Correlation between microwave and conventional heating.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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\r\n\tThe role of a leader has changed drastically since scholars began theorizing the modern leader. Contemporary society has, and is continuing to evolve. Existing leadership theories need to adapt to be relevant to the expectations of leaders now. That is, new leadership theories emerge in their place. This book will offer an open-access place for new ideas in leadership in the 21st-century context, and new models to emerge that explain how individuals enact good leadership. This book will serve as an opportunity to critique or defend current understandings of leadership and propose new evidence-based and theory-driven insights into leadership.
\r\n\r\n\tLeadership is understood as more complex than an individual influencing another. Within the broad domains of leadership, there are leaders, followers, leadership processes, followership processes, teams, dyads, relationships, and context. Each of these is critical in defining what it is to be a good leader in increasingly complex professional and personal environments. This book will encourage authors to make compelling arguments not for how leadership is and has been, but for how good leadership should be.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-308-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-307-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-309-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",bookSignature:"Dr. Joseph Crawford",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",keywords:"Authentic Leadership, Servant Leadership, Trait Theory, Emotions in Leadership, Outcomes, Antecedents, Nomological Networks, Organizational Performance, Individual Performance, Methodological Studies, Structural Equation Modelling, Focus Groups",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a day",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Crawford received his Ph.D. in leadership psychometrics and is currently based in the Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Education), University of Tasmania, Australia. He was recognized as the Launceston Chamber of Commerce Young Professional of the Year in 2019 and rewarded the Vice Chancellors Award in 2021 for Innovation for his work in learning and teaching. He is also an award-winning entrepreneur.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/420133/images/system/420133.jpg",biography:"Dr Crawford is an award-winning organisational behaviour, leadership, and higher education scholar based in the Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Education), University of Tasmania. Joseph is passionate about leaders and how their behaviours shape the world around them. This includes organizational leaders from diverse disciplines including top management teams, leadership in organizations, teachers-as-leaders, and student leaders. His PhD was in leadership psychometrics, with a focus on conceptualising and rigorously measuring authentic leader behaviours.\n\nDr Crawford also works closely on applying leadership and organizational behavior theory to understanding how students and teachers interact and learn together. His success in this area led to appointment as Editor in Chief of the Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice (Scopus and Web of Science ranked). He received the Vice Chancellors Award (2021) for Innovation for his work in learning and teaching. Joseph has won national awards for his social entrepreneurship with sustainable men's grooming products business Fifth Estate Co. and carbon negative gin distillery, Negat-ve Distillery.",institutionString:"University of Tasmania",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Tasmania",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"225753",firstName:"Marina",lastName:"Dusevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225753/images/7224_n.png",email:"marina.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"76276",title:"Bacterial Diseases of Goat and Its Preventive Measures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97434",slug:"bacterial-diseases-of-goat-and-its-preventive-measures",body:'\nDue to intensification of small ruminant farming, there is increase in the number of disease outbreaks in the recent years. Among the various infectious diseases, diseases caused by bacterial pathogens contribute to severe economic loss to the goat farmers. Various factors like increase in herd size, reduced ventilation in farm and poor husbandry practices can predispose to diseases. Bacterial diseases like anthrax, enterotoxaemia, tetanus, gas gangrene, caseous lymphadenitis, listeriosis, tuberculosis, Johne’s disease, dermatophilosis, pasteurellosis/mannheimiosis, brucellosis, foot rot, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, colibacillosis, salmonellosis, etc., affect goats and can cause various ailments and some diseases can cause heavy mortality leading to huge economic loss to the farmer [1]. Different bacterial pathogens affect different organs of goat thereby eliciting various clinical signs based on which a tentative diagnosis can be made (Figure 1).
\nDifferent bacterial diseases of goat and the organ/ tissues affected. Brucellosis affects reproductive tract, dermatophilosis affect the skin, johne’s disease causes corrugation of intestine, pasteurellosis/ mannheimiosis, tuberculosis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia affects the respiratory system, caseous lymphadenitis affects the lymph nodes and tetanus affects the nervous system. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Antibacterial agents can be used to treat various bacterial diseases but these drugs should be used judiciously due to the risk of development of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccination is the best way to prevent infectious diseases and based on the pattern of the disease annual vaccination should be practiced to prevent disease outbreaks. Diseases like anthrax, brucellosis and tuberculosis pose threat to human since these diseases can be transmitted to human through direct or indirect route of transmission [2]. Due care should be taken while handling infected goats or dead goats in farm as the zoonotic diseases can cause severe aliments in human.
\nThis chapter is a comprehensive summary of important bacterial diseases of goats and this can be a guide to veterinary students, field veterinarians and goat farmers regarding the impact of these bacterial diseases. This chapter also highlights the preventive measures and zoonotic potential associated with the bacterial diseases of goats. Important bacterial diseases that are zoonotic and economically important like anthrax, brucellosis, tetanus, enterotoxaemia, Johne’s disease, Pasteurellosis/ Mannheimiosis, caseous lymphadenitis, contagious caprine pleuropneumonia, dermatophilosis and foot rot are discussed. Each disease is delt with various subsections like definition of the diseases, etiology, epizootiology, transmission clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment, preventive measures and public health significance, if any.
\nAnthrax is a peracute, acute or subacute, often fatal disease of animals including goats. In goats the disease is mainly characterized by septicaemia, splenomegaly and gelatinous infiltration of subcutaneous or subserosal tissues. The disease is commonly known as woolsorter’s disease, splenic fever, charbon, and milzbrand.
\nThe disease is caused by
The disease is worldwide in distribution and is endemic in some countries, while occurs in defined regions of other countries. It was reported to be associated with heavy mortalities in goats and sheep of sub-saharan region in 1960–70s and in other countries. In recent days, through strict vaccination procedures the incidence reduced in most countries, however, sporadic cases are still being reported.
Goats are infected by ingestion of food, water or soil contaminated with spores. The infection can also occur through inhalation or abraded skin and oral mucosa. Mechanical transmission by biting insects is also reported. Wild animals acting as carriers makes the control programme challenging as it is least possible to vaccinate all wild animals.
\nThe incubation period ranges from hours to days. The disease is usually fatal, especially in sheep and goats, after 1–3 days. The peracute case is characterized by sudden death without any premonitory signs. However, there may be fever, dysponea, congestion of mucous membranes, muscular tremors and terminal convulsions in few animals. In acute cases, fever, anorexia, labored breathing, increased heart rate, ruminal stasis and reduce milk production may be observed. There may be bloody discharges from orifices like mouth, nostrils, anus and/or vulva. Diarrhea or dysentery and oedema and swelling of the tongue, throat, flank and perineum (anus, vulva) may be seen. Pregnant animal abort and blood-tinged milk is produced. Animals then collapse with terminal convulsions and die [4].
\nNecropsy of suspected carcass is not recommended, as the vegetative bacteria may get transformed into spore and hence contaminate the environment. The pathological features such as absence of rigor mortis and rapid putrefaction and bloating of the carcass are common clinical features. Oozing of unclotted dark, tarry colored blood from orifices, soft and enlarged spleen, blood-stained fluid in body cavities and widespread ecchymotic hemorrhages are frequently observed post mortem findings.
\nThough clinical signs are highly suggestive, the diagnosis based on clinical signs alone is difficult. Thin smears of blood from ear tip can be stained with polychrome methylene blue stain to reveal short chains of truncated blue color rods, surrounded by pink capsules (McFadyean reaction). The organism can be cultured on Sheep or Ox blood agar which shows flat, dry grayish colonies with ‘ground glass’ appearance after 24–48 hours of incubation (Figure 2). The selective media for the organism is PLET (Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA thallous acetate) medium. The Ascoli’s thermo-precipitation test is also commonly used test to detect antigens of
Ground glass appearance
Ailing animals in early stages of infection can be treated with penicillin or oxytetracycline or other long-acting antibiotics. An anthrax antiserum may result in recovery if used in early stages. Vaccination should follow 7–10 days after the conclusion of antibiotic therapy [4].
\nIn endemic areas, annual vaccination is advisable. The goat should be vaccinated with ‘Sterne strain’ live spore vaccine one month before the anticipated outbreaks. In non-endemic areas, movement of animals and their products should be restricted; feed and bedding materials etc., should not be transferred from affected herds. Disinfection of the premises with 5% formalin, 5% sodium hydroxide or 3% peracetic acid and placing foot-baths containing these sporicidal disinfectants at the entrances of the affected farms will help to control the spread of infection. Contaminated building should be fumigated with formaldehyde before removing the bedding materials [5]. Proper disposal of carcasses and the infected materials should be done either by deep burial or incineration.
\n\n
Caprine brucellosis is an infectious zoonotic disease having substantial economic impact on both livestock and human. Caprine brucellosis is reported since ancient days; Hippocrates II first described the human brucellosis in 400 B.C. which was most likely to be associated with consumption of raw milk or derivatives of infected sheep or goats.
\nThe causative agent is
The disease is prevalent worldwide and it remains a major burden in parts of Mediterranean region, the Middle East, Central and Southeast Asia (including India and China), sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of Latin America [8]. Goat herds from USA, Canada, Colombia, Chile, and Uruguay are reported to be free from
Infection occurs primarily through ingestion of the organisms. Goats acquire infection by licking the aborted fetuses, placentas, newborn kids, vaginal discharges, or by consumption of feed contaminated with these infectious materials [9]. Milkers can also spread the infection through unsanitary milking practices.
