Changes in building codes and standards around the world.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2215",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biomedical Engineering - Technical Applications in Medicine",title:"Biomedical Engineering",subtitle:"Technical Applications in Medicine",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Biomedical engineering is currently relatively wide scientific area which has been constantly bringing innovations with an objective to support and improve all areas of medicine such as therapy, diagnostics and rehabilitation. It holds a strong position also in natural and biological sciences. In the terms of application, biomedical engineering is present at almost all technical universities where some of them are targeted for the research and development in this area.\nThe presented book brings chosen outputs and results of research and development tasks, often supported by important world or European framework programs or grant agencies. The knowledge and findings from the area of biomaterials, bioelectronics, bioinformatics, biomedical devices and tools or computer support in the processes of diagnostics and therapy are defined in a way that they bring both basic information to a reader and also specific outputs with a possible further use in research and development.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0733-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6232-2",doi:"10.5772/2608",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"biomedical-engineering-technical-applications-in-medicine",numberOfPages:434,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"db499ba76d3f33ce5d543946aa4dc072",bookSignature:"Radovan Hudak, Marek Penhaker and Jaroslav Majernik",publishedDate:"September 6th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2215.jpg",numberOfDownloads:68597,numberOfWosCitations:111,numberOfCrossrefCitations:78,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:7,numberOfDimensionsCitations:164,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:353,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 29th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 20th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 25th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 23rd 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 23rd 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"145701",title:"Dr.",name:"Radovan",middleName:null,surname:"Hudak",slug:"radovan-hudak",fullName:"Radovan Hudak",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/145701/images/5453_n.jpg",biography:"Radovan Hudak received his MSci degree in Biomedical Engineering and his Ph.D. degree in Bionics and Biomechanics from Technical University in Kosice, Slovakia. Since September 2005 he has been working as an assistant professor at Technical University in Kosice in the field of human biomechanics and medical thermography. Throughout his career he has published more than 120 original research articles including over 20 peer reviewed journal papers and has authored and coauthored more than eight books. 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Throughout his career he has published more than 100 original research articles including over 30 peer reviewed journal papers and has authored and coauthored more than ten books. His current research interests are focused on sensing, data processing algorithms, instruments for diagnosis and therapy of health corresponding with telemedicine and personal health care.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:{id:"150525",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Majernik",slug:"jaroslav-majernik",fullName:"Jaroslav Majernik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/150525/images/system/150525.jpg",biography:"Jaroslav Majernik is a Head of Department of Medical Informatics at the Faculty of Medicine in Kosice, Slovakia. He received his Master’s degree in the field of electronics and telecommunications in 2000. 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\r\n\tWith the discovery of more unconventional heavier crude and alternative hydrocarbon sources, primary upgrading or cracking of the oil into lighter liquid fuel is critical. With increasing concern for environmental sustainability, the regulations on fuel specifications are becoming more stringent. Processing and treating crude oil into a cleaner oil with better quality is equally important. Hence, there has been a relentless and continuous effort to develop new crude upgrading and treating technologies, such as various catalytic systems for more economical and better system performance, as well as cleaner and higher-quality oil.
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Interstitial cystitis was first described by Skene in 1887, and its definition has changed over the past 100 years. Guy Hunner was the first to identify the characteristic cytoscopic findings associated with bladder pain that were initially called Hunner’s ulcers. However, these cytoscopic findings are not characteristic of an ulcer and instead due to a severe inflammatory lesion; therefore, the term ulcer is no longer used. IC/BPS is divided into the Hunner type interstitial cystitis with Hunner lesion and bladder pain syndrome (BPS) without Hunner lesion [2]. Hunner type IC/BPS cystitis has characteristic endoscopic findings and distinct inflammatory histopathology, whereas BPS lacks both the endoscopic and histopathology findings. The Hunner lesion is described as a “circumscript, reddened mucosal lesion with small vessels radiating toward a central scar, with fibrin deposit or coagulum” and a “velvet red patch that looks like carcinoma in situ” (Figure 1) [1].
Cystoscopic findings of Hunner lesion.
During cystoscopic examination, it is crucially important to watch the bladder mucosa from the early phase of bladder filling, because Hunner lesions might be obscured shortly after bladder distension. Recent research has revealed significant differences in the demographics, clinical presentation, bladder pathology, urinary marker profiles, and treatment responses between patients with IC/BPS with Hunner lesion and those without Hunner lesion. IC/BPS with Hunner lesions is a distinct inflammatory disorder characterized by epithelial denudation and frequent clonal expansion of infiltrating B cells, in association with biological processes involved in immune responses and infectious disease [3]. IC/BPS without Hunner lesions, however, rarely show histological changes and retain a preserved urothelium. IC/BPS with Hunner lesion has an incidence of up to 7% among IC/BPS patients and is categorized as a separate disease from non-Hunner IC/BPS [2, 4, 5]. In this chapter, we discuss intravesical treatment and endoscopic treatment of the Hunner lesion type IC/BPS.
Intravesical instillation of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was approved by the FDA in 1978 as a treatment method for IC/BPS. The mechanism of action of DMSO may involve anti-inflammatory effects, nerve blockade, smooth muscle relaxation, and collagen inhibition [6]. In the American Urological Association (AUA) guidelines, intravesical DMSO may be used for symptoms refractory to conservative measures or as initial treatment to address severe symptoms as second-line treatment [7]. In contrast, the EAU guideline does not recommend the use of DMSO because of insufficient evidence. A review by Cochrane also reported that the evidence for treating IC/BPS with intravesical DMSO is limited [6]. In 1988, Perez-Marrero et al. [8] published a trial with 33 patients and found that the proportion of patients with subjective symptom improvement was 53% among DMSO-injected patients compared with 18% in the placebo group. Since then, several single-arm studies have been reported, and most studies have confirmed the 61–95% of therapeutic effect of DMSO in patients who did not respond to medication or hydrodistension.
A multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial examining DMSO compared with placebo in 96 patients was recently published in Japan in 2021 [9]. The mean O’Leary-Sant Interstitial Cystitis Symptom Index (ICSI) score at week 12 decreased by −5.2 in the DMSO group compared with a decrease by −3.4 in the placebo group, with a statistically significant difference between the groups. Although the O’Leary-Sant Interstitial Cystitis Problem Index (ICPI), number of frequency, mean voided volume, and maximum voided volume showed significant improvement in the DMSO group compared with placebo group, there was no significant difference in the pain score between the two groups at 12 weeks. In this study, Hunner lesions were confirmed by cystoscopy at baseline in 86% of all patients. The authors speculated that the high incidence of Hunner lesions may have contributed to the clinical efficacy of DMSO. Although it was a small study, another study compared the efficacy of DMSO treatment between patients with and without Hunner lesion, and DMSO intravesical instillation showed a significant therapeutic effect only in IC/BPS patients with Hunner lesion. These findings suggest that IC/BPS with Hunner lesion and IC/BPS without Hunner lesion have different characteristics, and intravesical DMSO treatment with strong anti-inflammatory effects may play a greater role in Hunner lesion type IC/BPS.
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a component of the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) layer of the bladder and is used to repair the GAG layer. A previous study synthesis in an inflammatory model of IC/BPS indicated that the mechanism of action involves modulation of urothelial permeability and stimulation of GAG [10]. HA is used at a concentration of 0.8% for intravesical instillation treatment for IC/BPS. In a previous study in which intravesical HA was administered for 4 weeks with monthly instillation for 6 months in patients with refractory IC/BPS, the response rate at 12 weeks was 71% and was maintained well until 20 weeks. In a study comparing HA and heparin intravesical instillation after hydrodistension, the therapeutic effect of severe IC/BPS patients was maintained longer in patients who received HA instillation than those who received heparin.
Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a glycoprotein and a component of the GAG layer of bladder mucosa. Commercially available CS products include iAluRil (Juno, AK), Uracyst (Galen, UK), and Uropol (Galen). Nickel et al. [11] performed a multicenter, randomized, double-blind study in which 20 ml of 2% CS or an inactive control solution were injected weekly for 8 weeks for female patients with IC/BPS. The proportion of patients with moderate or marked improvement at 11 weeks was 38.0% in the CS group and 31.3% in the control group; CS treatment in IC/BPS patients showed minor improvements in IC/BPS-related symptom and pain. In another recent report, intravesical CS was found to be superior to intravesical HA in terms of frequency, nocturia and ICPI in patients with BPS/IC during the 6 months of follow-up [12]. In refractory IC/BPS patients, the combination of 1.6% HA and 2.0% CS maintained improvement in symptoms for up to 3 years, indicating that the combination treatment might be more effective than the monotherapy [13].
If a Hunner lesion is confirmed by cystoscopy, transurethral surgical treatment should be performed. In 1971, Kerr et al. [14] first performed transurethral resection on a female patient with Hunner lesion who reported symptom relief for 1 year. In 2000, Peeker et al. [15] reported that 40% of patients who underwent transurethral resection of Hunner lesion had symptomatic improvement; the remission rate was 34.5%, and patients remained in remission for 3 years after resection. In addition, Lee et al. [16] reported that combined hydrodistension and transurethral resection treatment increased bladder capacity and reduced the frequency of micturition and pain. Although the transurethral ablation methods, such as fulguration, coagulation, or resection of Hunner lesion, differ according to various studies, the pain visual analogue scale (VAS) significantly improved after transurethral ablation.
We performed a prospective, observational study of 72 patients with IC/BPS with Hunner lesion who underwent transurethral ablation and followed patients for 3 years [17]. At one month after surgery, the mean number of frequency and mean number of urgency episodes decreased sharply to 5.5 times and 9.4 times, respectively. Over the 12-month follow-up period, the number of frequency, urgency and VAS pain score increased compared with immediately after primary ablation treatment; however, these indices were all significantly better, even after 12 months.
As the extent of Hunner lesion increases, the patient’s pain and urinary symptoms tend to become more severe. The ICSI and ICPI and the maximum bladder capacity are significantly associated with the extent of Hunner lesion [18]. Nevertheless, it seems unlikely that patients with multiple Hunner lesion or a wider extent of Hunner lesion are more likely to show recurrence. Akiyama et al. [18] performed hydrodistension with fulguration for Hunner lesion and evaluated the outcome according to the extent of Hunner lesion; the authors found that the extent of Hunner lesion did not predict the need for repeat hydrodistension/fulguration. In our previous study, we were also unable to identify predictive factors related to recurrence. Lower maximal cystometric capacity [odds ratio (OR) 1.01, 95% CI 1.001–1.013; P = 0.017] was the only predictive factor related to early recurrence within 12 months, but sex, presence of previous hydrodistension, and number of Hunner lesions did not affect early recurrence [17]. Han et al. [19] also examined the recurrence pattern and predictors of Hunner lesion; the number of Hunner lesions had no effect on recurrence and only the Pelvic Pain and Urgency/Frequency Patient Symptom Scale (PUF) bother score (OR 1.142, 95% CI 1.016–1.284, P = 0.026) was a predictor related to recurrence of Hunner lesion. A PUF bother score greater than or equal to 7.5 was identified as the predictive cut-off value for recurrence, with a ROC area of 0.690 (sensitivity: 67.9%, specificity: 62.5%). In summary, the predictors of Hunner lesion recurrence have not yet been clearly identified; recurrence or progression does not appear to be faster in patients with multiple Hunner lesions and severe symptoms at the time of initial diagnosis.
One study evaluated the recurrence patterns of Hunner lesion after transurethral ablation and showed that 21.8% of Hunner lesions recurred in the previous ablation site, 18.8% recurred in a de novo site, and 59.4% recurred in both previous and de novo sites [19]. We analyzed the recurrence pattern through prospectively collected data of IC/BPS patients with Hunner lesion who underwent transurethral ablation (data not yet published). In our cases, Hunner lesion recurred in 120 of 210 patients with a median follow-up of 32 months. Among patients with a first recurrence, the proportion of patients with recurrence at the previous ablation site was 50.8% (n = 61), while 6.7% (n = 8) had recurrence of a new lesion, and 42.5% (n = 51) had recurrence at both previous and new sites. Overall, 90% of patients had recurrence around the previous ablation site, and less than 7% showed recurrence at a new site. Endoscopic treatment for Hunner lesion shows good efficacy in alleviating symptoms for a specific period of time after the procedure, but ultimately does not prevent Hunner lesion recurrence. This is considered a natural course of IC/BPS with Hunner lesion disease with the characteristics of pancystitis. To prevent recurrence, the role of postoperative medication or intravesical treatment should be investigated. A recent pilot study reported that hydrodistension with fulguration of Hunner lesion plus maintenance DMSO therapy prolonged the recurrence-free time in patients with IC/BPS with Hunner lesion [20].
One question regarding the recurrence of Hunner lesions is whether endoscopic treatment helps to suppress recurrence. However, current research indicates this may not be the case. In a 30-month prospective study of IC/BPS with Hunner lesion treatment naïve patients, the median recurrence-free time after the first endoscopic ablation of Hunner lesion was 12.0 ± 1.6 months (95% CI; 8.9–15.1). After the second endoscopic ablation, the median recurrence-free time was 18.0 ± 5.1 months (95% CI; 8.0–28.0), which was slightly increased, but the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.15) [17]. Nevertheless, if Hunner lesion recurs, repeat ablation should be performed. Repeated endoscopic ablation does not lower the recurrence rate, but it is the only way to significantly reduce pain and improve quality of life in a less invasive manner.
Prominent ulcerations are observed in the histology of Hunner lesion, which may be covered by fibrin mixed with inflammatory cells, in particular neutrophils. The lesions are often wedge-shaped and involve the superficial part of the lamina propria, often extending into the muscularis mucosae. Thus, deep biopsies including bladder muscle are required, since the disease process involves superficial as well as deeper layers of the bladder wall [4]. Many symptoms and findings in IC/BPS with Hunner lesion may be ascribed to the release of mast cell–derived factors. Mast cells are often observed near nerves, and functional evidence suggests innervation of these cells. As a hypothesis that has been accepted so far, transurethral ablation might be the removal of intramural nerve endings engaged in the inflammatory process [21, 22, 23].
Whether transurethral resection of Hunner lesion is capable of disease control compared with coagulation/fulguration and prevents recurrence of Hunner lesion is an important question. A randomized controlled study was conducted to compare the therapeutic effect between transurethral resection and coagulation of Hunner lesion in 126 patients with IC/BPS [24]. The primary endpoint was the difference in recurrence-free time between the two surgical methods, and the secondary outcomes were voiding symptoms, pain level, and risk factors for recurrence. The median duration of follow-up was 11.0 months. There were no differences in the recurrence-free time between the treatment groups: 12.2 months (95% confidence interval [CI], 11.1–17.6) for the transurethral resection group and 11.5 months (95% CI, 9.03–16.1; p = 0.735) for the transurethral coagulation group. In addition, after both procedures, the mean daytime frequency, nocturia, urgency episodes, ICSI, ICPI, PUF symptom scale, and VAS for pain all improved significantly compared with baseline; however, there were no differences between the groups over 12 months. The type of surgery, age, number of Hunner lesions, and maximal cystomteric capacity were not associated with the risk of recurrence. In safety analysis, in cases treated with transurethral resection, the incidence of bladder injury was 7.9%, which was slightly higher than that among patients treated with coagulation, which was 3.4%. Our findings did not suggest that one procedure was superior to the other with regard to delaying recurrence. The choice of treatment did not affect the recurrence rate and produced comparable results, which may be because the ultimate peripheral denervation acted as the same thermal effect in both treatments.
