Electrokinetic injections of nutrients.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6047",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Perspectives in Breast Imaging",title:"Breast Imaging",subtitle:"New Perspectives in",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book watches out for the issues on making moves for chest radiology in carcinoma of the chest. It focuses on all parts of radiological approaches to manage the breast illness, be it light (optical), sound (ultrasound), interest, microwave, electrical impedance, blend of these modalities, and a section of the incredibly intense issues on computer-aided detection. The dedication of the eminent analysts in this book has incorporated a lot of energy for the people who are adequately drawn in with the clinical organization of this ailment and also for the students of radiology and surgery alike. This book will definitely be appreciated and well taken by the surgeons, radiologists, and other professionals involved in this field. The contributions are excellent in terms of diagnostic approach by radiological means and would certainly be a step forward in making it possible to reach to a conclusive diagnosis of breast cancer much before it becomes inoperable. The chapters included will further our knowledge and to the best of my belief will make things easier and definable in terms of diagnosis of breast cancer.",isbn:"978-953-51-3558-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3557-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4631-5",doi:"10.5772/67606",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-perspectives-in-breast-imaging",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"2b3268435a9bd92c63ad53721f0c0262",bookSignature:"Arshad M. Malik",publishedDate:"October 4th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6047.jpg",numberOfDownloads:13887,numberOfWosCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:41,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:83,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 31st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 17th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 18th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 18th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"63407",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"arshad-malik",fullName:"Arshad Malik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63407/images/system/63407.jpeg",biography:'Dr. Arshad Malik completed his fellowship in 1997 and has worked in different positions. Presently, he is working as a professor of surgery at the Karachi Institute of Medical Sciences. He is the author of 48 publications, with 5 chapters in different books, and editor of 5 books. His chapter on "Early Appendicectomy in Appendicular Mass" has been downloaded 30,000 times throughout the world. He has also presented scientific papers at podium presentations of different high-ranked clinical meetings in more than 20 countries.',institutionString:"Qassim University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"Qassim University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1008",title:"Radiology Diagnosis",slug:"radiology-diagnosis"}],chapters:[{id:"55957",title:"A Case of an Invasive Lobular Carcinoma with Extracellular Mucin: Radio-Pathological Correlation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69389",slug:"a-case-of-an-invasive-lobular-carcinoma-with-extracellular-mucin-radio-pathological-correlation",totalDownloads:1453,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A case of 77-year-old female with an invasive lobular carcinoma with extracellular mucin is presented. She felt palpable mass in her left breast. Then, she came to our hospital for further examination. Mammography of right in full view revealed architectural distortion in left upper portion. And ultrasonography demonstrated low-echoic mass about 2 cm in diameter and invasion of the fat tissue was observed. Hence, malignancy was suspected and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed. MRI findings showed irregular shaped and margined mass with small T2-high-signal intensity. These findings suggested invasive carcinoma with mucin. Because the cancer lesion was not large, partial mastectomy was performed. Interestingly, pathological diagnosis was invasive lobular carcinoma with extracellular mucin. Extracellular mucinous lesion was concordant with small T2-high-signal intensity. This type of carcinoma was previously reported only in three cases, and rare but important, because the treatment and prognosis might change by histological subtypes. We suggest one of the MRI special features of our case is not only irregular shaped and margined mass but also small T2-high-signal intensity. These MR findings might be one of the valuable findings for the diagnosis and differentiation between this type of carcinoma from other tumors.",signatures:"Shinya Tajima, Keiko Kishimoto, Yoshihide Kanemaki, Ichiro Maeda,\nAkira Endo, Motohiro Chosokabe, Takafumi Ono, Koichiro Tsugawa\nand Masayuki Takagi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55957",authors:[{id:"85421",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Tajima",slug:"shinya-tajima",fullName:"Shinya Tajima"},{id:"381024",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiko",surname:"Kishimoto",slug:"keiko-kishimoto",fullName:"Keiko Kishimoto"},{id:"381025",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihide",surname:"Kanemaki",slug:"yoshihide-kanemaki",fullName:"Yoshihide Kanemaki"},{id:"381026",title:"Dr.",name:"Ichiro",surname:"Maeda",slug:"ichiro-maeda",fullName:"Ichiro Maeda"},{id:"381027",title:"Dr.",name:"Akira",surname:"Endo",slug:"akira-endo",fullName:"Akira Endo"},{id:"381028",title:"Dr.",name:"Motohiro",surname:"Chosokabe",slug:"motohiro-chosokabe",fullName:"Motohiro Chosokabe"},{id:"381029",title:"Dr.",name:"Takafumi",surname:"Ono",slug:"takafumi-ono",fullName:"Takafumi Ono"},{id:"381030",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichiro",surname:"Tsugawa",slug:"koichiro-tsugawa",fullName:"Koichiro Tsugawa"},{id:"381031",title:"Dr.",name:"Masayuki",surname:"Takagi",slug:"masayuki-takagi",fullName:"Masayuki Takagi"}],corrections:null},{id:"56220",title:"Near-Field Radar Microwave Imaging as an Add-on Modality to Mammography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69726",slug:"near-field-radar-microwave-imaging-as-an-add-on-modality-to-mammography",totalDownloads:1810,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"According to global statistics, there is a high incidence of cancer in western countries; and, due to the limited resources available in most health care systems, it seems like one of the most feasible options to fight against cancer might be strict prevention policies—such as eliminating carcinogens in people’s daily lives. Nevertheless, early cancer detection and effective treatment are still necessary, and understanding their efficacy and limitations are important issues that need to be addressed in order to ultimately enhance patients’ survival rate. In the case of breast cancer, some of the problems faced by conventional mammography have been addressed in the literature; they include high rate of false-positive and false-negative results, as well as the possibility of overdiagnosis. New technologies, such as digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT), have been able to improve the sensitivity and specificity by using 3D imaging. However, the low contrast (1%) existing between tumors and healthy fibroglandular tissue at X-ray frequencies has been identified as one of the main causes of misdiagnosis in both conventional 2D mammography and DBT. Near-field radar imaging (NRI) provides a unique opportunity to overcome this problem, since the contrast existing between the aforementioned tissues is intrinsically higher (10%) at microwave frequencies. Moreover, the low resolution and highly complex scattering patterns of microwave systems