\nThe disease is more severe in goats and is protracted than in sheep. Clinical manifestations include high abortion rates particularly during the fourth month of pregnancy and retained placentas, orchitis in bucks, arthritis and hygromas. In goats, mastitis and lameness may also be seen. The abortion rate can be high when this bacterium first enters a naive flock or herd [10]. The abortion rates are usually much lower once
Diagnosis is made based on clinical signs, direct examination of MZN-stained smears of fluids or tissues, isolation and identification of
\n
Test and slaughter policy of the infected herd is generally implemented in countries where the disease is considered exotic. This can also reduce the prevalence of disease in endemic areas. In most countries where
\n
Tetanus (Lockjaw) is an acute, highly fatal intoxication of all domestic animals and humans caused by neurotoxin produced by the bacteria
The etiological agent,
Tetanus is worldwide in distribution and occurs sporadically. The organism is normal inhabitant of intestinal tract of animals and persists as resistant spores in soil, manure [16].
\nThe toxemia in tetanus is caused by a specific neurotoxin produced by
The incubation period is usually of 4 days to 3 weeks. The initial signs include muscle stiffness, tremors and prolapse of the third eyelid. This is followed by rigidity and extension of the limbs leading to a stiff gait and abnormal flexion of the joints. Tetany of masseter muscles causes drooling of saliva (lock jaw) and regurgitation through nostrils [17]. The animals may exhibit bloat, an inability to chew, and hyperthermia. Retracted lips, hypersensitivity to external stimuli, and a ‘saw-horse’ stance are frequent signs. The spasms of alimentary and urinary tract muscle may cause constipation and retention of urine [17]. The abnormal muscular contracture may result in opisthotonus, curvature of the spine and bending of the tail. The disease is highly fatal and death occurs within 3–10 days with mortality nearing 100%, primarily as a result of respiratory failure. Necropsy features usually are nonspecific except for the inflammatory reaction associated with the wound.
\nDiagnosis can be made based on clinical features such as muscular spasms, prolapse of third eyelid and based on history of trauma or surgery. The Gram-positive rods with terminal spores can be demonstrated in the smears prepared from necrotic tissue or wound [18]. Anaerobic culture of the bacteria from necrotic tissue may be attempted but is often unsuccessful. PCR and real-time PCR techniques can be employed for the detection of neurotoxin genes of the organism. Mouse inoculation test can be performed to demonstrate circulating neurotoxin from the serum of affected animals.
\nTreatment mainly aimed at wound management, antibiotic therapy, antitoxin administration and vaccination. Wound management consists of surgical debridement of infected wounds and removal of debris, flushing with hydrogen peroxide to produce aerobic condition that helps to inhibit replication of the bacteria at the site of infection. The antibiotics (large doses of Penicillin) can be given both parenterally and flushed into the cleaned wound to prevent further replication of the bacteria and production of toxin [19]. Affected animals must be kept in a quiet and dark environment. Fluid replacement therapy, sedatives and muscle relaxants can minimize clinical discomfort and maintain vital functions. To neutralize unbound toxin, the tetanus antitoxin must be administered on time, either intravenously or into the subarachnoid space for three consecutive days. Vaccination with tetanus toxoid may be given subcutaneously to promote an active immune response even in those animals that are treated with antitoxin.
\nTetanus can be controlled by following good sanitation measures, aseptic surgical and management procedures and vaccination. Goats in a herd must be vaccinated routinely with tetanus toxoid which is very effective for stimulating long-term immunity. They can be vaccinated 2–3 times during the first year of life followed by booster vaccination before parturition to ensure colostral antibodies [20]. Further, a booster dose may be advisable if a vaccinated animal sustains a deep wound.
\nEnterotoxaemia in goats is caused by
\n
The
The peracute condition is characterized by sudden death of younger and healthy kids. This is occasionally preceded by other signs such as loss of appetite, lack of rumen activity and rumination, bloat, depression and a drunken appearance; the animals may show neurological signs such as incoordination, inability to stand, and convulsions. There may be watery diarrhea and glucosuria. In goat’s acute disease is mainly characterized by dysentery, abdominal discomfort and convulsions.
\nIn acute cases of goats, the necropsy findings include pulmonary edema, necrosis of intestinal walls and scattered hyperaemic areas of intestine. Intestinal contents may be green, blood-stained or mucoid, and fibrinous casts may be present in the lumen of the large intestine [22]. Mesentric lymph nodes may be edematous. Fluid accumulation in the pericardial sac, extremely necrotic, soft kidneys (‘pulpy kidneys’), focal encephalomalacia, and petechiae of serosa of the brain, diaphragm, gastrointestinal tract and heart are common findings.
\nDiagnosis of enterotoxaemia depends on epidemiological features, type of diet, clinical and pathological features. Gram positive rods can be demonstrated in the smears of intestinal contents or in the lesions of intestine. The culture of bacteria from fecal samples in cooked meat media may be suggestive of the disease (Figure 4). Organism on blood agar plates show double zone of hemolysis which is suggestive of
Double zone hemolytic colonies of
Treatment generally is ineffective as most cases are acute in nature. A hyperimmune serum, if available, can be used and a combination of hyperimmune serum along with sulphadimidine has been found useful in goats. Chelating agents can be used to neutralize toxins [21].
\nVaccination before the anticipated outbreaks is the primary method of control. Alum precipitated formalin killed whole culture toxoid vaccines are commercially available. In ruminants, maternal antibodies last about 5–6 weeks postpartum and hence, the young animals must be vaccinated at this time. Kids are usually vaccinated twice at 4 weeks interval and then re-vaccinated at once in 6 months. However, several anaphylactic reactions have been reported in Sannen kids re-vaccinated with toxoids [24]. Sudden dietary changes and other predisposing factors to enterotoxaemias must be managed. Feeding regimens and feeding of concentrates even to adult goats should be monitored carefully.
\nA chronic, contagious, granulomatous disease affecting small intestine of adult ruminants and the affected animals show weight loss and intermittent diarrhea [25].
\nJD is caused by
The organism is present in the environment and animals at young are affected either through ingestion of contaminated milk or direct contact. Infected goats may excrete the bacteria in the feces thereby contaminating the environment [26].
\nThe incubation period is usually months to years. Chronic wasting is a characteristic sign in goat and at times pasty feces or diarrhea (in advanced cases) can be witnessed. In advanced cases the animals may lose weight rapidly and will have a hide and bone condition. During PM examination intestine of the affected animals have a corrugated appearance [27].
\nAffected animals can be identified in the herd by intradermal skin testing using Johnin purified protein derivative (PPD). Alternatively, Interferon gamma assay (IGRA) can also be used to assess the cellular immunity. Lymph nodes (Ileal and ileocecal) aspirates, intestinal scrapping can show acid fast bacilli in staining (Figure 5). Organism my shed intermittently in feces and hence, bacilli can be found by acid fast staining [27]. Organism can be detected intestinal tissues, lymph node and feces by culture and PCR. Detection of antibody in the later or final stages of the disease can also be attempted for diagnosis.
\nAcid fast bacilli in intestinal scrapping. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Treating animals with antimycobacterial agents are not fruitful.
\nDue to its chronic nature, it is difficult to identify the disease early hence, it is advised to test a newly purchased animal before letting into the farm. Test and cull policy is better to break the chain of infection. Suspected animals should be separated from the herd and affected animals milk should not be fed to neonates [25]. The organism may survive longer in the pasture hence, once an animal is found positive it is best to change the pasture land.
\nA similar condition in human named as Crohn’s disease has been suspected to be caused by
Pasteurellosis and Mannheimiosis is an acute fatal disease characterized by pneumonia and septicemia.
\n\n
\n
Acute rhinitis or pharyngitis is the common sign noticed in animals. Animals may have high fever, anorexia, and rapid breathing along with profuse mucopurulent nasal/ ocular discharges. Kids are more susceptible than adult goats and death may occur without any clinical signs [30]. PM changes include marbling of lungs, pleural adhesion, sero-fibrinous fluid in the thorax, frothy exudate in trachea and also in bronchi.
\nBipolar organisms of
Bipolar organism in lung impression smear. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Use of antibiotics based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing can be used to control the bacterial propagation and anti-inflammatory agents can be used to control fever [30].
\n\n
Caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) is contagious, subclinical and chronic suppurative condition of sheep and goats, occasionally in cattle and is characterized by the formation of abscesses in lymph nodes and visceral organs [33].
\nCLA is caused by
CLA is worldwide in distribution and the probable dissemination of the disease throughout the world occurred through importation of infected animal [34]. This disease is found in parts of North and South America, Australia, New Zealand, the Middle East, Asia and Africa and is being reported more often in Britain and other European countries.
\nThe bacteria can survive in the environment for about 6 months or more. Transmission can occur either through direct or indirect contact or through wounds contaminated with pus from the abscesses of infected animals. The organism enters through contamination of skin wounds arising from castration, ear tagging or tattooing, docking or shearing operations. Arthropod bites or contaminated dips can also be the source of infection [34]. Goats having traumatized buccal mucosa have more chances of taking the bacterium from contaminated feed. The organism has also been isolated from the milk of affected goats.
\nThe incubation period varies from weeks to months; usually is about 3 months. CLA may be manifested in two forms: in its superficial form it is characterized by infection of peripheral lymph nodes, such as the submandibular, parotid, pre-scapular and supramammary lymph nodes (Figure 7). These peripheral lymph nodes enlarge, may erode and eventually leads to formation of abscess in chronic cases. Visceral form is characterized by abscessation of internal organs, such as lungs, liver, kidneys, uterus, spleen and internal lymph nodes (mainly mediastinal and bronchial lymph nodes) that may not be detectable antemortem [35]. These two forms can co-exist; however, the visceral form is more common among sheep, while superficial form is more frequent among goats with external abscesses in the lymph nodes particularly of the head and neck regions.