Some studies have suggested that concurrent hydrodistension with transurethral ablation may be helpful for symptom improvement [16, 18, 25]. However, the simultaneous performance of hydrodistension causes difficulties in complete removal of the Hunner lesion. Hydrodistension obscures the boundaries of the Hunner lesion, which are clearly identified through cystoscopy, and bleeding related to hydrodistension interferes with the field of surgical view. We believe that good efficacy can be maintained only with transurethral resection or coagulation of Hunner lesion without hydrodistension.
To coagulate or resect the Hunner lesion, the most important first step is to demarcate the lesion with the cautery before full bladder distension. Complete coagulation of the inside Hunner lesion of the boundary should then be performed. If starting from the inside of the lesion and working outward, reactive erythema spreads outward and obscures the original boundary of the lesion. In the case of transurethral resection, it is effective to use a bipolar loop. During the resection, resection should be performed as deeply as possible to the muscle layer using a cutting current. However, bladder damage can easily occur because the bladder wall of Hunner lesion is thin and friable. To prevent bladder injury, the quantity of irrigation fluid should be kept constant through suction attached to the outer sheath. Using this approach, the risk of bladder damage can be reduced by preventing the overdistension of bladder. Nevertheless, when it is difficult to complete resect the Hunner lesion or when the surgeon does not have extensive experience for transurethral resection, transurethral coagulation alone may be enough to control Hunner lesions.
Partial or complete cystectomy, augmentation cystoplasty, and urinary diversion are options indicated by the AUA and East Asian guidelines when all other therapies have failed [1, 7]. Rossberger et al. [26] found that reconstructive surgery resulted in the resolution of symptoms in 94% of patients with refractory IC/BPS with Hunner lesion. Patients with IC/BPS with Hunner lesion had a significantly smaller bladder capacity and benefited from reconstructive surgery compared with patients without Hunner lesion. We retrospectively analyzed 40 patients who underwent augmentation ileocystoplasty with supratrigonal cystectomy in patients with refractory IC/BPS with Hunner lesion [27]. After augmentation with supratrigonal cystectomy, significantly decreased pain and frequency and significantly increased bladder capacity were observed. Treatment failure was defined as the persistence of symptoms after surgery or a less than 30% reduction in ICSI from baseline, which accounted for 20% (8/40) of patients. Two of the patients had recurrent Hunner lesion around the bladder neck and additional endoscopic ablation was performed, while the remaining patients maintained oral medication [27]. There may be concerns about major complications after reconstructive surgery; however, most complications were minor and managed conservatively. Although six patients had vesicoureteral reflux after surgery, there was no deterioration of the upper urinary tract, so no additional treatment was required. Five patients received intermittent catheterization because they were unable to void after surgery, but the discomfort of catheterization was not considered a significant problem due to improvement in pain [27].
Although there is no definite treatment for IC/BPS, endoscopic treatment can be considered for Hunner lesion type IC/BPS. To confirm the presence of Hunner lesion, cystoscopy should be performed in patients with suspected IC/BPS. When performing cystoscopy, the bladder should not be inflated too much to prevent false-positive findings or bleeding due to mucosal fissure and to accurately diagnose Hunner lesion. Various intravesical therapies, including HA, CS, and DMSO, have been used for IC/BPS and are more effective in terms of anti-inflammatory effects and GAG layer replenishment in patients with Hunner lesion than patients without Hunner lesion. Overall, endoscopic ablation for Hunner lesion is an effective and minimally invasive treatment for patients with Hunner lesion type IC/BPS; this treatment strategy significantly reduces pain and improves voiding symptoms. Mucosal cracks that occur during hydrodistension are not real Hunner lesion, and we do not recommend performing hydrodistension first during endoscopic ablation. Repeated ablation does not suppress recurrence but does not reduce the therapeutic efficacy. There are various methods for endoscopic ablation; the main methods are coagulation or resection of Hunner lesion, and both are good treatment modalities to relieve the symptoms of Hunner lesion IC/BPS and improve quality of life. IC/BPS with Hunner lesion is a progressive disease, and it is necessary to establish a treatment protocol such as adjuvant intravesical treatment to reduce the risk of recurrence after transurethral ablation.
The international building codes and standards have consistently, through their various iterations, sought to reduce the energy demand of buildings with a focus on better fabric performance and lower U-value requirement among others (Table 1). This was simply due to the fact that the operational energy demand, in earlier versions of standards, was taken as 10 times greater than the embodied energy load, and therefore reasonable to be given priority [2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
Finland | U-value wall | 0.28 | 0.25 | 0.24 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.17 |
U-value roof | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.09 | |
2006 | 2010 | 2013 | |||||
Notional building | Limiting factor | Notional building | Limiting factor | Notional building | Limiting factor | ||
UK | U-value wall | 0.35 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.18 | 0.3 |
U-value roof | 0.25 | 0.35 | 0.13 | 0.2 | 0.13 | 0.2 | |
EnEV 2002 | EnEV 2004 | EnEV 2007 | EnEV 2009 | EnEV 2014 | EnEV 2016 | ||
Germany | U-value wall | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.28 |
U-value roof | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.35 | 0.35 | 0.28 | |
BFS 2008 | BFS 2011 | BFS 2016 | |||||
Sweden | U-value wall | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.18 | |||
U-value roof | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.13 | ||||
BCA2007 | NCC 2011 | NCC 2015 | |||||
Australia | U-value wall | 0.52 (Z1, 2 and 3)–0.3 (zone 8) | 0.35 (Z1–Z7)–0.26 (Z8) | 0.35 (Z1–Z7)–0.26 (Z8) | |||
U-value roof | 0.37 (Z1)–0.21 (Z8) | 0.2 (Z1–Z7)–0.16 (Z8) | 0.2 (Z1–Z7)–0.16 (Z8) | ||||
IECC 2009 | IECC 2012 | IECC 2018 | |||||
United States | U-value wall | 0.197–0.057 (Z1–Z8) | 0.197–0.057 (Z1–Z8) | 0.197–0.057 (Z1–Z8) | |||
U-value roof | 0.035–0.026 (Z1–Z8) | 0.035–0.026 (Z1–Z8) | 0.035–0.026 (Z1–Z8) |
More recently however, when reducing the carbon emissions from the built environment came under more serious scrutiny, this trend that has been cemented in building standard around the world has been questioned and analysed further and different countries have started acknowledging embodied energy in their regulations. For example, France and Belgium are pioneering the move to mandate consideration of embodied energy in their building regulations in Europe. Although this is still relatively new and low impact and the building product manufacturers are only required to report Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) data should they decide to promote the environmental performance of their products, it is a significant shift towards regulating embodied energy in buildings [7]. Other countries within Europe joining the initiative include Austrian, the Netherlands and German legislations. These although acknowledge embodied energy investment a significant contributor to the overall carbon footprint of new buildings, only focus on operational energy currently. Although not fully incorporated in building regulations there exist examples of various embodied energy inventories dedicated to the construction sector and the associated materials and products including BRE’s Green Guide and the Inventory of Carbon and Energy (ICE), U.S. Life Cycle Inventory Database, and the Canadian Building Material Life Cycle Inventory Database [1].
In recent years, the increased use of LCA evaluations to measure the environmental performance of building materials and products has emerged from the push toward integrating embodied energy in emission equations. Various environmental certification systems have been developed and used, such as the Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) [8], to independently verify documents that transparently and accurately communicate the environmental impact of various products in accordance with EN 15804 and ISO 14025. EPDs are type III environmental declarations based on the fundamental product category rules of European standards (PCR).