can be enhanced by using prior information from other modalities, such as the DBT. Therefore, a multimodal DBT/NRI imaging system is proposed to exploit their individual strengths while minimizing their weaknesses. In this work, the foundation of this idea is reviewed, and a preliminary design and experimental validation of the NRI system, used as a DBT complement, is introduced.",signatures:"Ashkan Ghanbarzadeh Dagheyan, Ali Molaei, Richard Obermeier,\nAida K. Martinez and Jose Martinez Lorenzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56220",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56220",authors:[{id:"196074",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ali",surname:"Molaei",slug:"ali-molaei",fullName:"Ali Molaei"},{id:"202140",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ashkan",surname:"Ghanbarzadeh Dagheyan",slug:"ashkan-ghanbarzadeh-dagheyan",fullName:"Ashkan Ghanbarzadeh Dagheyan"},{id:"205828",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Angel",surname:"Martinez Lorenzo",slug:"jose-angel-martinez-lorenzo",fullName:"Jose Angel Martinez Lorenzo"},{id:"381698",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Obermeier",slug:"richard-obermeier",fullName:"Richard Obermeier"},{id:"381699",title:"Dr.",name:"Aida K.",surname:"Martinez",slug:"aida-k.-martinez",fullName:"Aida K. Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55898",title:"Microwave Imaging for Early Breast Cancer Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69562",slug:"microwave-imaging-for-early-breast-cancer-detection",totalDownloads:2529,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"We overview the research trend on microwave imaging for early breast cancer detection. The technologies have two categories: ultra-wide band (UWB) radar that reconstructs the scattering power distribution in the breast and inverse scattering problem that reconstructs the dielectric properties distribution. We have developed a clinical equipment using UWB radar and carried out clinical test 4 years ago. Through the experiments, we concluded that the UWB radar was insufficient for the clinical equipment, because the UWB radar cannot discriminate cancerous tumor and other lesions. Therefore, we have been studying inverse scattering. It is a challenging task to develop an equipment using inverse scattering technologies. We have proposed a microwave mammography that has four features: (1) sensor with breast fixing by absorption, (2) small sensor with multipolarization, (3) image reconstruction program linking the commercial EM simulator, and (4) hybrid imaging method using UWB radar and inverse scattering.",signatures:"Yoshihiko Kuwahara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55898",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55898",authors:[{id:"4682",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoshihiko",surname:"Kuwahara",slug:"yoshihiko-kuwahara",fullName:"Yoshihiko Kuwahara"}],corrections:null},{id:"55605",title:"Microwave Breast Imaging Techniques and Measurement Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69199",slug:"microwave-breast-imaging-techniques-and-measurement-systems",totalDownloads:1749,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electromagnetic waves at microwave frequencies allow penetration into many optically non-transparent mediums such as biological tissues. Over the past 30 years, researchers have extensively investigated microwave imaging (MI) approaches including imaging algorithms, measurement systems and applications in biomedical fields, such as breast tumor detection, brain stroke detection, heart imaging and bone imaging. Successful clinical trials of MI for breast imaging brought worldwide excitation, and this achievement further confirmed that the MI has potential to become a low-risk and cost-effective alternative to existing medical imaging tools such as X-ray mammography for early breast cancer detection. This chapter offers comprehensive descriptions of the most important MI approaches for early breast cancer detection, including reconstruction procedures and measurement systems as well as apparatus.",signatures:"Lulu Wang, Hu Peng and Jianhua Ma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55605",authors:[{id:"206537",title:"Prof.",name:"Hu",surname:"Peng",slug:"hu-peng",fullName:"Hu Peng"},{id:"206538",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhua",surname:"Ma",slug:"jianhua-ma",fullName:"Jianhua Ma"},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"56218",title:"Advances in Breast Thermography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69198",slug:"advances-in-breast-thermography",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Thermography‐based breast cancer screening has several advantages as it is non-contact, non-invasive and safe. Many clinical trials have shown its effectiveness to detect cancer earlier than any other modality. Historically, thermography has only been used as an adjunct modality due to the high expertise required for manual interpretation of the thermal images and high false‐positive rates otherwise found in general use. Recent developments in thermal sensors, image capture protocols and computer‐aided software diagnostics are showing great promise in making this modality a mainstream cancer screening method. This chapter describes some of these advances in breast thermography and computer‐aided diagnostics that are poised to improve the quality of cancer care.",signatures:"Siva Teja Kakileti, Geetha Manjunath, Himanshu Madhu and\nHadonahalli Venkataramanappa Ramprakash",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56218",authors:[{id:"205829",title:"Dr.",name:"Geetha",surname:"Manjunath",slug:"geetha-manjunath",fullName:"Geetha Manjunath"},{id:"207615",title:"Mr.",name:"Siva Teja",surname:"Kakileti",slug:"siva-teja-kakileti",fullName:"Siva Teja Kakileti"},{id:"207616",title:"Mr.",name:"Himanshu",surname:"Madhu",slug:"himanshu-madhu",fullName:"Himanshu Madhu"},{id:"207617",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramprakash",surname:"Hv",slug:"ramprakash-hv",fullName:"Ramprakash Hv"}],corrections:null},{id:"56090",title:"Incorporating Breast Asymmetry Studies into CADx Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69526",slug:"incorporating-breast-asymmetry-studies-into-cadx-systems",totalDownloads:1108,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is one of the global leading causes of death among women, and an early detection is of uttermost importance to reduce mortality rates. Screening mammograms, in which radiologists rely only on their eyesight, are one of the most used early detection methods. However, characteristics, such as the asymmetry between breasts, a feature that could be very difficult to visually quantize, is key to breast cancer detection. Due to the highly heterogeneous and deformable structure of the breast itself, incorporating asymmetry measurements into an automated detection system is still a challenge. In this study, we proposed the use of a bilateral registration algorithm as an effective way to automatically measure mirror asymmetry. Furthermore, this information was fed to a machine learning algorithm to improve the accuracy of the model. In this study, 449 subjects (197 with calcifications, 207 with masses, and 45 healthy subjects) from a public database were used to train and evaluate the proposed methodology. Using this procedure, we were able to independently identify subjects with calcifications (accuracy = 0.825, AUC = 0.882) and masses (accuracy = 0.698, AUC = 0.807) from healthy subjects.",signatures:"José María Celaya Padilla, Cesar Humberto Guzmán Valdivia, Jorge\nIssac Galván Tejada, Carlos Eric Galván Tejada, Hamurabi Gamboa\nRosales, Juan Rubén Delgado Contreras, Antonio Martinez-Torteya,\nRoberto Olivera Reyna, Jorge Roberto Manjarrez Sánchez, Francisco\nJavier Martinez Ruiz, Idalia Garza-Veloz, Margarita L. Martinez-\nFierro, Victor Treviño and Jose Gerardo