\nLymph node enlargement in goats noted in caseous lymphadenitis. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Eventually, the affected animal become exercise-intolerant, anorectic, ill-thrift and debilitated (often known as thin-ewe syndrome in sheep). Fever, increased respiratory rates, and pneumonia may also be noticed. Morbidity up to 15% is common, and morbid animals will often eventually succumb to the disease. The infection can also lead to abortion in doe and orchitis and/or epididymitis in bucks. Though less common, orchitis can be acute in which the buck develops fever, reduced appetite, lack of walking ability and loss of libido. The infected testes appear swollen, hot and painful to touch.
\nDiagnosis is based on clinical signs and lesions and abscessation of both superficial and visceral lymph nodes is typical. Radiographs may be useful in identifying affected central nodes which also must be confirmed by culture of tracheal washings. Gram and Giemsa staining can be used for identification of the bacteria. Isolation of organism from purulent material from abscessed lymph nodes in case of live animals and /or from abscesses of internal organs from dead animals. ELISA tests which detect antibodies directed against either cell wall antigens or the exotoxin (Phospholipase D - PLD) are available [34]. Further, the detection of INF-γ by ELISA, an indicator of cell-mediated immunity, has also been potentially used for demonstration of CLA in eradication programs. Molecular techniques such as PCRs targeting 16S rDNA,
Though
As CLA is contagious in nature, the animals with draining and punctured lesions should be kept isolated until healed. Reducing the environmental contamination, proper sanitation and biosecurity of facilities and instruments and safety measures to prevent injuries are all important in control. The causative agent is sensitive to common disinfectants such as hypochlorite, formalin and cresol; however, the surfaces should be cleaned before disinfection, as organic matter usually interferes with the action of these agents. The control measures vary with the prevalence of infection. In countries with a high incidence, rigorous sanitary procedures must be implemented, along with vaccination. Disease eradication can be achieved in endemically-infected herds by test and disposal policy [36].
\nMost of the commercially available vaccines contain inactivated PLD of either
Human beings are rarely affected, some cases of human infections have been documented as occupational infection in veterinary doctors and assistant as well as farm experts.
\nContagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) is a highly contagious and rapidly spreading mycoplasmal disease of goat, occasionally sheep and wild ruminants. CCPP is characterized by severe sero-fibrinous pleuropneumonia, very high morbidity (100%), and mortality (80–100%) and results in heavy economic losses.
\nCCPP is caused by
CCPP is becoming a novel emerging and rapidly spreading disease in most parts of the world and at present, goat populations in more than 40 countries are affected with CCPP and sporadic cases of CCPP are also being reported from many more countries [37]. It mostly occurs in countries of Africa, Middle East and Asia.
\nThe disease is highly contagious and main mode of transmission is through inhalation of infected aerosols. The direct contact with affected animals is the main source of transmission. Airborne transmission can result in distant spread of about 50 m distance. However, the shorter survival time (3–14 days) of the organisms in external environment limits transmission of Mccp [38]. Yet under cold, moist and overcrowded environment these bacteria can persists for longer durations and may lead to severe outbreaks mostly in winter.
\nCCPP is strictly a respiratory illness and is characterized by severe dyspnea, nasal discharge, cough, and fever. This can occur in peracute, acute and/or chronic forms in endemic areas. In peracute form, affected goats may die within 1–3 days without premonitory clinical signs. In acute infection, the initial signs are high fever (41–43°C), lethargy and anorexia, followed within 2–3 days by coughing and laboured breathing. The cough is frequent, violent and productive. In the final stages of infection, the goat may not be able to move and stands with its front legs wide apart and its neck stiff and extended [37]. Saliva can drip continuously from the mouth, and the animal may exhibit grunt or bleat in pain. Frothy nasal discharge and stringy saliva may be seen terminally. Pregnant goats may abort. Acutely affected goats generally die within seven to 10 days. In the chronic cases, there is chronic cough, nasal discharge and debilitation. These forms with resembling clinical signs in goats were also reported from captive wild goats.
\nPathological features during necropsy are also limited to respiratory system. Acute form is characterized by unilateral pneumonia and sero-fibrinous pleuritis with straw colored fluid in the thorax. The lung is granular with copious straw-colored exudates oozing out on cut section. Pea-sized, yellow-colored nodules may be noticed in lungs and these nodules are surrounded by areas of congestion. Varying degrees of lung consolidation or necrosis may also be noticed [37]. The regional lymph nodes mainly bronchial lymph nodes are enlarged. Some long-term survivors reveal chronic pleuropneumoniae or chronic pleuritis, with encapsulation of acute lesions and numerous adhesions to the chest wall. The interlobular septa are not usually thickened in domesticated goats.
\nCCPP can be diagnosed based on cultural, biochemical, serological, and molecular methods following a tentative clinical diagnosis. Ultrasonography and X-rays may help in diagnosis and CCPP-associated changes may be evident in lungs, pleura, thorax, and associated structures. Cultural isolation and identification (‘fried egg-like appearance’ of the colonies under microscope), though is conventional but is still considered as standard method for detection of Mccp from lung tissue and/or pleural fluid at necropsy. Due to the difficulty in isolation, PCR is the technique of choice for the diagnosis of CCPP. The agglutination tests, ELISA, FAT, CFT (most widely used), passive or indirect haemagglutination tests (IHT) are the immunological methods employed for diagnosis of CCPP [38]. Latex agglutination test is being increasingly used in diagnostic laboratories as a pen side test. It can used to test whole blood as well as serum.
\nTylosin is considered the drug of choice against Mccp. Further, oxytetracycline is also found effective when administered in early stages of infection. However, some infections are slow to resolve.
\nIn endemic areas, proper care should be taken while introducing new goats into the flock. Flock testing, slaughter, and on-site quarantine may be helpful in controlling the spread of disease. Vaccines available in some areas may help in prevention of the disease. The commercially available CCPP vaccine containing inactivated Mccp suspended in saponin provides protection for over 1 year [37].
\nDermatophilosis is a chronic, exudative and sometimes proliferative dermatitis occurs in domestic ruminants, wild animals and occasionally in human beings. Also known as Cutaneous streptothricosis, Strawberry foot rot or Lumpy wool.
\nDermatophilosis is caused by
The disease occurs worldwide and is more common in tropics and subtropics. The organism is believed to be a saprophyte of soil and persists in dry scabs and crusts, to survive for up to 42 months. It has been reported from many countries, but occurs particularly in humid climates and areas where ticks of the genus
Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals. The infection can be transmitted indirectly by mechanical vectors (ectoparasites) and also through intradermal inoculation by contaminated thorny bushes. The pathogenesis may be influenced by factors such as mechanical injury to the skin, rainfall, tick infestation, concurrent diseases and/or stresses that compromise the host’s immune system.
\nThe disease is painful but non-pruritic, and is characterized by exudative, proliferative or hyperkeratotic dermatitis, accompanied by the production of crusts and folliculitis. In sheep, it may be seen in two forms: mycotic dermatitis (lumpy wool) and strawberry foot rot. While in goats and cattle, similar signs of crusty, suppurative dermatitis are seen and are often referred as cutaneous streptothricoses. The skin lesions appear raised, thick, yellow-brown colored discrete or confluents crusts containing matted hair. Sometimes may be seen in nodular form also with discrete encrustation of scab. The whole body may be affected but less hairy parts such as ears, axilla, scrotum, prepuce, ventral abdomen, limbs etc., show severe lesions [40]. Lesions in younger goats are mostly seen along the tips of the ears and under the tail. Most affected animals will recover within 3–4 weeks and lesions have little effect on overall health. In severe generalized infections, the animals often loose condition. If there are lesions at the feet, lips and muzzle, the movement of animals and eating become difficult.
\nDiagnosis of dermatophilosis is mainly based clinical signs particularly based on the appearance of the characteristic skin lesions. The same can be confirmed by the demonstration of the organism from the lesions beneath the scabs. The softened scab materials stained by the Giemsa method, reveal the characteristic branching filaments containing zoospores. The organism can be cultured on blood agar at 37°C under 2.5–10% CO2 for up to 5 days and Haalstra technique based on chemotaxis of the zoospores to CO2 can be employed for efficient recovery of the organism.
\nAnimals can be treated with antibiotics such as high doses of penicillin or long acting tetracyclines. Topical applications alone are ineffective. Antibiotic therapy is augmented by topical treatment with lime sulfur as well as control of ectoparasites and biting flies. Povidone iodine shampoos or chlorhexidine solutions also help in clearing the disease.
\nControl measures are based on minimizing the effects of predisposing factors and prompt treatment of affected goats. Animals with skin lesions must be isolated and treated at the earliest. Minimizing moist conditions (such as providing shelter during rainfall) is helpful in control and prevention. Grazing management especially removal of thorny bushes in pasture land that damages skin will also help. Prophylactic antibiotic therapy can also be given.
\n\n
A contagious, either acute or chronic dermatitis of the hoof and its underlying tissues leading to lameness [41].
\nFoot rot is caused by
The organism
Interdigital region will be moist and will have a foul odor due to necrosis (Figure 8). Lameness is the common sign of foot rot. Based on the severity of the infection animals may lose weight due to anorexia and there will be decrease in production [43].
\nMoist, necrotic interdigital region seen in foot rot condition. This figure is propriety of the authors.
Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and isolation of organism from the foot lesions. Since the organisms are anaerobic isolation is tricky and hence molecular diagnosis like PCR can be used for diagnosis.
\nHooves of the animals should be trimmed so as to remove the necrotic material thereby eliminating the anaerobic environment. Local antibiotics may be applied to the affected hoof after trimming. 10% zinc or copper sulfate or 10% formalin can be used for footbath [44].