Although embodied energy has been acknowledged in regulations and researched substantially in the literature, it is still not fully regulated. The ratio of embodied to operational energy has changed over the years with the operational energy reducing as a result of increased adoption of renewable energy and better fabric standards. This, at the same time, increased the use of insulation in the buildings and shifted the ratio considerably [9]. As the ratio shifts, future low and zero energy buildings may see comparable embodied and operational energy measures, or even embodied energy outweighing the operational energy (Figure 1), concluded in RICS [10], Kristjansdottir et al. [11], Sartori & Hestnes [12], Dixit [13], Chau et al. [14], Stephan et al. [15], Dascalaki et al. [16], Mourao et al. [17], Gustavsson & Joelsson [18], Azari and Abbasabadi [19], and Dascalaki et al. [20]. Such drastic changes necessitate a thorough examination of the constraints and challenges that come with regulating embodied energy in the construction industry.
Embodied to operational proportions for low and zero carbon buildings.
The following section examines the relative challenges and arising opportunities, focusing on issues such as the consistency and reliability of existing data data utilised in LCA analysis, as well as inconsistent modelling methodologies that produce outputs with a high level of uncertainty, and lays the foundation for future research.
LCA studies are used to properly assess a product\'s or service\'s environmental impact. This strategy is largely data-driven, and is heavily reliant on the availability of precise, dependable, and high-quality data [21]. Gathering data with such qualities, on the other hand, has proven difficult for LCA end users and practitioners [22] due to a variety of issues, including manufacturer confidentiality requirements, the time and expertise required to generate reliable data, and inconsistent application of methodological approaches to data analysis [23, 24].
In theory, any LCA study in accordance with common PCRs should allow for reliable comparative analyses to take place for various building materials, products, and services. In practice however, the assumptions used in the LCA models including the service life of the product, maintenance requirements, in use operating energy, and varying system boundary options [1, 25] can significantly shift the results of the LCA models [26]. Several researchers have reported disparities between LCA results based on fundamentally different assumptions, such as functional units [27], system boundaries [28, 29], LCI databases [21, 30], and End-of-Life (EoL) modelling scenarios [30]; Takano [31]. Clark [32] studied embodied equivalent carbon values for commercial buildings based on different methodologies and demonstrated results ranging from 300 to 1650 kgCO2eq/m2. De Wolf et al. [22] comprehensively investigated discrepancies in the final results of LCA studies due to the quality of available data.
The other factor contributing to further discrepancies that has been studied comprehensively in the literature is the adoption of LCI techniques. The LCI techniques include process, input–output, and hybrid methods. There are fundamental differences between the way data is treated and analysed in these techniques with the process analysis formed around disintegrating the relevant life cycle stages into characteristic processes. The data associated with each stage is collected directly from relevant manufacturers or is provided by specialist data inventories including ecoinvent and GaBi. The Input–output technique is formulated around financial transaction matrices between engaged sectors. The embodied energy values are calculated using energy intensity values that have been assigned to each sector. Hybrid analysis in designed to benefit from advantages of the two techniques and at the same eliminate their shortcomings [15]. The most impactful shortcomings of the two techniques include the ‘truncation error’ which is believed to significantly underrepresent requirements for the process analysis [33, 34, 35, 36, 37] and also the ‘aggregation error’ for input–output analysis for allocating similar energy intensity measures to all products within a sector [38].
There are various studies that have highlighted the discrepancies in embodied energy results associated with adoption of different LCI techniques. Crawford [39], Stephan et al. [15] and Stephan and Stephan [40] have demonstrated in their studies of whole buildings that a hybrid LCI analysis can lead to embodied energy values of up to four times greater than those achieved using a process analysis. In a similar study Wiedmann et al. [41] explored the environmental impact of wind turbines and demonstrated twice as high environmental impacts for hybrid analysis compared with a process analysis. Bontinck et al. [42]. A hybrid LCI was used to explore structural insulated panel systems. The findings of the hybrid analysis were found to be 159 percent higher than a process analysis and 46 percent lower than an input-output analysis. Guan et al. [43] conducted a process study on a hybrid LCA of a building in China and found a 100 percent gap.
Drastic disparities of this nature highlight the need for a harmonised and standardised LCA to be adopted by building regulations allowing for an effective decision-making tool to assist in the early stages of building fabric design, or strategising future policies and product development for various stakeholders.
Gelowitz and McArthur [44] reviewed the published EPDs for building products and identified adoption of different LCI methodologies, high level of incomparability between EPDs using the same PCR, and poor verification practices as the main barriers in adopting the results in further analysis. Although conceding that the number of valid comparisons were substantially greater for EPD generated in compliance with EN 15804, Resalati et al. [1] argue that the EN 15804 harmonisation standard has not been totally effective.
Although several studies have investigated the LCA concept in detail and provided insight into how best these tools could be further optimised for decision making processes, their use is currently primarily limited to academic studies [30], and is not incorporated in the industrial ecosystems in enough depth [7]. This has been attributed to a series of factors in the literature including the lack of appropriate interoperability between LCA methodologies and high demand tools in the construction sector (Anand and Amor [30], Means and Guggemos [45]), the expertise required to carry out LCA studies reliably [45], and LCA priority for various industries at present in parallel to the confidentiality issues the manufacturers see as a barrier in publishing their LCA results [46]. As noted by Resalati et al. [1], such challenges may cause delays in the adoption of such technologies, implying that environmental policies and many of the assumptions on which current policies are founded may not accurately reflect energy and its consequent carbon investments. Several researchers such as Chastas et al. [47], Cellura et al. [48] and Moran et al. [49] have questioned whether our current energy efficiency measures with a focus on ‘operational energy only’, instead of a ‘total energy’ efficiency, are acceptable in the context of longer term strategic policy making.
This chapter, takes on an aggregated operational and embodied energy approach, aiming to demonstrate the impact of the uncertainties of embodied energy data when achieving low and zero energy buildings. The analyses aim to apply the aggregated approach on individual building elements and materials.
This chapter seeks to highlight the significance of considering the uncertainties of embodied energy data when LCA is used as decision making tool to inform the engaged stakeholder and other relevant end users. This will be carried out with a particular view of individual building components and materials, based on a total energy/carbon analysis.
This is illustrated by examining the sensitivity of optimal building insulation level to the deviations of embodied energy data. The assessments are shown in the context of residential buildings in the United Kingdom, although the methodology is not restricted to that and may be applied to a broader operational setting.
While the connection between U-values and operational energy/carbon is generally linear (Figure 2), embodied carbon tends to rise at a faster rate as buildings are insulated to better efficiencies. Only thermal conductivity is positively associated with operational carbon (i.e. the line is not dependant on the insulation type).
Linear relationship between operational carbon and U-value.
Embodied carbon however, is directly dependent on the type of insulation and increases in the level of insulation progressively increase the embodied carbon values relative to thermal conductivity of the material and its associated embodied carbon burden.
Figure 3 illustrates the total carbon curve (for PUR insulation as an example) for a typical dwelling. The key feature is that the aggregated total of the linear and non-linear relationship is inevitably non-linear. The graph demonstrates a progressively diminishing return for incremental improvement in U-value measures. Reducing the total carbon value therefore becomes more challenging to achieve using the building fabric insulation levels.
Total carbon curve.
The graph indicates an optimum thickness for the insulation level beyond which the additional embodied carbon investment cannot be recovered through operational carbon savings (the marked point on Figure 3). The optimal point can change as the base assumptions are adjusted in the analysis e.g., insulation type, climate, occupancy levels, etc. The key feature however is that the three lines form a curve that repeats in all comparable scenarios. Such curves will eventually flatten for a longer service life or the use of an insulation material with lower associated embodied carbon. Such analyses demonstrate where optimum net benefit is achieved. Beyond these optima embodied carbon burdens exceed operational savings, whilst in advance of these points embodied carbon investment usefully reduced operational requirements.