Tamez-Peña",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56090",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56090",authors:[{id:"77859",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Trevino",slug:"victor-trevino",fullName:"Victor Trevino"},{id:"189187",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Maria",surname:"Celaya-Padilla",slug:"jose-maria-celaya-padilla",fullName:"Jose Maria Celaya-Padilla"},{id:"201427",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Issac",surname:"Galvan-Tejada",slug:"jorge-issac-galvan-tejada",fullName:"Jorge Issac Galvan-Tejada"},{id:"201428",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eric",surname:"Galvan-Tejada",slug:"carlos-eric-galvan-tejada",fullName:"Carlos Eric Galvan-Tejada"},{id:"201430",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar Humberto",surname:"Guzman-Valdivia",slug:"cesar-humberto-guzman-valdivia",fullName:"Cesar Humberto Guzman-Valdivia"},{id:"201431",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamurabi",surname:"Gamboa Rosales",slug:"hamurabi-gamboa-rosales",fullName:"Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales"},{id:"201432",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Ruben",surname:"Delgado-Contreras",slug:"juan-ruben-delgado-contreras",fullName:"Juan Ruben Delgado-Contreras"},{id:"207154",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Gerardo",surname:"Tamez-Peña",slug:"jose-gerardo-tamez-pena",fullName:"Jose Gerardo Tamez-Peña"},{id:"211714",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Martinez-Torteya",slug:"antonio-martinez-torteya",fullName:"Antonio Martinez-Torteya"},{id:"211741",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Olivera Reyna",slug:"roberto-olivera-reyna",fullName:"Roberto Olivera Reyna"},{id:"211742",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Roberto",surname:"Manjarrez Sánchez",slug:"jorge-roberto-manjarrez-sanchez",fullName:"Jorge Roberto Manjarrez Sánchez"},{id:"211743",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",surname:"Martinez Ruiz",slug:"francisco-javier-martinez-ruiz",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martinez Ruiz"},{id:"211745",title:"Dr.",name:"Idalia",surname:"Garza-Veloz",slug:"idalia-garza-veloz",fullName:"Idalia Garza-Veloz"},{id:"211746",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita de la Luz",surname:"Martinez-Fierro",slug:"margarita-de-la-luz-martinez-fierro",fullName:"Margarita de la Luz Martinez-Fierro"}],corrections:null},{id:"55825",title:"Initial clinical evaluation of observer performance using a tablet computer with a 4K high-resolution display for detection of breast cancer by digital mammography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69074",slug:"initial-clinical-evaluation-of-observer-performance-using-a-tablet-computer-with-a-4k-high-resolutio",totalDownloads:1209,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Purpose:To compare observer performance using medical‐purpose 5‐megapixel liquid crystal display monitors (5‐MP LCDs) and a tablet PC with a 4K high‐resolution display for detection of breast cancer by digital mammography. Materials and methods: Mammograms from 40 patients with primary breast cancer (18 mass, 16 microcalcifications, 3 artificial distortions, and 3 focal asymmetries) and 60 control patients were consecutively collected. Four experienced radiologists assessed 100 mammograms to rate using the BI‐RADS lexicon. The BI‐RADS assessments were subjected to receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Also, the observers assessed the image quality in terms of brightness, contrast, sharpness, and noise using 5‐step Likert scale. Results: The average under the curve (AUC) values for use of the 5‐MP LCDs and 4K monitors were 0.921 and 0.936; the difference between them was small and not significant. In terms of image quality, the 4K was rated better for brightness, contrast, and sharpness. Conclusion: Observer performance for detecting breast cancer on a 4K tablet PC with a high‐resolution display is similar to that using a 5‐MP LCD. This appears adequate for displaying mammograms of diagnostic quality and could be useful for patient consultations, clinical demonstrations, or educational and teaching purposes.",signatures:"Ryusuke Murakami, Nachiko Uchiyama, Hitomi Tani and Shinichiro\nKumita",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55825",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55825",authors:[{id:"82546",title:"Dr.",name:"Nachiko",surname:"Uchiyama",slug:"nachiko-uchiyama",fullName:"Nachiko Uchiyama"},{id:"200712",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryusuke",surname:"Murakami",slug:"ryusuke-murakami",fullName:"Ryusuke Murakami"},{id:"201368",title:"Dr.",name:"Hitomi",surname:"Tani",slug:"hitomi-tani",fullName:"Hitomi Tani"},{id:"201369",title:"Prof.",name:"Shinichiro",surname:"Kumita",slug:"shinichiro-kumita",fullName:"Shinichiro Kumita"}],corrections:null},{id:"55910",title:"Diagnostic System in Electrical Impedance Mammography: Background",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69195",slug:"diagnostic-system-in-electrical-impedance-mammography-background",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Electrical impedance mammography (EIM) belongs to nonlocal techniques of image creation. It is based on a number of data collection methods, including the cross-sectional approach, the back-projection method with the weight function applied horizontally and vertically, and the static image method. The analysis of data acquired by applying the above methods enabled to work out the EIM diagnostic system. It involves the following diagnostic categories: structural percentile limits and the mammary gland structure, age-related percentile limits and age-related electric conductivity, outlying values statistics and early diagnostics of breast cancer, D-statistics and distortion of the mammographic scheme in the presence of breast cancer, diagnostic table, and the assessment of the electrical impedance image.",signatures:"Alexander Karpov, Andrey Kolobanov and Marina Korotkova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55910",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55910",authors:[{id:"201936",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Karpov",slug:"alexander-karpov",fullName:"Alexander Karpov"},{id:"380898",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Kolobanov",slug:"andrey-kolobanov",fullName:"Andrey Kolobanov"},{id:"380899",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Korotkova",slug:"marina-korotkova",fullName:"Marina Korotkova"}],corrections:null},{id:"56836",title:"An Innovative Concept of 3D X-Ray Imaging Systems for Painless Breast Cancer Detection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70385",slug:"an-innovative-concept-of-3d-x-ray-imaging-systems-for-painless-breast-cancer-detection",totalDownloads:1193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer is a life-threatening disease and considered one of the most common forms of cancer among women worldwide. Early and accurate detection with mass screening programmes helps improve a woman’s chances for successful treatment. The current and the most effective technique used for screening and diagnosis of breast cancer is the X-ray mammography. The photon transport detection of such technique is mostly based on a forward scattering mechanism as well as makes use of attenuation and penetration coefficients. The painful compression and the double X-ray exposure of both patients’ breasts carried out during the imaging process remain unavoidable. In addition, the conventional 2D mammography has two major limitations: sensitivity in detecting breast cancers (~ <80%) and the high recall rate (~10%). It suffers from certain limitations, most important of which is tissue overlap and false diagnoses arising thereof. To overcome this and as an alternative, a new 3D imaging method for breast cancer screening and diagnosis, namely, tomosynthesis, has recently been used. In such method, a