\n\n
Goat is called as poor man’s cow but there are various bacterial diseases that cause economic loss to the goat farmers. Serval bacterial diseases cause acute infection hence there will be sudden onset of infection leading to huge mortality. Measures like use of vaccines before onset of disease, good management practices, etc., are essential to prevent the disease outbreaks. Animals with infection or clinical signs should be separated from rest of the animals so that infectious pathogens do not transmit to naïve animals and it is also recommended to quarantine newly purchased animals before admitting them into the farm. These practices can curtail the spread of infectious agents. It is also advisable to screen for diseases before purchasing the animals to the farm. Diseases like TB, JD and brucellosis should be screened before the purchase since these diseases are chronic in nature hence can remain undiagnosed. Animals infected with diseases that can affect human like anthrax, brucellosis, etc., should be handled carefully and better bio-security measures should be followed to prevent spread of disease within herd and also to human beings. Most of the bacterial infection can be treated with antimicrobial agents but these agents should be used judiciously because in the recent times antimicrobial resistance is a major problem.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
A real circular economy may be realized if products at the end of their life cycle are reutilized or transformed into raw materials giving them the possibility for another life. The energy balance among the content of the new products and that one required by the transformation must be positive; that is, the process must require less energy of those present in the products; otherwise, the process will have a deleterious effect on the environment. More positive is the balance less will be the contamination. This goal is one of the main challenges in which scientists are involved to solve the problems concerning both global warming and the end of mineral resources. These recycled sources also represent a strong driving force for developing sustainable industrial processes. Many industrial firms are now involved in environmental issues, and they are, even in a different way, engaged in solving this problem [1].
The world plastic production in 2019 was 368.0 x 106 tons with an increase of 2.5% concerning for 2018 [2] while in the same year, the European production was 57.9 x 106 tons between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Among them, polyolefins are the most produced and employed material in everyday life for industrial, domestic, and technological applications [3]. They are thermoplastic polymers and are mainly used for packaging; their life cycle is very short, which means they must be disposed of in a short time after their production. A less important amount of them is employed to realize furniture, insulating materials, automotive parts, and so on, and their life cycle is considerably longer (10 years or more).
A very recent study by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OCSE) was published in the “Global Plastic Outlook” [4] where it is reported that less than 10% of plastics are recycled around the world. Considering that the world production is estimated to be 460.0 x 106 tons, higher than the total waste (353.0 x 106 tons) produced in the same year, many actions are required to dispose of these plastics.
Mechanical recycle of polymeric materials is easily through environmental-friendly and economic processes, as reported in Figure 1. In this way, renewed objects are realized by recycled plastic materials avoiding disposal of these plastics through landfilling or combustion and reducing the use of mineral oil for their production. This process, however, may be applied only when a single plastic material is available, and it is not contaminated or strongly deteriorated. In the other cases, different environmentally friendly routes may be followed, such as thermochemical processes, thus contributing to the realization of a circular economy and reducing the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG). Polymer thermochemical processes may supply fuels and chemicals using end life plastic materials as a feedstock, and it may be an alternative to oil-based raw materials [5]. These research studies led to the development of new technologies able to convert waste into resources minimizing the environmental impact of their treatment, avoiding the production of by-products, or limiting the amount of secondary waste.
Pathway for mechanical recycling of thermoplastic materials.
Chemical recycling technologies [1, 6] are likely to play a crucial role in the transition toward a circular economy and close the recycling of materials giving compounds such as hydrocarbons, available for the production of new compounds. These technologies are able to remove hazardous substances, eventually present in the waste, thus giving new recycled feedstocks. Agreements with materials and chemical producers the use of raw materials from secondary sources are necessary for developing sustainable, feasible, and cost-efficient chemical recycling.
Among chemical recycling technologies, pyrolysis is one of the most important, also referred to as thermolysis or chemical recycling. It represents the transformation of organic materials, under the effect of heat, in the absence of oxygen. Depending on the process conditions, pyrolysis typically yields a mixture of molecules in the form of liquid or wax as the main products. This liquid or wax can be refined to obtain chemicals or fuels, as well as solid and gas may be used for the production of energy.
In this way, waste or contaminated plastic materials may be transformed into oil for industrial purposes, reducing the request and the environmental impact of mineral oil. The potential for recycling is enormous. In 2018, in Europe, plastic production reached almost 62.0x106 tons, and all this plastic should be utilized at the end of its life cycle, in one way or the others. For the oil industry, the use of waste plastic as an alternative feedstock represents a new business.
From a chemical point of view, pyrolyzed plastics are a good raw base material for the oil industry so long the remaining impurities are removed from the plastics, and the oil can be used as feedstock for oil refineries. Pyrolysis involves the use of heat and anoxic conditions to break down plastic waste into compounds containing smaller molecules, yielding valuable hydrocarbons in the form of liquid, waxes, and gases. The end products of pyrolysis can be monomers, heating oil, refinery feedstock, transportation fuels, and chemicals.
Chemical recycling can be mainly used to recycle mixed post-consumer plastic waste when sorting single components is not economical. That is, pyrolysis is a very flexible method that allows the use of various feedstocks. Another method of chemical recycling is gasification. This process converts carbonaceous materials into gases. The main product of gasification is synthesis gas (syngas: CO, and H2), which can be further processed into various final products such as gasoline, diesel, methanol, and synthetic methane. Among these processes, the microwave technologies have taken large attention due to their high efficiency in supplying the energy required for a plethora of industrial processes. The main performances of the use of microwaves as correlated to a classical heating system are resumed in Table 1. Some examples of products obtained from pyrolysis of different polymers using Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (MAP) are reported in Table 2.
Microwave heating | Conventional heating | ||
---|---|---|---|
Advantages | Volumetric heating | Detriments | Surface heating |
Short reaction time (minutes) | Long reaction time (hours) | ||
High heating efficiency | Heating efficiency is usually low | ||
The low thermal conductivity of polymers may be overwhelmed: easy heating of polymers | Hard heating of polymers: their thermal conductivity is low | ||
The gas formed does not contain combustion gas | The gas formed is contaminated by combustion gas (Direct heating) | ||
Detriments | Electrical power is required | Advantages | Every fuel source may be employed |
Microwave absorber is required | Additives are not required; some heating carriers are sometimes used |
Correlation between microwave and conventional heating.
Polymer | Products yield (Min-max) % | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Solid | Liquid | Gas | ||
PE | 0.4–0.6 | 80.2–83.9 | 15.7–19.2 | [3, 7] |
PP | 9.1–12.0 | 56.5–74.4 | 13.3–34.4 | [3, 5] |
PS | 0.9–16.7 | 73.5–96.1 | 3.0–9.8 | [8, 9, 10] |
PVC | 13.9–53.2 | 10.2–70.8 | 13.3–75.8 | [11] |
PET* | 15.6 | 41.3 | 38.7 | [12] |
PLA | 2.6–7.6 | 28.4–57.7 | 38.5–69.0 | [13] |
Tyre | 40.6–65.0 | 20.7–44.0 | 9.0–27.4 | [14, 15, 16, 17] |
WEEE | 14.2 | 76.6 | 9.2 | [18] |
MPB | 24.9–59.9 | 31.1–43.7 | 9.0–42.5 | [19] |
CDP | 11.1–30.1 | 22.3–47.6 | 28.7–46.2 | [20] |
Products obtained from microwave-assisted pyrolysys of plastics.
Pyrolysis using classic thermal heating.
PE: Polyethylene; PP: Polypropylene; PS: Polystyrene, PVC: Poly(vynil chloride); PET: Poly(ethylene therephtalate); PLA: Poly(lactic acid); WEEE: Waste electric and electronic equipment; MPB: Multilayer packaging beverage; CDP: Corn-derived plastic bag.
This chapter aims to offer a comprehensive description of the path from laboratory research to the realization of an industrial plant able to transform up to 2,000 Kg/d of waste plastic into valuable products. These products are available to synthesize new plastic materials, and they may be certified as renewed plastics. However, for plastic waste-based pyrolysis products to become a reality on an industrial scale, ardent development in technologies, value chains, and supporting legislation is needed. Despite these hurdles, the missing links in the plastic recycling loop can be addressed and eventually fixed to establish an actual circular economy for plastics.
A circular economy is one of the drivers boosting chemical recycling because it may realize, more and more, so reusing all waste materials. Chemical recycling, such as pyrolysis, is therefore needed, but legislative issues are required for this big challenge of improving the development of this technology.
Techwave s.r.l. is an Italian start-up established to realize an industrial plant from a patent able to transform, by means of microwave, plastic complex polymers into their original components, ready for a new use. The process is based on an Italian proprietary patent [21] of Cooperativa Autotrasportatori Fiorentini (CAF Scrl-Italy) developed and filed by a research team of Department of Organic Chemistry – University of Florence – Italy, in 2011, and converted into a European patent [3] acquired by Techwave in 2018.
Experiments were started in 2008 at the Department of Organic Chemistry “Ugo Schiff,” University of Florence, where a set of trials were performed on tires and various types of plastic materials, ranging from polystyrene (PS) to polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and their mixtures [22]. Similar experiments were also performed on Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) [18].
Pyrolysis studies were initially performed on a laboratory scale (Figure 2). The experiments were carried out on a batch oven, and 100–300 g/h of materials were processed. The oven was equipped with four external MW generators, each having an absorption of electric power of 2 KW capable of delivering up to 6 KW of microwave power inside the oven, operating at the frequency of 2.45 GHz.
Laboratory MW oven.