This form of analysis is key when it comes to designing low/zero energy buildings where the existing standards tend to move towards even lower U-value requirements. On a material level, the analysis demonstrates that many conventional insulation materials cannot achieve very low U-values without incurring carbon disbenefits, whilst other conventional or novel materials with lower embodied carbon relative to their thermal conductivities, can justifiably achieve ambitious U-values.
The flat nature of the total carbon curve naturally creates comparative points on the graph, where lower levels of insulation show parity to the more extreme measures. The identified areas on Figure 4 are referring to the insulation levels that are within 5% variation of the sweet spot i.e., the total carbon level associated with the 300mm insulation is identical to that of 100mm, in this specific case, but within 5% similarity to the total carbon level on the sweet spot. The operational only approach suggests 50% savings for the same range. This is crucial to be incorporated in all future building design strategies if the lower emission targets are to be met where a decarbonised grid coupled with electricity dominated operational energy demand is in the horizon.
Areas on the total carbon curve where lower levels of insulation show parity to the higher levels.
Such findings will have significant financial implications as well for building design where higher levels of insulation would be more difficult to justify in the future zero energy building codes and standards. This similarly applies to setting the energy efficiency targets for retrofitting the existing building stock around the world.
It is important to realise that the optimal points on the total carbon curve may move towards lower or higher insulation levels depending on the occupancy patterns, climatic conditions, building function and service life, source of energy, HVAC type and settings, and the type of insulation used, but the approach will be valid and its key feature still applicable, as identified above.
In order to demonstrate the extent of variability in results, the following section demonstrate the application of a series of insulation materials on a case study building in the UK. The assessments were conducted on a three-bedroom semi-detached house built in compliance with the most recent Building Regulations in the United Kingdom, as outlined in L1A Conservation of fuel and power. The building has a total floor area of 80 m2.
The studied insulation materials and their associated reported embodied carbon values are presented in Table 2. The values are extracted from available EPDs for each insulation material.
Material | f.u. | Density (kg/m3) | λ (W/m k) | GWP (kgCO2eq/kg) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Glass wool (GW) | m3 | 15 | 0.0425 | 1.07 |
m3 | 19 | 0.0395 | 1.07 | |
m3 | 24 | 0.035 | 1.16 | |
m3 | 31 | 0.033 | 1.07 | |
m3 | 10.5 | 0.044 | 1.16 | |
m3 | 19.5 | 0.035 | 0.97 | |
m3 | 11.5 | 0.04 | 0.99 | |
m3 | 20 | 0.035 | 1.43 | |
Mineral wool (MW) | m2 | 38.5 | 0.03676 | 0.85 |
m3 | 33 | 0.039 | 1.63 | |
m3 | 85 | 0.04 | 1.13 | |
m3 | 50 | 0.035 | 1.53 | |
m2 | 29 | 0.037 | 1.21 | |
m3 | 41 | 0.04 | 0.84 | |
m3 | 94 | 0.04 | 0.88 | |
m3 | 158 | 0.04 | 0.89 | |
m3 | 20.5 | 0.036 | 1.24 | |
m3 | 23.5 | 0.0335 | 1.81 | |
m3 | 22.3 | 0.0335 | 1.86 | |
m3 | 14.8 | 0.04 | 1.72 | |
m3 | 15 | 0.04 | 1.92 | |
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) | m3 | 15.5 | 0.035 | 2.99 |
m2 | 25 | 0.034 | 2.35 | |
m3 | 15.5 | 0.035 | 2.99 | |
m3 | 15.5 | 0.035 | 2.99 | |
m3 | 22.5 | 0.035 | 3.51 | |
m3 | 16.6 | 0.035 | 2.89 | |
m3 | 22.9 | 0.035 | 2.71 | |
Extruded polystyrene (XPS) | m2 | 35 | 0.031 | 2.91 |
m2 | 33.7 | 0.035 | 2.79 | |
m2 | 34.6 | 0.035 | 2.75 | |
m2 | 33.7 | 0.035 | 2.79 | |
Polyurethane (PU) | m2 | 31 | 0.023 | 4.03 |
m2 | 31 | 0.023 | 3.47 | |
m2 | 31 | 0.026 | 3.52 | |
m2 | 31 | 0.026 | 3.20 | |
m2 | 40 | 0.026 | 3.19 | |
m2 | 42 | 0.023 | 7.76 | |
m2 | 32 | 0.023 | 3.81 | |
Phenolic foam (PF) | m2 | 35 | 0.021 | 2.83 |
m2 | 35 | 0.021 | 2.91 | |
Foam glass (FG) | m3 | 165 | 0.103 | 0.12 |
m3 | 130 | 0.082 | 0.12 | |
kg | 117 | 0.041 | 1.30 | |
Cellulose (CEL) | m3 | 28 | 0.039 | 0.13 |
m3 | 28 | 0.039 | 0.10 | |
kg | 31 | 0.039 | 0.20 | |
m3 | 250 | 0.049 | 0.86 | |
m3 | 160 | 0.04 | 0.64 | |
m3 | 260 | 0.05 | 0.70 | |
m3 | 140 | 0.038 | 0.43 | |
m3 | 240 | 0.047 | 0.44 | |
m3 | 210 | 0.044 | 0.39 | |
Vacuum insulation panel (VIP) | kg | 200 | 0.007 | 9.4 |
kg | 200 | 0.007 | 11.1 | |
kg | 200 | 0.007 | 6.4 |
Environmental properties of insulation materials with reference to their thermal conductivities.
A box and whisker plot was used to graphically illustrate the locality and spread of GWP/unit weight data extracted from EPD documents as presented in Table 2. The interquartile range (IQR) between the 25th and 75th percentiles, median and standard deviation values are represented with the box, the line, and the whiskers respectively.
A clear distinction can be observed between studied insulation materials with MW and GW presenting comparable median values. EPS, XPS, PU, and PF as insulation materials with a hydrocarbon base also form a distinctive group with very similar median points. The PU and MW however are demonstrating greater probability distribution due to the discrepancies in the data compared with PF and GW.
For a more meaningful comparison between the insulation materials, their relative thermal performance needs to be reflected in the analysis. The thermal resistance (R-value) target for this analysis was taken as 6.6 m2.K/W complying with the UK Building Regulation requirements as explained above. Figure 6 represents the values in Table 2 converted into the GWP values associated with the target thermal resistance for each insulation material.
The distinct insulation groups, with similar median points, that were formed in Figure 5 are not evident in Figure 6 and the GWP values in relation to the thermal resistance demonstrate smaller variation between the insulation groups. The distribution of GWP values for MW becomes significantly broader when the targeted R-value is considered, whereas these values for GW stays relatively stable.
GWP per unit weight of different insulation materials.
GWP per unit area of insulation materials for the target thermal resistance.
The median point for XPS insulation material demonstrates 100% higher GWP values compared with EPS. The GWP values for Cellulose-based insulations, cover a broad range from 0.7–67 kgCO2−eq/m2. This is due to the variety of base products used for making cellulose-based insulations. The base products can include refined virgin wood chips and blown recycled cellulosic products, such as wastepaper with requiring their own dedicated processing procedures.
The GWP values for VIPs are significantly higher than the other insulation materials even with factoring their considerably better thermal performance (up to 10 times better) in the analysis. This must be noted however that over 90% of the GWP values associated with VIPs are linked to their core material and specifically in the studied EPD associated with the use pyrogenic silica [50, 51]. The studied EPDs for VIPs are based on a cradle to gate approach and therefore not taking into account the recyclability potential for VIPs. Considering different end-of-life scenarios could change the impact of VIPs and other insulation materials such as cellulose based materials significantly.