limited number of low-dose 2D projection images of a patient are used to reconstruct the 3D tissue information. Tomosynthesis systems incorporate an X-ray source that moves over a certain angle to acquire images. This tube motion is a major limitation because it degrades image quality, increases the scan time and causes prolonged patient discomfort. Therefore, the goal of this work was to overcome all of the above limitations by developing an innovative proof of concept for painless 3D X-ray mammography to be hopefully used as a screening and as diagnostic methods for breast cancer detection by utilizing the scattered X-ray photon information. Most imaging modalities required a wide spectrum of capabilities, which span biomedical sciences, physical sciences and clinical medicine; thus, the ongoing methodology aims to establish a collaborative cross-disciplinary research engaging together with scientists in universities and clinicians in hospitals. Consequently, we hope that this work provides the potential to score some successes in clinical imaging science. In order to do this and since it is generally not possible or feasible to use real components to build and optimize a system repeatedly, a Monte Carlo simulation was used. The first phase focused on realistic computer simulation of the proposed imaging system to find the optimum setup as well as to aid in the analysis of the effect of various factors on the system performance. Thus, the main focus was on 3D mammography imaging simulation setup. Five main steps have been carefully checked and successfully produced: (a) the production of X-ray radiation or source after careful and detailed physics check. This includes the interaction between the X-ray photons and the object (the 3D breast phantom) that is used on scan as well as the detector system and its associated electronics modelled. (b) Next is the realistic modelling of anthropomorphic breast phantoms to check if the effectiveness of prediction of the simulation is successfully achieved. A computer simulation model is developed to estimate the radiation dose to the breast that would be incurred using mammography. 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In the last decade, different approaches have been used to mitigate soil contamination, however, many factors can affect the success of any remediation method including soil heterogeneity and the contaminant type. Researches and environmental engineers believe that there is no single remediation method that is suitable for every contaminated site; rather, an effective remediation program may involve the collective implementation of two or more methods [1]. Bioremediation is one of the most cost-effective remediation methods for contaminated soils [2]. Various bioremediation techniques have been used, with different degrees of success, to degrade pollutants at contaminated sites. Bioremediation types include biopile technique, landfarming approach, phytoremediation method, bioslurry, and bioventing.
\nBioremediation employs microorganisms that have the ability to metabolize organic compounds including contaminants as food source in the soil. The traditional way to remediate contaminated sites typically depend on the type of soil and invariably involves “in situ” techniques like landfarming with occasional plowing or “ex situ” techniques such as windrows and biopile systems. In the former technique, the remediation process more or less relies on natural attenuation with minimal human input while in the latter cases, a great deal of human input and engineering is required to boost natural attenuation and accelerate remediation with minimal VOC emissions in the case of biopile systems. The literature covers a wide spectrum of approaches to soil remediation studies depending upon the discipline of the researchers: the treatment evaluation can be based on simple soil analysis for TPH, TOC (bulk parameters), or more sophisticated involving measurement of soil respiration rates and detailed chemical analysis of residual hydrocarbons in addition to the traditional bulk parameters. Indeed, recent studies indicate that relying on bulk parameters for the evaluation of the treatment process may still lead to highly hazardous residual petroleum hydrocarbon components [2, 3].
\nThe success of a bioremediation process at specific site is mainly depend on the type of soil at the contaminated site, impermeable soil can exchange very little amount of oxygen and nutrients with the surrounding environment, therefore results on very slow remediation process. Microbiology area of research including microbial genomics, enzyme secretion, metabolism, and catalyst can be used to advance the knowledge in electrokinetic bioremediation. Bioremediation field applications are faced by obstacles such as the delivering of oxygen and nutrients to indigenous bacteria, particularly in soils with low hydraulic conductivity.
\nElectrokinetic remediation can be defined as the application of a low level direct current (DC) between a row of positively charged electrodes (anode) and negatively charged electrodes (cathode) placed at the edges of the soil under treatment [4]. The electric field incites three transport mechanisms, namely electroosmosis, electromigration, and electrophoresis, plus an electrolysis reaction at the electrodes. Electroosmotic flow is defined as the movement of water in the soil pores from anode to cathode under an applied electrical field. Electroosmotic flow (flow rate,
where
Electromigration is the transport of ions in the pores fluid toward the oppositely charged electrode. The migrational flux
where effective ion mobility,
where
Electrophoresis is the movement of charged colloids under an applied electrical field. Electrolysis reactions produce hydrogen ions at the anode and hydroxyl ions at the cathode [5]. The hydrogen ions lower the soil pH near the anode and form an acid front, while the hydroxyl ions increase the pH at the cathode vicinity generating a base front. The acid front travels from the anode to the cathode, whereas the base front moves from the cathode to the anode.
\nOxidation reaction at the anode:
\nReduction reaction at the cathode:
\nElectrokinetic remediation is a timely technology that can significantly enhance nutrients delivery to indigenous bacteria, thereby providing a tremendous potential for cleaning contaminated soils including fine-grained soils, which are usually difficult to cleanup using conventional methods [6, 7, 8]. Many studies have investigated the use of electrokinetics to improve the outcome of bioremediation [3]. The combination of electrochemical technology with bioremediation may promote the removal of metal ions that are often inhibitory to bacterial activity, thereby enabling complete remediation of the soil [9]. Unlike pressure-driven flows in which channeling of the fluid through the largest pores is inevitable, electrokinetics permits a more uniform flow distribution and a high degree of control over the direction of the flow [10, 11]. Transport phenomena associated with electrokinetics can be utilized to effectively deliver nutrients to indigenous bacteria in the soils, and to enhance bioavailability (electroosmotic flow can enhance desorption).
\nFigure 1 shows the conceptual model where upon a release of petroleum hydrocarbon part of the contaminant evaporates and part moves through soil to contaminate subsurface. Depending on the site environmental conditions, indigenous microorganisms start to adapt and degrade contaminant. In most cases, the biodegradation rate is slow. Electrokinetics can be used to enhance the degradation rate by using the transport mechanisms associated with electrokinetics to deliver nutrients and/or to introduce new bacteria if the indigenous microorganisms are not capable of degrading the contaminant. However, the development of an acidic medium near the anode and an alkaline environment near the cathode by electrolysis reactions can create unfavorable condition for bacteria [7, 12, 13].