During the experimental trial, many arrangements were tested to determine the influence of several parameters on the quantity and quality of the three products formed: a liquid, an uncondensable gas, and a char. In particular, it was verified how some critical factors such as the residence time inside the pyrolytic oven, the temperature reached, and the type of downstream fractionating system would affect the amount and the composition of the three products of the reaction. The liquid may be employed for the synthesis of new polymeric products (Figure 3), while the gas and char may be used as fuel or employed for other uses [1].
The circular economy using a MAP process for polymeric waste materials.
This first study showed MAP as a suitable technique for cracking various types of plastic even if they may be highly contaminated and absolutely heterogeneous. The results obtained led to the publication of various scientific papers and process patents (Table 2) and the identification of the guidelines for the scale-up of MAP technology to an industrial level [1].
Therefore, a first development phase was run for this purpose, to design and then build a prototype that allows the scale-up of the MAP process, enabling the transition from the experimental laboratory studies carried out until today to a pre-industrial phase. The idea, born at the University of Florence and initially funded by one of Techwave’s future partners, was materialized in 2016 with the construction of the first pre-industrial prototype (Figure 4).
Pre-industrial prototype.
This prototype was initially designed for the treatment of End Life Tires (ELTs) and was able to process [14, 15, 16, 17] whole tire (approx. 8 kg) in 30 minutes. The prototype was equipped with electric heating to bring the material to the optimum temperature for the absorption of microwaves and four external MW generators, each supplied with electric power of 1 KW and able to deliver up to 3.2 KW of microwave power inside the oven, operating at the frequency of 2.45 GHz. Later with the birth of Techwave in 2018, it was decided to continue the scale-up of the MAP process by extending the technology to other waste plastic materials, even if mixed or contaminated. The results obtained during the first testing phase are described in the following paragraph.
The purpose of this initial phase was the validation of the data reported on the laboratory scale, both in qualitative and quantitative terms, from the pyrolysis of plastic wastes. It also aimed to determine the operating parameters necessary to treat flows of various types of plastic materials at the end of their life cycle, and PS was chosen as the first example. Polystyrene, like all plastics, is unable to absorb microwave energy and convert it into heat. It must therefore be blended with a microwave absorber to realize the pyrolysis. The materials used as a microwave absorber are commonly carbon or iron powder.
The experiments were carried out using expanded polystyrene (EPS) as starting material and focused on analyzing the ratio between the amount of polystyrene processed and the microwave power used. Therefore, an energy density close to that foreseen in the prototype was used to acquire the information necessary for the design. The process was also studied to correlate the overall yield of the process and the composition of the products to the operating parameters. The data obtained are reported in Table 3.
Exp. N. | PS (kg) | MW Abs* | PS/Abs | MW power (kW) | Total time (min) | Electrical time (min) | MW time (min) | Liquid (%) | Gas (%) | Solid (%) | Styrene in liquid (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1.26 | Fe | 2.0 | 1.2 | 30 | 0 | 30 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
2 | 1.26 | Fe | 2.0 | 1.2 | 62 | 20 | 42 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
3 | 1.26 | Fe | 2.0 | 2.4 | 90 | 28 | 62 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
4 | 1.13 | Fe | 1.8 | 2.4 | 80a | 80 | 60 | 25.2 | 56.6 | 18.2 | 56.5 |
5 | 0.75 | C | 2.0 | 2.4 | 60a | 60 | 45 | 82.4 | 15.3 | 2.3 | 57.5 |
6 | 1.13 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 90 | 0 | 90 | 64.6 | 24.8 | 10.6 | 69.5 |
7 | 1.01 | C | 2.3 | 4.8 | 60 | 0 | 60 | 56.7 | 24.4 | 18.9 | 55.6 |
8 | 0.98 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 80 | 25 | 55 | 71.9 | 17.9 | 10.2 | 55.5 |
9 | 0.98 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 90 | 90 | 60 | 71.9 | 18.9 | 9.2 | 54.7 |
10 | 0.49 | Fe | 1.9 | 4.8 | 75 | 75 | 30 | 44.1 | 24.3 | 31.6 | 62.1 |
11 | 0.49 | Fe | 1.9 | 4.8 | 90 | 90 | 45 | 62.9 | 21.8 | 15.3 | 59.6 |
12 | 0.98 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 80 | 80 | 45 | 55.6 | 22.4 | 21.9 | 68.2 |
MAP of PS: operating parameters.
MW Abs: Microwave absorber.
Electrical and MW heating work at the same time.
In all experiments, polystyrene was mostly converted into a liquid using mainly iron powder as a microwave absorber. Working at low power, the energy is not enough to start the pyrolysis process (EXP 1–3). Even by preheating the pyrolysis chamber through electrical resistances, the liquid yield is low (EXP 4). Instead, it can be noted that under the same reaction conditions, but using carbon as an absorber, the liquid increases considerably (EXP 5) confirming carbon as a better MW absorber. To obtain good yields of the liquid, it was necessary to increase the power (EXP 6–12), working with a ratio microwave power/PS of approx. 4.8–9.6 kW/kg. Analyses carried out on the liquid samples of the most significant tests showed aromatic hydrocarbons as the main compounds, among which single-ring aromatic compounds such as styrene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and α-methylstyrene were present in very high amounts. Styrene was the compound present in the highest percentage (approx. 55–70%). The results confirmed the previous studies carried out at the laboratory level [8, 9, 10], albeit working with a considerably lower MW power than that one previuosly employed in laboratory experiments (4.8–9.6 vs. 30 kW/kg), and made it possible to develop the application of the MAP process of PS on an industrial scale.
The experiments with the pre-industrial prototype were run to collect process information for the realization of the industrial plant. Thanks to the collaboration between Cognito Engineering srl and the Department of Chemistry of the University of Florence, in 2019, Techwave built its first experimental industrial prototype following the scheme reported in Figure 5. The plant was installed in its factory in Massa (Italy) (Figures 6–8).
Flow diagram of MAP process.
Industrial prototype plant.
Plastic container located in the upper part of the prototype.
MW oven located in the bottom part of the prototype with, in front, the microwave guide.
The prototype was realized considering its possible introduction in two standard containers for easy shipping, even if its dimension may be strongly scaled up if required. Taking into account the dimension, it may be installed on one small ship. Waste plastic materials are largely present in the sea [23], and they may be collected and immediately disposed of through this plant or another plant close to this. The products formed may be employed to produce the energy required, while the excess may be sold on the market. Furthermore, a plant of this dimension may be installed in a municipal collecting and selection center of waste plastics, where it may be employed to pyrolyze the mixed plastics collected, avoiding their sending to a disposal plant. The prototype may be useful also for a large hospital to dispose of the contaminated waste plastics. The pyrolysis products do not contain dangerous contaminants because the biological products are destroyed during the process as reported in the literature [24, 25] while the chemicals formed may be sold for their commercial uses. In 2020, the plant started testing operations using EPS, ABS, or PP as plastic materials. Tests were carried out for 1 year, improving the results step by step, both in terms of plant efficiency and the quality of the secondary raw materials produced. The description of the tests carried out and the results obtained are reported in the following paragraphs.
The description shows how the tests for the MAP process were run in the industrial prototype with the plant working in semi-batch mode. The amount of plastic and carbon black for a single test was taken from the storage area. The carbon black required for the absorption of the microwave was manually introduced into the pyrolysis reactor, while the plastic material was added through the plastic loading system.
Experiments were carried out in an inert atmosphere (nitrogen), realized through various vacuum/nitrogen cycles. The carrier gas was not used to avoid the dilution of the uncondensable gas with the carrier gas. At the end of the purge operations, the plastic material was loaded into the pyrolysis reactor by a screw conveyor and the electrical resistances were switched on to preheat the reactor. Then, they were switched off, and the microwave generators were switched on.
The plastic thermal degradation formed hydrocarbon vapors conveyed to a cooling system. The higher boiling fraction was condensed and collected in the bottom of the cooling system, while the low boiling fraction, together with uncondensable gas, was sent to a torch. During the pyrolysis, further amounts of plastic material were added to the reactor constantly. At the end of the process, the microwave generators were switched off. When the plant was returned to room temperature, vacuum/nitrogen cycles were repeated as described above. At the end of this operation, the solid fraction was collected from the bottom of the reactor. The process was completed, and a new pyrolysis cycle could be started.
In the experiment, the microwave launch system was studied and modified several times until it reached the optimal configuration. The experiments let to identify and refine some operational parameters of the MAP process for improving the yields and quality of pyrolysis products. Table 4 reports the operating parameters of the most significant tests. Microwave power is critical in MAP as it must provide enough energy to break the polymer bonds and start the thermal degradation process. Comparing the data in Table 4, an increase in MW power allowed to treat a double amount of plastic with the same reaction time (PS1, PS3, and PS4).
Entrya | Plastic b (kg) | Power (KW) | Time (min) | Liquid (wt%) | Gas (wt%) | Solid (wt%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PS1 | 8 | 6;12c | 210;15c | 94 | 4 | 2 |
PS2 | 32 | 12 | 310 | 95 | 3 | 2 |
PS3 | 20 | 12 | 280 | 89 | 6 | 5 |
PS4 | 38 | 18 | 272 | 98 | 1 | 1 |
ABS1 | 75 | 18 | 221 | 67 | 23 | 10 |
ABS2 | 69 | 18 | 225 | 68 | 28 | 4 |
PP1 | 61 | 18 | 237 | 81 | 12 | 7 |
PP2 | 70 | 18 | 230 | 86 | 7 | 6 |
Operating parameters of the most significant tests.