The following section utilises the range of embodied carbon values presented above in order to identify the associated optimum U-value measures and present the uncertainties such discrepancies can cause in early stage building design decision making. Figure 7 demonstrates these points and clearly presents the broad range of identified optimum points that can be achieved using the same type of insulation material depending on the source of embodied carbon values used.
Optimum U-value points associated with the GWP data points generated on the total carbon curve.
The range of embodied carbon associated with Cellulose insulation as an example, leads the optimum U-value points to cover values from 0.15 W/m2.K to 0.35 W/m2.K. This applies to all other insulation materials as well with MW and PU covering 0.16–0.25 W/m2.K and 0.21–0.29 W/m2.K respectively.
Comparing VIP values with other insulation materials demonstrate that U-values lower than 0.21 W/m2.K could not be reached without leading to an increase in the total carbon values. The VIP values however show comparable results with PU insulation, although due to its higher GWP values, the total carbon value is higher for identical optimum U-values. This is also investigated by Resalati et al. [1] where it was observed for VIPs that their interquartile range was almost double of those for PU. The values demonstrate the CEL, EPS, GW, and MW insulation types allow for lower U-values to be reached, in the context of assumptions applied to this study. Figure 7 further highlights the sensitivity of identifying the optimum insulation levels for low and zero energy buildings to the assumption applied to the LCA models.
The optimum insulation levels based on an aggregated operational and embodied carbon approach allows for identifying the effectiveness of building fabric design in meeting the carbon savings targets. This has been presented that an operational carbon only approach, as is required by the current building energy codes and regulations, does not necessarily lead to a lower overall energy load when compared with an aggregated approach. This has also been concluded by Mohazabieh et al. [52], Gul and Patidar [53] and Stephan et al. [15].
The analyses here further highlights these implications for subsequent future regulatory requirements, and hence provide the building product manufacturers with appropriate tools for analysing their products’ place in any future market where a total carbon approach is applied to building design in principle. The key concept here is that the discussion of factoring embodied energy/carbon into building design decisions is well past the point of questioning its significance and more addressing the challenges of how best this could be incorporated into our existing regulations. This is also concluded in a study presented by Lutzkendorf [54]. Further delays in factoring in the environmental performance of various materials, products, and services when calculating/regulating the required U-values in building design can in principle lead to the design choices that increase the carbon footprint rather than reducing it.
The findings also provide meaningful insight for developing novel insulation technologies. Any new technology will need to have very low levels of embodied energy relative to its R-value if lower insulation levels are to be achieved with the embodied energy values factored in. This can either be achieved using low impact materials or with appropriate plans for end-of-life recyclability. VIPs for instance offer huge potential to be used in future low and zero energy buildings given their very thin nature relative to the thermal conductivity measures, and can potentially outperform the conventional insulation materials based on an aggregated carbon approach. Appropriate end of life treatments however, need to be considered for VIPs to be competitive in the market environmentally.
Although existing assessment techniques have specific shortcomings, the number of research and initiatives currently undertaken in many countries highlight that the Life Cycle Assessment of buildings will be a feature of future assessments of building environmental impacts. Regulations incentivizing additional stakeholders to use these methodologies, as recommended by Eurima, should be the driving force behind increased acceptance of assessments of this type [7]. This adoption, on the other hand, requires studies that can deliver practical roadmaps, supporting the engaged stakeholders in establishing effective and long term business strategies. A more in depth understanding of the restrictions of LCA studies is a necessary requirement for developing reliable methodologies that can deliver high accuracy and reliability in a practical way.
When aggregated operational and embodied carbon are taken into account, total carbon curves have been formed identifying sweet spots where the embodied carbon investment cannot be recovered through operational savings. Data uncertainties, occupancy patterns, climatic conditions, building function and service life, source of energy, HVAC type and settings, and the type of insulation used, all contribute to the theoretical minimum. As a result, identical optimal specifications cannot be provided for various scenarios, rather, sufficient analytical and predictive understanding is required.
Considerable total energy savings can be achieved by practices and standards based on such principles. Such studies can help determine optimum insulation levels that can be incorporated into design of a building or that may be needed by standards in the future, as well as the limits to how much present energy-saving methodologies can be increased using certain technologies. Although whole life cycle thinking is now acknowledged in several codes and standards around the world, the lack of availability of reliable and accurate data, and the differences in adopting the existing methodologies for generating EPDs and other LCA results can lead to generating misleading messages to the manufacturers and policymakers. The study provides evidence in favour of better harmonisation and standardisation of LCA and LCI databases and procedures.
Due to high variation in the LCA results as a result of current discrepancies in modelling assumptions, applied methodologies, and data, the total carbon approach can be utilised as guideline for the time being, while the onus remains on LCA specialists and practitioners, as well as other key stakeholders, to harmonise the science across all industries, including software.
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The main pollutants can be poisons, chemical compounds, toxic gases, and bacterial toxins. These can be found in different places and their effects depend on the dose and exposure time. Furthermore, foodborne diseases (FBDs) can cause disability; these diseases can be caused by toxins produced by bacteria or other toxic substances in the food, which can cause severe diarrhea, toxic shock syndrome, debilitating infections such as meningitis and even death. FBDs are transmitted through food contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms that have multiple factors of virulence, which gives them the ability to cause an infection; some bacterial genres can produce toxins directly in the food, but other genres can produce them once they have colonized the intestine. Among the pathogens involved in FBDs that are also considered to be toxigenic are Salmonella spp., Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes. Foodborne diseases can be prevented and acute diarrhea syndromes, fever and even death from dehydration can be avoided, especially in children under the age of 5 and in immunocompromised people.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez, Ingrid Palma-Martínez, Luis Uriel\nGonzalez-Avila, Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano, Raúl Colmenero Solís\nand Graciela Castro-Escarpulli",authors:[{id:"204160",title:"Prof.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Escarpulli",slug:"graciela-castro-escarpulli",fullName:"Graciela Castro-Escarpulli"},{id:"204162",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Cortez",slug:"cecilia-hernandez-cortez",fullName:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez"},{id:"204163",title:"MSc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Palma-Martinez",slug:"ingrid-palma-martinez",fullName:"Ingrid Palma-Martinez"},{id:"204164",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Uriel",middleName:null,surname:"González-Avila",slug:"luis-uriel-gonzalez-avila",fullName:"Luis Uriel González-Avila"},{id:"204165",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Mandujano",slug:"andrea-guerrero-mandujano",fullName:"Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano"}]},{id:"56530",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69955",title:"Poisoning by Anticoagulant Rodenticides in Humans and Animals: Causes and Consequences",slug:"poisoning-by-anticoagulant-rodenticides-in-humans-and-animals-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:1845,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are a keystone of the management of rodent populations in the world. The widespread use of these molecules raises questions on exposure and intoxication risks, which define the safety of these products. Exposures and intoxications can affect humans, domestic animals and wildlife. Consequences are different for each group, from the simple issue of intoxication in humans to public health concern if farm animals are exposed. After a rapid presentation of the mechanism of action and the use of anticoagulant rodenticides, this chapter assesses the prominence of poisoning by anticoagulant rodenticides in humans, domestic animals and wildlife.