\nConceptual model (after [
It is known that the application of the electric current during electrokinetic bioremediation increases the contaminated soil’s temperature to high level which has an adverse effect on the survival of the indigenous bacteria. A recent study showed that the cost of electric power need for electrokinetic is a major part on the overall cost of electrokinetic remediation process. On the other hand, electricity power line may not be available in remotely located contaminated sites. Therefore, the energy consumption can increase the cost of the bioremediation process and result in restricting wide field applications of the electrokinetic bioremediation. Application of electrokinetic bioremediation can be divided into two main aspects:
Microorganism-related factors, mainly how the environment at contaminated site can affect the degradation process.
Electrokinetic processes; the phenomena associated with electrokinetic such as electrolysis reactions and the effect of other factors including the application of electric current, pH, soil temperature, and the availability alternatives concerning power source. In the following sections, each of the above-mentioned categories will be discussed.
The environment conditions at contaminated site directly affect electrokinetic bioremediation process through supporting the existence of microorganisms, or enhancing bacterial viability and persistence in contaminated soil. The subsurface conditions and the characteristics of indigenous bacteria are the main factors affecting electrokinetic bioremediation process. Several factors can contribute to persistence of bacteria in the soil environment including pH, nutrients, electron acceptors, osmotic stress, and temperature [14, 15]. In addition to soil environment, the characteristics of the indigenous bacteria play a significant role in their existence, for example, some bacteria form biofilms which protects themselves from external stresses [16, 17]. Another mechanism for bacteria to survive is to produce spores [18]. In the event of severe weather and nutrient deprivation, bacteria will die eventually producing endospores which have a very hard shell that protects them [19]. Typically, under extremely poor living conditions, endospores are in a state of dormancy (sleeping condition); once the environmental conditions improve, the spore will germinate and outgrow [20]. The following techniques can be used to enhance bioremediation:
Genetic engineering can be used to enhance the outcome of bioremediation through changing or rewiring of microorganism metabolic pathways so as to enhance the ability of bacteria in degrading the targeted contaminant [21, 22]. Also, modifying bacterial genes and regulatory networks to make them tougher to survive and tolerate high contaminant concentration in soils [23].
Enhancing bioremediation using a commercially available enzyme which is currently very expensive, but the expected reduction in enzyme prices as the technology continues to improve can significantly reduce the initial cost [24, 25]. Previous studies showed that the use of enzyme in bioremediation is not feasible because of the existence of heavy metals and other compounds which can denature the enzymes. It was concluded that the use of enzyme in bioremediation is not recommended because the enzyme will be denature under the field conditions and will not last long. An alternative way would be the use of microbial genetics to clone/overexpress and introduce exogenous gene/gene clusters using as a host bacterial cell that will produce the required enzyme. The other challenge will be the delivery of the enzyme expressed in bacteria to the contaminated zone in order to degrade the pollutant [26]. A recent study showed that the use of genetically modified bacterial secretion system can enhance the bioremediation [27].
Exploring metagenomics to enhance electrokinetic bioremediation [28]. It is known that only 5% of the microorganisms in nature are culturable in the laboratories and can be studied. Microorganisms in nature can produce enzymes that are capable of degrading contaminants. The total genomic DNA can be collected from contaminated soil, then using the available technologies to slice the DNA into pieces, and clone it into a vector to in order to form a library called 3D metagenomics DNA library. This library can be augmented into a selected bacterium that can be used to degrade contaminates providing that this library contains specific genes that can produce enzyme needed for the degradation process [29].
Characterizing the bacterial metabolism. It is very important to study the bacteria well before using the bacteria in the bioremediation process. In the contaminant degradation, knowing the degradation pathways are essential because some bacteria can produce secondary by-products/metabolites that are not in favor of the process. The knowledge of bacterial metabolism and the degradation pathways well can use to enhance the degradation by change/rewire bacterial metabolism to make them produce less/nontoxic products. More research is required in this area using the advancement in genetic engineering to eliminate/reduce the harmful by-products. Bacteria consortia at environmental sites communicate and coordinate behaviors and functionalities at community level using chemicals such as acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs), which is also described as bacterial quorum sensing (QS). In nature, QS may help bacteria for better and enhanced bioremediation. However, very few studies have investigated the role of QS in bioremediation [30, 31, 32].
In bioremediation, there are three techniques that can be used at contaminated sites: (a) natural bioattenuation in which the pollutant is degraded by bacteria to nontoxic product, the process involve minimal to no human intervention; (b) biostimulation is defined as the introduction of supplements including nutrients, water, electron acceptors/donors to enhance the degradation process; and (c) bioaugmentation, which involves the use of large numbers of the bacterial strains that are capable of degrading the contaminant [33]. The following sections present the application of electrokinetics in biostimulation and bioaugmentation.
\nIn bioremediation, bacteria is employed to degrade contaminants into nontoxic products, the success of the degradation process is mainly dependent on the growth and reproduction of bacteria. The growth and metabolisms of microorganisms are affected by the available amount of nutrients, electron acceptors/donors, and oxygen. Electroosmotic can be used to deliver nutrients and oxygen to indigenous bacteria in the contaminated zone. Moreover, electrokinetics can increase the opportunities of contact between bacteria and contaminants therefore, enhancing bioavailability. Previous studies discussed the use of electrokinetics in delivering nutrients are presented in Table 1. In a previous study, electrokinetics was used to deliver nutrients to contaminated zone under controlled pH conditions [34]. In this study, polarity exchange technique was used to control the soil pH. The result showed that high amount of contaminant was degraded under controlled pH conditions. Nitrate and ammonium were delivered to contaminated zone under uncontrolled pH conditions. The results showed that nitrate can be delivered successfully/precisely to the contaminated area near the anode while low amount of ammonium was transported to the cathode. More importantly, it has been observed that the nutrients were distributed evenly in the soil under controlled pH using the exchange polarity technique [35]. The results from electrokinetic bioremediation studies have shown that electrokinetics is successful in delivering nutrients to indigenous bacteria. However, excessive amounts of nutrients in soil exploit the growth and increase the intensity of microorganisms and consequently result in clogging the soil pores causing biofouling [34]. Therefore, it is important to study and carefully plan for the addition of nutrients. A recent study explored the possibility of providing oxygen to polluted soils by electrokinetics for aerobic bioremediation treatments of the soils. Oxygen ions, produced from the electrolysis reaction at the anode, are dissolved in water and transported by electroosmotic flow (see Eq. (1)). Due to the high porosity of the silty and sandy soils, the oxygen ions were transported inside the soil. It was observed that the dissolved oxygen concentrations were high (between 4 and 9 mg/L) in the contaminated zone. The presence of oxygen ions is essential for aerobic biodegradation processes. On the other hand, the transport was not possible in the clay soil.