PS: Polystyrene; ABS: Acrylonitrile/Butadiene/Styrene rubber; PP: Polypropylene;
Absorber 1.8 kg (in all tests);
6 KW for 210 min then 12 KW for 15 min.
Once the microwave launch system was fine-tuned, the design of experiments (DOE) was planned to optimize the plant productivity, using various types of plastic materials (PS, ABS or PP, Table 4). By way of example, the logs of temperatures, microwave power, and liquid level produced during the MAP of experiment ABS2 are reported in Figure 9 to describe the evolution of the pyrolysis process. Although the temperature plays an important role, this parameter is detected with high uncertainty in microwave pyrolysis [26]. For this reason, the process was followed by monitoring the temperatures recorded by the probes located in several areas of the plant.
From top to bottom: temperatures log, microwave power log, and level liquid log produced in MAP of ABS2.
The probes from TT101 to TT105 were arranged on the reactor from top to bottom: on the bottom of the reactor was the TT110 probe. The temperature of the vapors generated during pyrolysis was recorded by the TT106 on the condensation pipeline, located after the exit from the reactor. The TT120 probe monitors the electrical resistances of the preheating reactor. All the probe temperatures were referenced to the TT001 corresponding to the ambient temperature.
When the reactor was heated at the prefixed temperature by the electrical resistances, these resistances were switched off while the microwave generators were turned on. Following the curves of the temperature probes on the reactor, it was possible to see how the temperature rose suddenly. During this phase, the carbon black absorbed the microwaves and transferred the heat to the plastic material, which starts to melt. As the process went on, the temperature curves of the reactor reached a value corresponding to the start of the thermal degradation of plastics and consequent generation of hydrocarbon vapors, as could be seen from the TT106 curve. At the same time, the LT101 level curve increased due to the condensation of the vapors and liquid was collected.
When the plant was in full operation, the TT101–106 curves remained constant, and the level LT101 of the liquid in the container continuously grew until the microwave generators were switched off, so the system was cooled, and all temperatures started to decrease when the industrial plant works in the best operating conditions, let to treat 33 kg/h of waste plastic.
As described above, the plant can carry out the MAP process of waste plastic materials at the end of its life cycle, from which three types of products were obtained (liquid, solid, and gas). During the experiment, samples were collected for each type of material for their characterizations. These analyses provided useful information to establish the quality and commercial value of the products formed. The following paragraphs report for each type of polymer tested, a description of analysis results, both for the starting material and the products obtained from the MAP.
For each plastic material evaluated during the experiments, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetric analysis (DSC) were carried out to obtain information on the polymer composition, stability and consequently predict the yield of the pyrolysis products. Specifically, TGA and DSC are two thermal analyses used to characterize polymers. TGA variations measure the weight loss of a sample subject to a constant increase in temperature to quantify the products formed, including gaseous emissions, while DSC measures phase transitions such as melting point and glass transition temperature.
The polystyrene sample was shredded before being analyzed (Figure 10). Two thermal ramps were employed for the TGA/FTIR analysis, the first at a rising temperature of 20°C/min in an inert atmosphere followed by an isotherm in an oxygen atmosphere. The thermogram shows a single weight loss of 99.8 wt % related to the organic part of the polymer and a final residue equal to 0.2% attributed to inorganic impurities present (Figure 11).
EPS sample before (left) and after (right) shredding for TGA analysis.
TGA analysis of EPS.
The FT-IR spectrum of the gas released during the degradation of the polymeric component is reported in Figure 12. The spectrum of the gas released at a temperature of 480°C shows the typical signals of hydrocarbons due to the degradation products of polystyrene. The degradation occurred by both end chains and random cleavage and gave only aromatic compounds such as styrene monomer and oligomers, benzene, and toluene. The spectrum shows the typical frequencies of aromatic compounds, such as the stretching of the C-H bond at 3000 cm−1, the stretching of the aromatic double bond at 1600–1450 cm−1, and the signals between 900 and 700 cm−1 of the aromatic C-C backbone.
FT-IR spectrum of the gases released during the TGA analysis of EPS.
The sample was also subjected to DSC analysis, using three thermal ramps in the temperature range from −10 to 200° C, alternating heating–cooling–heating, in an inert atmosphere. The DSC analysis (Figure 13) shows the presence of a peak at about 60°C, which almost completely disappears in the second heating, probably due to the memory effect or to the presence of traces of volatile compounds in the sample, not visible in the TGA analysis. Furthermore, the sample shows a temperature glass transition at about 94°C, which agrees with the classical Tg of polystyrene. The TGA and DSC analyses show that the sample is essentially polystyrene with probable traces of volatile substances and a small percentage of inorganic impurities.
DSC analysis of EPS.
The sample was analyzed without any pretreatment. Two thermal ramps were adopted for the TGA analysis, the first at a rising temperature of 20°C/min in an inert atmosphere followed by an isotherm in an oxygen atmosphere. As can be seen from the thermogram (Figure 14), the following weight losses were recorded:
at about 330°C, weight loss of 8.2 wt%;
between 400 and 530°C, weight loss of 78.3 wt%, associated with the degradation of the polymeric component;
at 700°C, weight loss of 2.5 wt% associated with the degradation of inorganic compounds;
at 800°C after the switch in the atmosphere of O2 weight loss of 3.3 wt%.
TGA analysis of ABS.
At the end of the analysis, a final residue of 7.7 wt% of the sample was present and associated with inorganic compounds that do not degrade up to this temperature.
The FTIR spectrum of the gas released by the sample during TGA analysis is reported in Figure 15. In the FTIR spectrum of the gas released at 330°C (black line) is present only the emission of CO2, probably due to the degradation with the temperature of inorganic compounds present in ABS. At 440°C, the FTIR spectrum shows signals associated with degradation products of a carbonate containing ABS.
FT-IR spectra of gases released at 330°C (black) and 440°C (red) during the TGA analysis of ABS.
As reported in the literature, the thermal degradation of ABS polymer begins at 340°C with the formation of the butadiene monomer. The aromatic compounds begin to be noticed at 350°C, a temperature at which the degradation of polybutadiene unities is still evident. As the temperature increases, the formation of styrene becomes more important, and at 420°C, the intensities of the C-H bands of butadiene and styrene are approximately equal. At higher temperatures, the presence of aromatics decreases in intensity while that one of butadiene is very strong. The evolution of acrylonitrile begins at about 400°C and ends at 450°C [27].
According to the above description, the spectrum of gas released at 440°C (Figure 15, red line) shows the stretching of aromatic C-H at 3100 cm−1, and aliphatic C-H stretches at 2900 cm−1 and the stretching of the nitrile group at approx. 2200 cm−1. Another sample of ABS was crushed and subsequently subjected to DSC analysis, running three thermal ramps in the temperature range from 25 to 300°C, alternating heating–cooling–heating, in an inert atmosphere. DSC analysis shows a glass transition at T = 108.25°C (Figure 16, red curve) associated with the styrenic portion typical of acrylic copolymers such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), styrene–acrylonitrile (SAN), or acrylonitrile–styrene-acrylate (ASA), a glass transition at T = 124.08°C associated with polycarbonate present and a glass transition at T = 162.42°C associated with ABS.
DSC analysis of ABS.
From the DSC and TGA/FTIR analyses, the sample is a polycarbonate containing ABS (78.3%) with small quantities of polypropylene.
Propylene experiments were carried out using single-use masks as a sample of PP. The single-use masks were cut to separate the non-woven polypropylene from the elastic bands, and the two samples were analyzed separately by DSC. For each sample, three thermal ramps were performed in the temperature range from −10 to 300°C, alternating heating–cooling–heating, in an inert atmosphere. Measurement of the glass transition temperature, (Tg), of polypropylene is generally considered difficult to detect with DSC analysis because the transition is weak. The graph (Figure 17) instead shows a peak at 167°C corresponding to the melting temperature of polypropylene (green curve) and a peak at 221°C typical of the nylon used to realize the elastic bands of single-use masks (purple curve).
TGA analysis of single-use mask.
The products formed in the MAP process of these plastic materials were liquid, gas, and char. In all cases, the liquid was the most important fraction both in quantity and commercial value. The characterization of this fraction for the most significant tests is reported below; the chemical–physical properties are shown in Table 5. Physical characteristics of liquids from MAP of PS were not affected by the variation of the MW power. The density recorded in all samples was almost the same and in a very narrow range among 0.92–0.95 g/cm3. Furthermore, close values of ultimate analyses and the molar C/H ratios suggested that all the liquid samples had a similar composition, even if different process parameters have been employed. The C/H molar ratio in a range between 0.94 and 1.0 wt% confirmed the prevailing presence of the aryl compounds in liquids from PS pyrolysis.
Entry | Density | LHV | Elemental analysis (wt %) | C/H | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(g/cm3) | (MJ/kg) | C | H | N | molar ratio | |
PS1 | 0.94 | 39.6 | 82.8 | 7.35 | <0.50 | 0.94 |
PS2 | 0.95 | 40.0 | 89.2 | 7.60 | <0.50 | 0.98 |
PS5 | 0.92 | 39.1 | 85.2 | 7.07 | <0.50 | 1.00 |
ABS1 | 1.02 | 34.4 | 79.8 | 7.8 | 2.9 | 0.85 |
PP2 | 0.75 | 34.3 | 84.3 | 14.3 | 0.0 | 0.49 |
Physical characteristics of liquids obtained from MAP of plastics.
The lower calorific value (LHV) of the liquids from MAP of PS also showed the same trend as the C/H molar ratio, with values close to styrene, benzene, and ethylbenzene (LHV of 39.6, 40.0, and 39.1 MJ/kg, respectively for PS1, PS2, and PS5). As foreseen from the literature and in agreement with the tests carried out both in the laboratory and on the pre-industrial prototype, the main products of PS pyrolysis are aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, and α-methylstyrene (Table 6).