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Sébastien Lefebvre, Isabelle Fourel, Stéphane Queffélec, Dominique\nVodovar, Bruno Mégarbane, Etienne Benoit, Virginie Siguret and\nVirginie Lattard",authors:[{id:"180156",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Lattard",slug:"virginie-lattard",fullName:"Virginie Lattard"},{id:"185579",title:"Dr.",name:"Sébastien",middleName:null,surname:"Lefebvre",slug:"sebastien-lefebvre",fullName:"Sébastien Lefebvre"},{id:"185580",title:"Prof.",name:"Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Benoit",slug:"etienne-benoit",fullName:"Etienne Benoit"},{id:"209023",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Fourel",slug:"isabelle-fourel",fullName:"Isabelle Fourel"},{id:"209031",title:"Mr.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Queffélec",slug:"stephane-queffelec",fullName:"Stéphane Queffélec"},{id:"209032",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Megarbane",slug:"bruno-megarbane",fullName:"Bruno Megarbane"},{id:"209033",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Vodovar",slug:"dominique-vodovar",fullName:"Dominique Vodovar"},{id:"209034",title:"Prof.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Siguret",slug:"virginie-siguret",fullName:"Virginie Siguret"}]},{id:"56551",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70199",title:"Toxicity of β-Lactam Antibiotics: Pathophysiology, Molecular Biology and Possible Recovery Strategies",slug:"toxicity-of-lactam-antibiotics-pathophysiology-molecular-biology-and-possible-recovery-strategies",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Beta (β)-lactam antibiotics are wide-spectrum antibiotics used for various bacterial infections. The aim of this chapter is to summarize the knowledge about the toxicity of β-lactam antibiotics and issues associated to their inappropriate use. This review has highlighted that β-lactam antibiotics are a group of products that have a chemical structure characterized by a β-lactam ring and are one of the most common antibacterial agents. However, due to the inappropriate use including abuse and misuse, resistance to the β-lactam antibiotics is currently a global crisis. Moreover, even when used appropriately, they have been linked to triggering allergic reactions like urticaria, bronchoconstriction, also severe conditions like immune-mediated haemolytic anaemia and intravascular haemolysis. It is known that some β-lactam antibiotics are neurotoxic, some are nephrotoxic, some are genotoxic and some are toxic to urogenital system. Several factors are involved in the occurrence of toxic effects including the dosage and renal status. Several strategies are possible to overcome β-lactam antibiotics-triggered toxicity, including rational prescribing, substitution combination and phage therapy which seems promising. Public health education for clinical teams and patients is essential in ensuring that this group of antibiotics are retained in therapeutics.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Elif Bozcal and Melih Dagdeviren",authors:[{id:"190684",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Melih",middleName:null,surname:"Dagdeviren",slug:"melih-dagdeviren",fullName:"Melih Dagdeviren"},{id:"203449",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Bozcal",slug:"elif-bozcal",fullName:"Elif Bozcal"}]},{id:"57898",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72006",title:"Occupational Risk Factors for Acute Pesticide Poisoning among Farmers in Asia",slug:"occupational-risk-factors-for-acute-pesticide-poisoning-among-farmers-in-asia",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Types of pesticides are used in farming to increase the productivity and protection of crops or to control pests. However, exposure to acute pesticide poisoning is one of the most important occupational risk factors among farmers all over the world. They are directly exposed to high levels of pesticide poisoning when involved in the handling, spraying, mixing, or preparing of it. The low educational level, lack of information, training, judgment or experience, and the inability to read on pesticide safety are playing an important role for farmers’ acute poisoning. On the other side, poor technology, inadequate personal protection, inappropriate type of clothing and equipment also leads to farmers? acute poisoning. Hence, this paper focuses on occupational risk factors for acute pesticide poisoning among farmers and their occupational safety. Discovering risk factors is also crucial for investigating health problems of farmers and its inevitable effects on their body. As it is seen from previous studies instead of field research such as deep interview on farmers’ acute poisoning, data were mostly collected from hospitals. This study tries to emphasize the importance of field study to discover the risk factors for acute pesticide poisoning among farmers and their occupational safety in Asia.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Emine Selcen Darçın, Murat Darçın, Murat Alkan and Gürdoğan\nDoğrul",authors:[{id:"196869",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Darçın",slug:"murat-darcin",fullName:"Murat Darçın"},{id:"220223",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Alkan",slug:"murat-alkan",fullName:"Murat Alkan"},{id:"220224",title:"Prof.",name:"E. Selcen",middleName:null,surname:"Darçın",slug:"e.-selcen-darcin",fullName:"E. Selcen Darçın"},{id:"220225",title:"Dr.",name:"Gürdoğan",middleName:null,surname:"Doğrul",slug:"gurdogan-dogrul",fullName:"Gürdoğan Doğrul"}]},{id:"57953",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72004",title:"Acute Poisoning with Neonicotinoid Insecticide",slug:"acute-poisoning-with-neonicotinoid-insecticide",totalDownloads:1898,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Neonicotinoids are a class of insecticides considered less toxic to humans than organophosphates, carbamates, organochloride and pyrethroids. The purpose of this chapter was to systematize existing data in the literature on acute intoxication with neonicotinoids to help practitioners. Clinical manifestations vary across different human systems. Gastrointestinal symptoms consist of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and corrosive lesions. In the central nervous system, headaches, agitation, confusion, fasciculations, seizures or coma may occur, while tachycardia or bradycardia, hypertension, hypotension and palpitations occur in the cardiovascular system. Respiratory effects are dyspnea, aspiration pneumonia or respiratory failure. Solvents that drive the insecticide also have an important role in the toxic effects. There are no specific biological tests of neonicotinoid intoxication, and their dosing is not routinely available. Treatment is symptomatic. Mortality is less than 3%, well below the poisoning with anticholinesterase insecticides, like organophosphates and carbamates.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Nicolai Nistor, Otilia Elena Frăsinariu and Violeta Ştreangă",authors:[{id:"219606",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolai",middleName:null,surname:"Nistor",slug:"nicolai-nistor",fullName:"Nicolai Nistor"},{id:"219884",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilia",middleName:"Elena",surname:"Frasinariu",slug:"otilia-frasinariu",fullName:"Otilia Frasinariu"},{id:"219885",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Streanga",slug:"violeta-streanga",fullName:"Violeta Streanga"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56521",title:"Food Poisoning Caused by Bacteria (Food Toxins)",slug:"food-poisoning-caused-by-bacteria-food-toxins-",totalDownloads:5880,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"In the environment, there are polluting substances that can cause adverse reactions in human beings when entering the body through different ways (ingestion, inhalation, injection, or absorption). The main pollutants can be poisons, chemical compounds, toxic gases, and bacterial toxins. These can be found in different places and their effects depend on the dose and exposure time. Furthermore, foodborne diseases (FBDs) can cause disability; these diseases can be caused by toxins produced by bacteria or other toxic substances in the food, which can cause severe diarrhea, toxic shock syndrome, debilitating infections such as meningitis and even death. FBDs are transmitted through food contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms that have multiple factors of virulence, which gives them the ability to cause an infection; some bacterial genres can produce toxins directly in the food, but other genres can produce them once they have colonized the intestine. Among the pathogens involved in FBDs that are also considered to be toxigenic are Salmonella spp., Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes. Foodborne diseases can be prevented and acute diarrhea syndromes, fever and even death from dehydration can be avoided, especially in children under the age of 5 and in immunocompromised people.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez, Ingrid Palma-Martínez, Luis Uriel\nGonzalez-Avila, Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano, Raúl Colmenero Solís\nand Graciela Castro-Escarpulli",authors:[{id:"204160",title:"Prof.