\nSoil | Voltage/current | Nutrient concentration | Highlights/main outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clay loam | 1 V/cm | 2 g/L NH4NO3 2 g/L KH2PO4 | Nitrate transport rate 19 cm/d/v Phosphate results is not presented | [35] |
Coarse sand | 0.25 V/cm | 1 g/L NaNO3 | Nitrate transported 0.6 cm/h | [41] |
Clayey silt | 0.5 V/cm | 2 g/L NH4NO3 5 g/L KH2PO4 | Nitrate transport rate 5 cm/d/v Phosphate was not transported | [42] |
Lean clay | 0.85 V/cm | 3.2 g/L NH4OH 0.48 H2SO4 | 400 mg/kg NH4OH 200 mg/kg H2SO4 | [34] |
Fine sand | 15 μA/cm2 | Nitrate transported 250 mg/L | [1] | |
Kaolinite | 123 μA/cm2 | Nitrate transported 250 mg/L | [1] |
Electrokinetic injections of nutrients.
Bioaugmentation can be defined as the use of microorganisms which are capable of degrading contamination at specific site. There are two types of bioaugmentation: the first scenario is to the increase the number of bacteria at contaminated site by introducing high number of colony forming units. In this case, the indigenous bacteria is capable of degrading the contaminant, however, the intensity of bacteria is low. In the second scenario, bacterial strain with superior capabilities is introduced to the contaminated site to enhance the degradation process because the indigenous bacterium is not capable of degrading the contaminant. Electroosmotic flow can be used to transport microorganism through contaminated soil to the contaminated zone [11]. For instance, the transport of bacteria in clay and sand by electroosmotic flow and electrophoresis was investigated. The results showed that 20% of bacteria were transported by electrophoresis. A more recent study showed that microorganisms can be transported by electrokinetics in sand via electrophoresis and the microorganisms remained active and viable after the transport process [36]. Another study showed that by adding bacteria in the anode and cathode compartment, bacteria was transported via electroosmotic flow in clay soil. However, in general, bioaugmentation studies have not been successful. The lack of success has been attributed to the formation of antibiotics by indigenous bacteria, predation and adaptability of new bacteria to the contaminated soil. For instance, Pseudomonas sp. LB400 bacteria were found to be capable of degrading 4-chlorobiphenyl in sterilized soil, but a decrease in their viability was observed when non-sterilized soil was used. In many cases, there is a need for the use of more than one bacterial strain to be able to degrade contamination at specific contaminated site. Microbial consortia can degrade contamination with high efficiency, however, bacteria tend to compete with one another. There an urgent need for a new technique that can minimize/eliminate the competition between the bacterial strains. In electrokinetic bioremediation, the application of electric current disrupts bacteria membrane by changing the orientation of membrane lipids. High current can be used to deactivate/kill bacterial strains that have negative impact in the degradation process. Application of high voltages in the range of 25 kV cm−1 per 40 μs pulse duration can kill bacteria. The effect of direct current application on different strains of bacteria in liquid and slurries has been investigated. Further research in this area is required to explore the use of electrokinetics as tool to kill the unfavorable bacteria.
\nEnzymes can be used in bioremediation, instead of microorganism, to avoid the competition between the bacterial strains in the microbial consortia. The new technologies can be used to produce enzymes with high quality and increase the shelf time for the enzymes. Enzymes are simple to use in the bioremediation process and there is no unfavorable produce when using enzymes in the remediation process. The only down side of using enzyme is the high cost associated with the use of enzyme. The delivery of enzymes using electroosmotic flow has not yet been investigated.
\nApplication of electric field in electrokinetic remediation results in electrolysis reactions at the electrodes, electroosmotic flow from anode to cathode, electromigration of ions to the oppositely charged electrode, and electrophoresis. Aforementioned processes can change the physiochemical properties of the soil and subsurface conditions at the contaminated site. Electrolysis reaction results in acidic conditions near the anode and basic environment near the cathode. Application of electric current develops voltage gradients and forms zones with different current intensity. Soil temperature increases due to application of electric current. Contaminants attached to the soil matrix can be desorbed by the effect of electroosmotic flow and contribute to the bioavailability.
\nIn electrokinetic processes, application of electric current results in occurrence of electrolysis reactions of water (redox) at the electrodes. Oxidation occurs at the positively charged electrode generating hydrogen ions and liberates oxygen gas. Reduction takes at the negatively charged electrode producing hydroxyl ions and hydrogen gas. The hydrogen ions (i.e. H+) form an acid front that travels toward the cathode by the effect of three mechanisms including: electroosmotic flow, diffusion, and electromigration. The acid front reduces the pH of the soil creating acidic environment. The hydroxide ions form a base front that travels toward the anode by electromigration and diffusion and elevate the pH of the soil in the vicinity of the cathode. The base front is slower than the acid front because the base front moves in a direction that is against the electroosmotic flow and the hydroxyl ions (OH) are heavier in weight than hydrogen ions (H+). Therefore the acid front and base front meets at a point closer to the cathode. The acidic environment near the anode and alkaline conditions at the vicinity of the cathode play a very important role in the electrokinetic processes. For example, the low pH conditions increase desorption of heavy metals from contaminated site. High and low pH environments have a crucial effect on the survival of bacteria at contaminated site. Heavy metals are soluble at low pH < 6 and precipitate at a pH > 7. In electrokinetic remediation, the soil pH is in around 2–3.5 near the anode and between 8 and 11 at the cathode. For instance, cobalt and copper are tend to dissolve into solutions at pH around 4.5–6.5, and form insoluble hydroxides at pH greater than 7.5. The low pH near the anode contributes positively to the dissolution of heavy metals and enhances the removal process. On the other hand, high pH increases the precipitation of heavy metals in the vicinity of the cathode, and decreases the efficiency of the technique in removing contaminants. In electrokinetic bioremediation, the soil pH plays a dominant role in the success of the process. Bacterial survival and optimum degradation efficiency are directly related to the pH conditions. Bacteria can survive at a pH between 6 and 8. Some bacterial strains can tolerate very high and very low pH values. Bacteria have the capability of controlling the exchange of hydrogen ions through the cell wall to adapt the intracellular pH. However, is has been found that the high pH gradient across cell membrane has a detrimental effect on the growth and metabolism of bacteria.