Compounds | Area (%) |
---|---|
Toluene | 3.4 |
Ethylbenzene | 7.9 |
Styrene | 56.9 |
Cumene | 1.2 |
α-Methylstyrene | 8.0 |
1,3-Diphenylpropane | 4.0 |
Bis(1,1′-(1-methyl-1,3-propanedyl))benzene | 1.6 |
Stilbene | 0.7 |
1,2-Diphenylcyclopropane | 2.2 |
Bis(1,1’-(3-methyl-1-propenylidene))benzene | 1.4 |
Others | 12.7 |
Main compounds identified in liquid from MAP of PS4, by GC–MS.
Styrene is always the predominant compound in each liquid sample. From the analysis of data reported in Table 7 it is possible to show how the amount of styrene (evaluated by chromatographic area of the GC/MS spectra) is correlated with the microwave power used. The highest amount of styrene was present in PS2 and PS4 (respectively 52.8 and 56.9%), corresponding to experiments where a higher microwave power was used. In contrast, using a lower microwave power (PS1, Table 7), the amount of styrene was drastically reduced. Also, as reported above for PS, the MAP of ABS gives a liquid fraction with a density between 0.97 and 1.02 g/cm3 and C/H molar ratio of 0.85 wt% indicative of the prevailing presence of aromatic compounds. The liquid fraction was analyzed by GC–MS, a complete list of compounds identified through the NIST library is reported in Table 8. Aryl compounds, especially styrene, are present in large amounts in the liquid from MAP of ABS. In the presence of acrylonitrile, nitrile compounds such as 2-methylenpropionitrile were formed in a significant amount. MAP of PP gave a low-density liquid (0.746–0.760 g/cm3) and a C/H molar ratio of 0.5 wt%, confirming the prevailing presence of aliphatic compounds in this liquid. The main compounds identified in the liquid from MAP of PP are reported in Table 9, they were branched saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, which wereformed through C-C bond cleavage of the PP backbone. In particular, there was a prevalence of C9-C12 hydrocarbons, and among these, the 2,4-dimethyl-1-hepthene was found as the main compound, in agreement with previous results [8]. Many other compounds were present in very low amounts and reported as others. The presence of aromatic hydrocarbons was attributed to cyclization and aromatization reactions of unsaturated compounds formed during the MAP process as reported.
Entry | Power (kW) | Styrene (wt%) |
---|---|---|
PS1 | 6;12 | 37.4 |
PS2 | 12 | 52.8 |
PS4 | 18 | 56.9 |
Correlation between styrene in liquid and MW power in the MAP of PS.
Compounds | Area (%) |
---|---|
2-Methyl-2-propenenitrile | 12.5 |
Toluene | 4.4 |
Ethylbenzene | 8.8 |
Styrene | 20.8 |
Cumene | 3.8 |
α-Methylstyrene | 12.5 |
6,7-dihydro-5-methyl-5H-cyclopentapyrazine | 7.9 |
1,3-Diphenylpropane | 7.2 |
Others | 22.1 |
Main compounds identified in liquids from MAP of ABS, by GC–MS.
Compounds | Area (%) |
---|---|
5-Methylhex-1-ene | 0.8 |
2,4-Dimethyl heptane | 12.5 |
1,4-Dimethylbenzene | 1.2 |
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene | 0.5 |
1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene | 0.2 |
2,4,6,8-Tetramethylundec-1-ene | 3.5 |
2,4,6,8-Tetramethylundecane | 2.3 |
2,4,6,8,10-Pentamethyltridec-3-ene | 0.6 |
Others | 78.4 |
Compounds identified in liquids from MAP of PP, by GC–MS.
The facemasks were converted into the classical three products of a MAP (liquid, small amount of solid, and gas), having a composition close to those reported in the pyrolysis of PP. The possible contamination was absent in the products formed due to the pyrolysis conditions adopted.
The quality and quantity of end-of-life plastics are continuously improved while the amount of recycled material is always too low. Several firms such as AmSty and Agylix [28], ReVital Polymers, Pyrowave, and INEOS Styrolution [29], BASF, Quantafuel, and REMONDIS [30], Neste [31], and so on are involved in recycling plastic materials using thermochemical processes [1] using, mainly, classic heating method. This review shows the MAP process developed by Techwave as an industrial novelty proposed for the friendly and economical disposal of waste/contaminated plastics. In this way, valuable products, useful as a source of secondary raw material, close the cycle of a circular economy because plastic waste is converted in a feedstock for the production of new plastics.
MAP is a very interesting way to dispose of end life plastics because it does not produce waste from chemical recycling of plastics but three classes of products: a char, an oil, and a gas, available as fuel or the source of new materials for the synthesis of new products. The process is self-sustainable from an energetic point of view rendering the process economically sustainable. The Techwave proposal offers an industrial plant designed to obtain secondary raw materials from plastic wastes, thus closing the cycle for a circular economy and giving a strong advantage in terms of environmental protection and expansion of the recycled material market in a green and sustainable way.
Finally, the plant was realized as planned, so it is possible to introduce in two standard containers for its shipping. Furthermore, a plant of this dimension may be installed in a municipal collecting and selecting center of waste plastic where it may be employed to pyrolyze the mixed plastic present, avoiding the transport of this waste for disposal. The plant may be useful also for a large hospital to dispose of the waste/contaminated plastic present, taking into account that the pyrolysis products do not contain biological contamination because they are destroyed in the course of the process as reported in the literature [24, 25] while the products formed may be sold on the market. The dimension of the plant lets its installation on one small ship where the waste plastic materials present in the sea may be collected and immediately disposed. The products formed may be employed to produce the energy required for all operations, while the excess may be sold on the market.
Techwave srl is acknowledged for financial support. M.F. thanks the University of Florence for financial support.
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They cure soon after mixing the two components together. Almost all room temperature cure epoxy adhesives are supplied in two-component package. One-component epoxy adhesives are prepared and supplied by mixing all formulated components in advance including epoxy resin and curing agent. One-component epoxy adhesives usually need cure at elevated temperature and store at low temperature in a refrigerator or even freezer. Epoxy adhesives have been widely used as typical reactive adhesives for various applications ranging from general industry, construction, electronics assembly, automobile production to aerospace market. Typical room temperature cure epoxy adhesives, thermal cure epoxy adhesives and UV cure epoxy adhesives are introduced in detail.",book:{id:"7679",slug:"adhesives-and-adhesive-joints-in-industry-applications",title:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications",fullTitle:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications"},signatures:"Chunfu Chen, Bin Li, Masao Kanari and Daoqiang Lu",authors:[{id:"234454",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunfu",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chunfu-chen",fullName:"Chunfu Chen"}]},{id:"51522",doi:"10.5772/64247",title:"Friction and Wear in Automotive Journal Bearings Operating in Today’s Severe Conditions",slug:"friction-and-wear-in-automotive-journal-bearings-operating-in-today-s-severe-conditions",totalDownloads:2873,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"A current trend in the transport sector seeks to increase the vehicle efficiency and to cut fuel consumption which leads to new technologies and advancements in modern and future combustion engines. Some of these technical progresses lead to highly stressed engine parts and new challenges arise, particularly for journal bearings. The increasing thermal and mechanical load caused by downsized and turbocharged engines, friction reduction by employing low-viscosity lubricants and other emission reduction measures—for utilizing stop-start systems—put additional stress on the crankshaft journal bearings. This contribution focuses on highly stressed journal bearings which operate in the boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic lubrication regime. Therefore, measurements on a journal bearing test-rig are performed which allow an extensive verification of the numerical investigation. For the numerical analysis of friction and wear, a mixed elasto-hydrodynamic simulation approach is developed, which considers the elastic deformation of the contacting components, the complex rheological behaviour of the lubricant and metal-metal contact if the lubricant is unable to separate the contacting surfaces. Both the rheological data and the surface roughness parameters are obtained from measurements. The current challenges are studied in four application-oriented examples and the influencing parameters on a reliable friction and wear prediction are explored.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"David E. Sander, Hannes Allmaier and Hans-Herwig Priebsch",authors:[{id:"151052",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannes",middleName:null,surname:"Allmaier",slug:"hannes-allmaier",fullName:"Hannes Allmaier"},{id:"151317",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:"E.",surname:"Sander",slug:"david-sander",fullName:"David Sander"},{id:"188490",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans-Herwig",middleName:null,surname:"Priebsch",slug:"hans-herwig-priebsch",fullName:"Hans-Herwig Priebsch"}]},{id:"51177",doi:"10.5772/63654",title:"The Tribology and Chemistry of Phosphorus‐Containing Lubricant Additives",slug:"the-tribology-and-chemistry-of-phosphorus-containing-lubricant-additives",totalDownloads:2639,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Phosphate esters, thiophosphate esters and metal thiophosphates have been used as lubricant additives for over 50 years. Recently, phosphorus‐containing ionic liquids have emerged as a new class of lubricant additives. While the use of phosphorus compounds has been extensive, a detailed knowledge of how they work has been a much more recent development. In this chapter, the use of phosphate esters, thiophosphate esters, metal thiophosphates and phosphorus‐containing ionic liquids as antiwear or extreme pressure additives is discussed. The primary emphasis will be on how they form a protective film, which is both durable and reduces friction. The first part of the chapter discusses the use of alkyl phosphates, triaryl phosphates and metal‐containing thiophosphate esters with primarily iron‐ and steel‐based bearing materials. The second part of the chapter examines phosphorus‐containing ionic liquids and the challenges posed by new bearing materials with different surface chemistries.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"David W. Johnson",authors:[{id:"178441",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"}]},{id:"50962",doi:"10.5772/63657",title:"Tribocorrosion",slug:"tribocorrosion",totalDownloads:2275,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter includes some of the definitions of corrosion as important problem in many industries. The main forms of corrosion have been discussed in this chapter which depended on the appearance of corroded surface with some details of their mechanisms and how can prevent them. This chapter reviews tribocorrosion and explains the simplest method for tribocorrosion test by certain set-up using electrochemical test with three electrodes. Tribocorrosion test is needs to special arrangement of cell to be predicted which also has been mentioned in this chapter.