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Escarpulli",slug:"graciela-castro-escarpulli",fullName:"Graciela Castro-Escarpulli"},{id:"204162",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Cortez",slug:"cecilia-hernandez-cortez",fullName:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez"},{id:"204163",title:"MSc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Palma-Martinez",slug:"ingrid-palma-martinez",fullName:"Ingrid Palma-Martinez"},{id:"204164",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Uriel",middleName:null,surname:"González-Avila",slug:"luis-uriel-gonzalez-avila",fullName:"Luis Uriel González-Avila"},{id:"204165",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Mandujano",slug:"andrea-guerrero-mandujano",fullName:"Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano"}]},{id:"56551",title:"Toxicity of β-Lactam Antibiotics: Pathophysiology, Molecular Biology and Possible Recovery Strategies",slug:"toxicity-of-lactam-antibiotics-pathophysiology-molecular-biology-and-possible-recovery-strategies",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Beta (β)-lactam antibiotics are wide-spectrum antibiotics used for various bacterial infections. The aim of this chapter is to summarize the knowledge about the toxicity of β-lactam antibiotics and issues associated to their inappropriate use. This review has highlighted that β-lactam antibiotics are a group of products that have a chemical structure characterized by a β-lactam ring and are one of the most common antibacterial agents. However, due to the inappropriate use including abuse and misuse, resistance to the β-lactam antibiotics is currently a global crisis. Moreover, even when used appropriately, they have been linked to triggering allergic reactions like urticaria, bronchoconstriction, also severe conditions like immune-mediated haemolytic anaemia and intravascular haemolysis. It is known that some β-lactam antibiotics are neurotoxic, some are nephrotoxic, some are genotoxic and some are toxic to urogenital system. Several factors are involved in the occurrence of toxic effects including the dosage and renal status. Several strategies are possible to overcome β-lactam antibiotics-triggered toxicity, including rational prescribing, substitution combination and phage therapy which seems promising. Public health education for clinical teams and patients is essential in ensuring that this group of antibiotics are retained in therapeutics.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Elif Bozcal and Melih Dagdeviren",authors:[{id:"190684",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Melih",middleName:null,surname:"Dagdeviren",slug:"melih-dagdeviren",fullName:"Melih Dagdeviren"},{id:"203449",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Bozcal",slug:"elif-bozcal",fullName:"Elif Bozcal"}]},{id:"56530",title:"Poisoning by Anticoagulant Rodenticides in Humans and Animals: Causes and Consequences",slug:"poisoning-by-anticoagulant-rodenticides-in-humans-and-animals-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:1845,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are a keystone of the management of rodent populations in the world. The widespread use of these molecules raises questions on exposure and intoxication risks, which define the safety of these products. Exposures and intoxications can affect humans, domestic animals and wildlife. Consequences are different for each group, from the simple issue of intoxication in humans to public health concern if farm animals are exposed. After a rapid presentation of the mechanism of action and the use of anticoagulant rodenticides, this chapter assesses the prominence of poisoning by anticoagulant rodenticides in humans, domestic animals and wildlife.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Sébastien Lefebvre, Isabelle Fourel, Stéphane Queffélec, Dominique\nVodovar, Bruno Mégarbane, Etienne Benoit, Virginie Siguret and\nVirginie Lattard",authors:[{id:"180156",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Lattard",slug:"virginie-lattard",fullName:"Virginie Lattard"},{id:"185579",title:"Dr.",name:"Sébastien",middleName:null,surname:"Lefebvre",slug:"sebastien-lefebvre",fullName:"Sébastien Lefebvre"},{id:"185580",title:"Prof.",name:"Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Benoit",slug:"etienne-benoit",fullName:"Etienne Benoit"},{id:"209023",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Fourel",slug:"isabelle-fourel",fullName:"Isabelle Fourel"},{id:"209031",title:"Mr.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Queffélec",slug:"stephane-queffelec",fullName:"Stéphane Queffélec"},{id:"209032",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Megarbane",slug:"bruno-megarbane",fullName:"Bruno Megarbane"},{id:"209033",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Vodovar",slug:"dominique-vodovar",fullName:"Dominique Vodovar"},{id:"209034",title:"Prof.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Siguret",slug:"virginie-siguret",fullName:"Virginie Siguret"}]},{id:"56446",title:"Carbon Monoxide Intoxication: Experiences from Hungary",slug:"carbon-monoxide-intoxication-experiences-from-hungary",totalDownloads:2994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Carbon monoxide (CO) is odorless, colorless, tasteless, and nonirritating gas. Hence, mild CO poisoning often remains unrecognized and appears lethally. Carbon and gas systems, unfavorable architectural designs and machines may also cause intoxications. The prevalence rates in Hungary ranged from 2.37 to 3.80 cases per 100,000 people per year between 2013 and 2015; fatality rates have been decreased from 5.96 in 2013 to 3.38 in 2015. Given the vagueness and the broad spectrum of complaints, misdiagnosis of CO toxicity is common. The gold standard diagnosis is detecting the level of circulating carboxyhemoglobin (CO-Hgb). The measurement of CO-Hgb can be performed via blood-gas analyses or by spectrophotometry. Treatment protocol should follow the ACBDE rule. Administration of 100% oxygen should be performed as soon as possible. Later in-hospital management includes evaluation, treatment and prevention of further peripheral organ damage and long-term neurological complications. Fetuses and children are prone to suffer more severe intoxication due to higher oxygen demand. Though hyperbaric oxygen is the mainstay therapy, a prompt cesarean section is effective in preventing further intoxication. In conclusion, fatal CO intoxication can occur due to plain early signs and symptoms. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy should be considered in severe intoxication, in fetal and children.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Edit Gara",authors:[{id:"198479",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Edit",middleName:null,surname:"Gara Dr",slug:"edit-gara-dr",fullName:"Edit Gara Dr"}]},{id:"57953",title:"Acute Poisoning with Neonicotinoid Insecticide",slug:"acute-poisoning-with-neonicotinoid-insecticide",totalDownloads:1898,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Neonicotinoids are a class of insecticides considered less toxic to humans than organophosphates, carbamates, organochloride and pyrethroids. The purpose of this chapter was to systematize existing data in the literature on acute intoxication with neonicotinoids to help practitioners. Clinical manifestations vary across different human systems. Gastrointestinal symptoms consist of nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and corrosive lesions. In the central nervous system, headaches, agitation, confusion, fasciculations, seizures or coma may occur, while tachycardia or bradycardia, hypertension, hypotension and palpitations occur in the cardiovascular system. Respiratory effects are dyspnea, aspiration pneumonia or respiratory failure. Solvents that drive the insecticide also have an important role in the toxic effects. There are no specific biological tests of neonicotinoid intoxication, and their dosing is not routinely available. Treatment is symptomatic. Mortality is less than 3%, well below the poisoning with anticholinesterase insecticides, like organophosphates and carbamates.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Nicolai Nistor, Otilia Elena Frăsinariu and Violeta Ştreangă",authors:[{id:"219606",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolai",middleName:null,surname:"Nistor",slug:"nicolai-nistor",fullName:"Nicolai Nistor"},{id:"219884",title:"Dr.",name:"Otilia",middleName:"Elena",surname:"Frasinariu",slug:"otilia-frasinariu",fullName:"Otilia Frasinariu"},{id:"219885",title:"Dr.",name:"Violeta",middleName:null,surname:"Streanga",slug:"violeta-streanga",fullName:"Violeta Streanga"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1010",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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She lives in Assisi, Italy.",institutionString:"Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics, Patrizio Paoletti Foundation",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",signatures:"Anat Raviv",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82310",title:"Knowledge of Intergenerational Contact to Combat Ageism towards Older People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105592",signatures:"Alice Nga Lai Kwong",slug:"knowledge-of-intergenerational-contact-to-combat-ageism-towards-older-people",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"81993",title:"Emergent Chemistry: Using Visualizations to Develop Abstract Thinking and a Sense of Scale Within the Preschool Setting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105216",signatures:"Karina Adbo",slug:"emergent-chemistry-using-visualizations-to-develop-abstract-thinking-and-a-sense-of-scale-within-the",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82252",title:"Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105157",signatures:"Analía Mignaton",slug:"early-childhood-enriched-environments-and-roles-of-caring-adults",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. 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His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. 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