\nResearches and engineers have developed many techniques to control pH during electrokinetic remediation; these techniques can be divided into two approaches including conventional and innovative techniques. The conventional techniques include the ion selective membrane technique in which a cation-exchange membrane is introduced to cease the movement of the hydroxide ions from the cathode to the soil as shown in Figure 2; continuous changing/removing of the solution in the electrode compartments; and addition of chemical compounds such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic (EDTA), acetic acid, and nitric acid. On the other hand, innovative techniques include a stepwise moving anode, polarity exchange, circulation of an electrolyte (anolyte and catholyte) solution in the electrode compartments (see Figure 3), and the two anodes technique (TAT) (see Figure 4) which have investigated the control of the advancement of the acid and the base fronts [37]. There are many factors that can affect the soil pH including the soil type and the soil buffer capacity. The soil puffer capacity is directly influenced by the presence of anions, carbonates, hydrocarbonates, hydroxides, borates, phosphates, silicates, and organic acids anions. These factors should be taken into consideration before selecting the suitable technique to control the soil pH.
\nElectrokinetic remediation with ion selective membrane (after [
Electrokinetic remediation cell with electrolyte solution circulation technique (after [
Two anode technique (TAT) (after [
Many researchers have investigated the effect of pH on electrokinetic bioremediation using conventional methods. For instance, the use of electrokinetic bioremediation to mitigate creosote-polluted clay soil was investigated. In this study, the soil pH was controlled by continuous substitution of the solutions used at the water compartments. The downside of using this technique is the amount of work involved in the process (removing/changing the solution) and the cost of the process plus this technique is not suitable for field applications. Moreover, in this technique it is required to treat the electrode solution (removed from the electrode compartment) before disposing it. The technique that involves the use of chemical compound is not recommended due to the possibility of generation of chemical reaction that has a negative impact in the remediation process. The addition of acids, such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, to reduce the pH near the cathode can result in acidic condition, which it is extremity difficult (if not impossible) to reverse it is effect to the original condition [37]. The innovative techniques, that are available to control pH at contaminated sites, are expensive and in some cases are not applicable in field applications. For example, the step moving anode technique required labor work and involve the mobilization of the anode along the distance between the electrodes. Also, this technique is not suitable for electrokinetic bioremediation as it results in lowering the soil pH and that is not in the favor of the process. This technique is suitable for desorption and mobilization of heavy metals as the moving electrode (anode) generate hydrogen ions which result in lowering the soil pH (pH ≤ 4.5). The low pH environment is suitable for desorption of heavy metals from soil, while it affects bacterial survival in bioremediation processes.
\nIn electrokinetic bioremediation, the low pH condition has adverse effect on indigenous bacteria. The measurement of pH during the polarity exchange technique is crucial for the success of the process. In a research study of phenol-contaminated soil, the polarity reversal technique was used to control the soil pH and water content. This technique can be suitable for electrokinetic bioremediation; however, continuous pH monitoring is required which is challenging and increases the overall cost of the process. In another research study, Kim et al. [34], developed and used a technique involves the circulation of electrolyte solution between the electrode compartments during the process as illustrated in Figure 2. This circulation of electrolyte solution can be used to control the pH during electrokinetic bioremediation; however, the issue will be the running cost and the need for maintenance in the field. The circulation of electrolyte solutions can be a challenging and very difficult for implementation in the field application. In electrokinetic bioremediation applications, the control of field conditions, especially pH, is very important for the survival of indigenous bacteria and contributes positively to the success of the process. Many techniques have been developed and implement to control pH during electrokinetics application. However, more research is required to enhance the outcome of the existing techniques. Also, there is a need for development of new techniques to control the pH during electrokinetic bioremediation application.
\nRecently, the authors of this chapter have investigated an innovative technique that can be used not only to stabilize pH but also to distribute nutrients uniformly inside the contaminated soil during electrokinetic bioremediation [37]. In the innovative technique, two electrodes are placed in each water compartment one serves as an anode and the other as a cathode to form two electric circuits that connected to a power supply. At each compartment, the anode will produce hydrogen ions and the cathode will produce hydroxyl ions, the coexistence of these ions in the same compartment will result in neutralizing each other. As shown in Eqs. (4) and (5), the innovative configuration is supposed to forms the same numbers of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions with all the ions reacting to form water. The innovative technique provides solutions for challenges facing other techniques; there is no need for continuous pumping or addition of chemical compounds.
\nDuring electrokinetic bioremediation, microorganisms at contaminated site are subject to stress due to application of electric current. The electric current has direct and/or indirect effects on indigenous microorganisms. For instance, application of high voltage can cause a rupture in the cell membrane. Also, application of electric current can be a companied with chemical reactions that produce by-products which are harmful to the microorganisms. In the food industry, the electric current is used for disinfection purposes (killing bacteria). Studies showed that, the use of DC current causes the death/inactivation of living organisms. Over the last decade, researchers have investigated the influence of electric current on electrokinetic bioremediation treatment.
\nMicroorganisms survival and transport during, electrokinetic remediation, is greatly affected by the application of electric current. Table 2 presents data from previous studies that investigated the effect of electrical current on the indigenous bacteria. In a research study, the effect of electric current on the intensity of indigenous bacteria was investigated. It was concluded that the application of electric current is harmful on the microbial community with low cell densities; however, the electric current was minimal in microbial communities with high cell densities. Recent study, showed that the optimum degradation of an organic compounds (pentadecane in kaolinite soil) that the optimum pollutant removal was achieved using an intermediate electric current density occurs when using electric current intensity of 0.63 mA/cm2 compared with the higher and lower current densities of 3.13 and 1.88 mA/cm2, respectively. Another study showed that selecting electric current intensity is essential not only in obtaining optimum degradation but also in retaining the indigenous microorganisms. This study showed that 37% of total petroleum hydrocarbons were degraded in the vicinity of the anode with an optimum electric field of 2 V/cm.
\nMedium | Current intensity or voltage gradient used | Highlights/main outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Liquid | 20 mA/cm2 | High cell density survive | [43] |
Soil (kaolinite) | 0.31, 0.63, 1.88, 3.13 mA/cm2 | Optimum current 0.63 mA/cm2 | [43] |
Liquid | 0.04, 4, 8, 12, 14 mA/cm2 | Optimum electric field density 100 kJ/L | [41] |
Liquid | 10.2 mA/cm2 | No effect on cell activity | [43] |
Glass beads | 1.8 mA/cm2 | Low level DC has no effect of cell viability | [43] |
Clay and silt | 0.314 mA/cm2 | pH changes near the anode is major factor affecting the microbial communities | [8] |
Soil | 1.0 mA/cm2 | No negative effect on indigenes bacteria | [43] |
Hide-soak liquors | 2 A | Deactivated bacteria | [3] |
Activated sludge | 0.5–1.5 mA/cm2 | pH or direct contact caused bacterial inhibition | [43] |
Fine-grained soil | 2 V/cm | The population of bacteria increased near the cathode | [43] |
Sandy loam | 0.46 V/cm | Rate of transport is 0.11 cm/h Microorganisms are active after the transport process | [3] |
Tap water | 0.28–1.4 V/cm | Optimum voltage intensity is between 0.28 and 1.4 V/cm | [8] |
Effects of electrical current.