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"Rana Afif Majed Anaee and Majid Hameed Abdulmajeed",authors:[{id:"181900",title:"Dr.",name:"Rana",middleName:"Afif",surname:"Anaee",slug:"rana-anaee",fullName:"Rana Anaee"},{id:"190735",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Majid",middleName:"Hameed",surname:"Abdulmajeed",slug:"majid-abdulmajeed",fullName:"Majid Abdulmajeed"}]},{id:"51347",doi:"10.5772/63533",title:"Modelling Cavitation in (Elasto)Hydrodynamic Lubrication",slug:"modelling-cavitation-in-elasto-hydrodynamic-lubrication",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"In this chapter we will present a derivation of a mathematical model describing how cavitation influences the pressure distribution in a thin lubricant film between two moving surfaces. The main idea in the derivation is to first describe the influence of cavitation on the mass flow and thereafter using a conservation law for the mass. This leads to a nonlinear system with two complementary variables: one is the pressure distribution and the other is related to the density, i.e. a nonlinear complementarity problem (NLCP). The proposed approach is used to derive a mass conserving cavitation model considering that density, viscosity and film thickness of the lubricant depend on the pressure. To demonstrate the applicability and evaluate the proposed model and the suggested numerical implementation, a few model problems are analysed and presented.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"Andreas Almqvist and Peter Wall",authors:[{id:"181745",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Almqvist",slug:"andreas-almqvist",fullName:"Andreas Almqvist"},{id:"185675",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Wall",slug:"peter-wall",fullName:"Peter Wall"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69687",title:"Modeling of Creep Deformation and Creep Fracture",slug:"modeling-of-creep-deformation-and-creep-fracture",totalDownloads:1e3,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter reports the recent progresses in (1) the development of a modified hyperbolic sine law able to depict the minimum creep strain rate over a wider range of stress levels; (2) the development of the creep fracture criterion and model based on the cavity area fraction along grain boundary calibrated with the most representative and comprehensive cavitation data obtained from X-ray synchrotron investigation; and (3) the development of mesoscopic composite approach modeling of creep deformation and creep damage. The first progress facilitates to overcome the difficulty in creep deformation modeling caused by stress breakdown phenomenon; the second progress is of a really scientifically sound and fundamental new approach, first in the world; the third progress provides the concept and tool, at the appropriate size scale, for the modeling of the creep deformation and creep fracture. They all contribute to the specific knowledge and new methodology to the topic area. Furthermore, it is expected that cavitation fracture modeling methodology reported here will find use in the analysis and modeling of other types of failure such as ductile and fatigue failure. This chapter presents an excellent example of interdisciplinary collaborative research and it advocates further such collaboration in its conclusion.",book:{id:"9265",slug:"strength-of-materials",title:"Strength of Materials",fullTitle:"Strength of Materials"},signatures:"Qiang Xu and Zhongyu Lu",authors:[{id:"308353",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiang",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"qiang-xu",fullName:"Qiang Xu"},{id:"319445",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"zhongyu-lu",fullName:"Zhongyu Lu"}]},{id:"66810",title:"Free Vibration of Axially Functionally Graded Beam",slug:"free-vibration-of-axially-functionally-graded-beam",totalDownloads:1160,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Axially functionally graded (AFG) beam is a special kind of nonhomogeneous functionally gradient material structure, whose material properties vary continuously along the axial direction of the beam by a given distribution form. There are several numerical methods that have been used to analyze the vibration characteristics of AFG beams, but it is difficult to obtain precise solutions for AFG beams because of the variable coefficients of the governing equation. In this topic, the free vibration of AFG beam using analytical method based on the perturbation theory and Meijer G-Function are studied, respectively. First, a detailed review of the existing literatures is summarized. Then, based on the governing equation of the AFG Euler-Bernoulli beam, the detailed analytic equations are derived on basis of the perturbation theory and Meijer G-function, where the nature frequencies are demonstrated. Subsequently, the numerical results are calculated and compared, meanwhile, the analytical results are also confirmed by finite element method and the published references. The results show that the proposed two analytical methods are simple and efficient and can be used to conveniently analyze free vibration of AFG beam.",book:{id:"8844",slug:"mechanics-of-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",title:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",fullTitle:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures"},signatures:"Dongxing Cao, Bin Wang, Wenhua Hu and Yanhui Gao",authors:[{id:"283678",title:"Prof.",name:"Dongxing",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"dongxing-cao",fullName:"Dongxing Cao"},{id:"295692",title:"Mr.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"bin-wang",fullName:"Bin Wang"},{id:"295693",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenhua",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wenhua-hu",fullName:"Wenhua Hu"},{id:"295694",title:"Mr.",name:"Yanhui",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"yanhui-gao",fullName:"Yanhui Gao"}]},{id:"51522",title:"Friction and Wear in Automotive Journal Bearings Operating in Today’s Severe Conditions",slug:"friction-and-wear-in-automotive-journal-bearings-operating-in-today-s-severe-conditions",totalDownloads:2873,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"A current trend in the transport sector seeks to increase the vehicle efficiency and to cut fuel consumption which leads to new technologies and advancements in modern and future combustion engines. Some of these technical progresses lead to highly stressed engine parts and new challenges arise, particularly for journal bearings. The increasing thermal and mechanical load caused by downsized and turbocharged engines, friction reduction by employing low-viscosity lubricants and other emission reduction measures—for utilizing stop-start systems—put additional stress on the crankshaft journal bearings. This contribution focuses on highly stressed journal bearings which operate in the boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic lubrication regime. Therefore, measurements on a journal bearing test-rig are performed which allow an extensive verification of the numerical investigation. For the numerical analysis of friction and wear, a mixed elasto-hydrodynamic simulation approach is developed, which considers the elastic deformation of the contacting components, the complex rheological behaviour of the lubricant and metal-metal contact if the lubricant is unable to separate the contacting surfaces. Both the rheological data and the surface roughness parameters are obtained from measurements. The current challenges are studied in four application-oriented examples and the influencing parameters on a reliable friction and wear prediction are explored.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"David E. Sander, Hannes Allmaier and Hans-Herwig Priebsch",authors:[{id:"151052",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannes",middleName:null,surname:"Allmaier",slug:"hannes-allmaier",fullName:"Hannes Allmaier"},{id:"151317",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:"E.",surname:"Sander",slug:"david-sander",fullName:"David Sander"},{id:"188490",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans-Herwig",middleName:null,surname:"Priebsch",slug:"hans-herwig-priebsch",fullName:"Hans-Herwig Priebsch"}]},{id:"70512",title:"Residual Stress Modeling and Deformation Measurement in Laser Metal Deposition Process",slug:"residual-stress-modeling-and-deformation-measurement-in-laser-metal-deposition-process",totalDownloads:844,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Direct metal deposition (DMD) has become very popular within the space of rapid manufacturing and repair. Its capability of producing fully dense metal parts with complex internal geometries, which could not be easily achieved by traditional manufacturing approaches, has been well demonstrated. However, the DMD process usually comes with high thermal gradients and high heating and cooling rates, leading to residual stresses and the associated deformation, which can have negative effect on product integrity. This paper studies the features of thermal stress and deformation involved in the DMD process by constructing a 3-D, sequentially coupled, thermomechanical, finite element model to predict both the thermal and mechanical behaviors of the DMD process of Stainless Steel 304 (SS 304). A set of experiments were then conducted to validate deformation using a laser displacement sensor. Comparisons between the simulated and experimental results show good agreement. This model can be used to predict the mechanical behavior of products fabricated by the DMD process and to help with the optimization of design and manufacturing parameters.",book:{id:"8457",slug:"new-challenges-in-residual-stress-measurements-and-evaluation",title:"New Challenges in Residual Stress Measurements and Evaluation",fullTitle:"New Challenges in Residual Stress Measurements and Evaluation"},signatures:"Heng Liu and Frank Liou",authors:[{id:"101869",title:"Prof.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Liou",slug:"frank-liou",fullName:"Frank Liou"},{id:"292019",title:"Mr.",name:"Heng",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"heng-liu",fullName:"Heng Liu"}]},{id:"67088",title:"Epoxy Adhesives",slug:"epoxy-adhesives",totalDownloads:1261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of epoxy resin and curing agent. Epoxy adhesives are supplied in both one-component package and two-component package depending on curing agent used and curing method applied. Two-component epoxy adhesives are prepared by packing epoxy composition and curing agent composition separately. They cure soon after mixing the two components together. Almost all room temperature cure epoxy adhesives are supplied in two-component package. One-component epoxy adhesives are prepared and supplied by mixing all formulated components in advance including epoxy resin and curing agent. One-component epoxy adhesives usually need cure at elevated temperature and store at low temperature in a refrigerator or even freezer. Epoxy adhesives have been widely used as typical reactive adhesives for various applications ranging from general industry, construction, electronics assembly, automobile production to aerospace market. Typical room temperature cure epoxy adhesives, thermal cure epoxy adhesives and UV cure epoxy adhesives are introduced in detail.",book:{id:"7679",slug:"adhesives-and-adhesive-joints-in-industry-applications",title:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications",fullTitle:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications"},signatures:"Chunfu Chen, Bin Li, Masao Kanari and Daoqiang Lu",authors:[{id:"234454",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunfu",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chunfu-chen",fullName:"Chunfu Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"817",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"