of dental implant restorations.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Ivica Pelivan"},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",abstract:"Missing a permanent tooth is a miserable condition faced by a common man. A tooth decay, periodontitis, mechanical trauma, or any systemic complications lead to such a complication. These bone defects when left untreated lead to severe resorption of the alveolar bone. A proper dental filling with an appropriate bone substitute material could prevent such resorption and paves a way for subsequent implant placement. Dental implants are considered as the prime option by dentists to replace a single tooth or prevent bone resorption. A variety of bone substitutes are available differ in origin, consistency, particle size, porosity, and resorption characteristics. Herbal composites in dentistry fabricated using biphospho-calcium phosphate, casein, chitosan, and certain herbal extracts of Cassia occidentalis, Terminalia arjuna bark, Myristica fragans also were reported to possess a higher ossification property, osteogenic property and were able to repair bone defects. C. occidentalis was reported to stimulate mineralization of the bone and osteoblastic differentiation through the activation of the PI3K-Akt/MAPKs pathway in MC3T3-E1 cells of mice. This implant proved better osteoconductivity and bioactivity compared to pure HAP and other BCP ratios. Terminalia Arjuna was also worked in the incorporation in the graft to enhance the osteogenic property of the implant and gave good results. Another implant bone graft was synthesized containing BCP, biocompatible casein, and the extracts of Myristica fragans and subjected to in vitro investigations and the results revealed the deposition of apatite on the graft after immersing in SBF and also the ALP activity was high when treated with MG-63 cells, NIH-3 T3, and Saos 2 cell lines. This study indicates that the inclusion of plant extract enhances the osteogenic property of the graft. Thus, these novel dental implants incorporated with herbal composites evaluated by researchers revealed an enhanced bone healing, accelerates osseointegration, inhibits osteopenia, and inhibits inflammation. This application of herbal composite inclusion in dentistry and its applications has a greater potential to improve the success rate of dental implants and allows the implications of biotechnology in implant dentistry.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya"},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",abstract:"The main goal of modern removable prosthodontics is to restore the normal appearance, function, esthetics and speech in each completely edentulous patient. However, if all teeth are missing in a patient, it becomes very complicated to achieve it using traditional protocols. Therefore, implants were introduced into removable prosthodontics to ensure better retention and stability of the conventional dentures. In case of a large amount of bone missing in the jaw it is necessary to ensure the functioning of the dentures constructing various additional stabilizing and retentive prosthodontic solutions on the osseointegrated implants. Numerous types of attachment systems have been used recently for relating implant-retained overdentures to underlying implants: basically splinting (various bar shape designs) and non-splinting attachments (various ball type attachment, magnet attachment, telescopic coping systems). Indications for their use depend on the surgical and prosthodontic factors such as the number and position of the implants, the amount of free intermaxillary space and the type and size of the overdentures. Different indications, types of the overdentures and the attachment systems will be discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo"},{id:"79724",title:"Implant Stability Quotient (ISQ): A Reliable Guide for Implant Treatment",slug:"implant-stability-quotient-isq-a-reliable-guide-for-implant-treatment",totalDownloads:60,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101359",abstract:"Implant stability is a prerequisite for successful dental implants and osseointegration. To determine the status of implant stability, continuous monitoring in an objective and qualitative manner is important. To measure implant stability two different stages are there: Primary and secondary. Primary implant stability at placement is a mechanical phenomenon that is related to the local bone quality and quantity, the type of implant and placement technique used. Primary stability is checked from mechanical engagement with cortical bone. Secondary stability is developed from regeneration and remodeling of the bone and tissue around the implant after insertion and affected by the primary stability, bone formation and remodeling. Implant stability is essential for the time of functional loading. Classical benchmark methods to measure implant stability were radiographs or microscopic analysis, removal torque, push-through and pull-through but due to lack of feasibility, time consumption and ethical reasons other methods have been propounded over period of time like measurement of implant torque, model analysis and most important ISQ which has the ability to monitor osseointegration and the life expectancy of an implant. ISQ is a valuable diagnostic and clinical tool that has far-reaching consequences on implant dentistry and this article throws light on advanced and reliable methods of assessing ISQ.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Gaurav Gupta"},{id:"79817",title:"Peri-Implant Soft Tissue Augmentation",slug:"peri-implant-soft-tissue-augmentation",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101336",abstract:"The peri-implant soft tissue (PIS) augmentation procedure has become an integral part of implant-prosthetic rehabilitation. Minimal width of keratinized mucosa (KM) of 2 mm is deemed necessary to facilitate oral hygiene maintenance around the implant and provide hard and soft peri-implant tissue stability. PIS thickness of at least 2 mm is recommended to achieve the esthetic appearance and prevent recessions around implant prosthetic rehabilitation. The autogenous soft tissue grafts can be divided into two groups based on their histological composition—free gingival graft (FGG) and connective tissue graft (CTG). FGG graft is used mainly to increase the width of keratinized mucosa while CTG augment the thickness of PIS. Both grafts are harvested from the same anatomical region—the palate. Alternatively, they can be harvested from the maxillary tuberosity. Soft tissue grafts can be also harvested as pedicle grafts, in case when the soft tissue graft remains attached to the donor site by one side preserving the blood supply from the donor region. Clinically this will result in less shrinkage of the graft postoperatively, improving the outcome of the augmentation procedure. To bypass the drawback connected with FGG or CTG harvesting, substitutional soft tissue grafts have been developed.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Marko Blašković and Dorotea Blašković"},{id:"79611",title:"Growth Factors and Dental Implantology",slug:"growth-factors-and-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101082",abstract:"Normal healing procedure of bone involves various sequential events to develop bone and bridge the bone -to- bone gap. When this healing occurs with a metal (titanium) fixture on one side, it is called as osseointegration. After extensive studies on this topic, it is found that this procedure occurs in presence of various biologic constituents that are spontaneously released at the site. Thus, to accelerate normal healing after implant placement and make results more predictable, it has been proposed to use these autologous factors in the osteotomy site. Since it is the beginning of a new revolution in dental implantology, right now it is essential to analyze all possible combinations of host conditions, bone quality and quantity and bio factors being used. This can definitely be a boon for the patients with compromised systemic or local conditions.",book:{id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg"},signatures:"Deeksha Gupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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