Previous studies showed that the use of electroosmotic and electromigration (electric field) to transport microorganisms did not reduce the capability of microorganism in degrading organic matter [36]. Very few studies investigated the effect of the electrode materials on the electrokinetic bioremediation. For instance, the results of an experimental study showed that indigenous microbial community is adversely affected by the products of the electrochemical reactions between the electrode material and the soil medium. The chemical reactions between the electrode material and the soil medium depend on many factors and it is very difficult to predict the by-products. It has been observed that not only the electric current intensity affects the microbial survival, but more importantly the combined effect of applied current intensity and duration is the crucial factor affecting living organisms. The use of steel, copper, and carbon as electrodes with different combination (anode-cathode) in electrokinetic remediation was investigated. The results showed that the efficiency of the remediation process is significantly affected by the selection of the electrode material and which material to be used in the anode and in the cathode. More research is needed in this area to investigate the effect of electrode materials in electrokinetic bioremediation.
\nIt is known that microorganisms can survive in various environmental conditions including a wide range of temperature. For instance, thermophile can tolerate temperature between 45 and 120°C, mesophile can live in temperature between 20 and 45°C, and psychrophile survive at low temperatures between −20 and 10°C. In general, microorganisms’ growth rate is directly proportional to the temperature between 25 and 34°C, also the increase in temperature results in increase of metabolism and the highest degradation occurs at temperature between 27 and 42°C. The increase in temperature during electrokinetic processes is reported in the available literature. For example, a recent study showed that application of electric current resulted in an increase in the soil temperature between 5 and 20°C, the maximum increase was observed in the vicinity of the anode. Another study showed that the temperature increased up to 90°C during field application and intermittent current was used to interrupt the electric current so as to reduce the temperature. Although, the increase in temperature during electrokinetic remediation is known and well documented, yet, very few reports in the current literature discussed the effect of temperature on electrokinetic bioremediation. Researchers tend to attribute the increase in biodegradation to nutrient delivery by electrokinetic and over looked other factors that contribute positively to the process (i.e. temperature). In the current literature there are very few reports that studied the implication temperature in the electrokinetic bioremediation. In a previous study, electrokinetic was used to deliver nutrients and oxygen to microorganisms in the contaminated zone. It was concluded that the increase in soil temperature, resulted from application of electric current, enhanced the degradation process. The continuous application of electric current using high applied voltage for long period of time can increase the temperature inside the soil being treated. No doubt, the elevated temperature has a negative impact on the viability of indigenous bacteria. Intermittent current can be used to eliminate the effect of continuous current in increasing the soil temperature. The use of current intermittence can control the increase in temperature, and also can contribute positively to the outcome of the remediation process.
\nBioavailability can be measured by the amount of colony forming unit (CFU) of bacterial strains that capable of degrading the contaminants, the CFU must be available in soil liquid (pore fluid) at a given time. Bioavailability is also can be defined as the portion of contaminants that is available (ready) to be consumed by microorganisms without the need for desorption process (Table 3). When the contaminant come in contact with the soil, sorption of the pollutants by the soil will take place and the sorption rate is depending on environmental conditions including pH, temperature, etc. After sorption took place, the bioavailability of the contaminant will mainly be dependent on the back-diffusion process. Therefore, back-diffusion plays a dominant role in controlling the bioavailability of contaminants. The main two schools of thought concerning bioavailability are: (1) bacteria can degrade a contaminant regardless to the sorption and desorption process, even if it is attached to the soil matrix; (2) desorption of contaminants from soil is a prerequisite for the degradation process to occur (desorption of pollutants should take place first before microorganisms can degrade it). In electrokinetic remediation, electroosmotic flow creates flow net to the soil solids (within the double layer) therefore, electroosmotic flow can promote desorption of contaminants from soil matrix. In a previous study, the authors have compared the efficacy of electroosmotic flow and hydraulic flow in promoting desorption of phenanthrene from clay soil [38]. The results showed that the concentration of phenanthrene in the effluents from the test conducted using electroosmotic flow are three to four times higher than the concentration in desorption test using hydraulic flow. Also, it was found that the energy consumed during the hydraulic flow tests was three orders of magnitude higher than the energy used during the electroosmotic flow tests.
\nMedium | Contaminant | Contaminant concentration (mg/kg) | Highlights/Main outcome | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fine soil (from a contaminated site) | Petroleum hydrocarbon | 78,600 | 37% reduction | [43] |
Sand | Diesel | 6800 | 60% reduction | [35] |
Clayey soil | Phenanthrene | 200 | 65% removal | [35] |
Coarse sand/sand | Creosote | 50, 200, 500, 900, 6800 | 50, 68, 80% reduction | [8] |
Sandy loam | Phenol | 180 | 58% reduction | [8] |
Clay | Creosote | 1300 | 35% reduction | [43] |
Kaolinite | Pentadecane | 1000, 5000, 10,000, 20,000 | 77.6% reduction | [34] |
Laboratory tests using different contaminants.
Electrokinetic remediation requires electric power to apply voltage gradient between the electrodes, the energy consumption is consider as the factor number one that contribute to the total cost of the process. Therefore, the increase in energy cost results in an increase of the overall cost of the remediation process. No doubt the cost is one of the major factors affecting the selection of suitable remediation technique, thus high cost of a remediation process can be a major obstacle restricting wide field applications of this technology. Previous studies showed that the cost of energy represents 30% of the total cost of an electrokinetic remediation process; however, very few studies have discussed an alternative economical source of power that can reduce the cost of energy. Power generated by solar panels is renewable energy and has no negative impact on the environment.
\nRecently, the environmental awareness increases and the solar energy has become the center for the interest of scientists and the public as environmentally friendly source of power. Recent report from Solar Buzz showed that more than 70% of the photovoltaic (PV) resources have been installed in northern hemisphere including countries such as Germany, Japan, USA, and Canada. Previous studies showed that the efficiency of the solar panel increased during the winter because of the cold weather. Although, power generated by solar panels can be an excellent candidate for power supply in electrokinetics, yet there are very few reports that have investigated the use of solar power as a source of power in electrokinetic bioremediation. The effect the off power period, during the night, on the remediation process is not presented in the literature. Some of the advantages of using solar panels to generate power for electrokinetic remediation are the elimination of the cost of electricity transmission and the reduction of power losses in the transmission lines. Solar panels produce direct current (DC) field that can be used in electrokinetic remediation without the need for a transformer. In the near future, it is expected that the solar cell prices will decrease and as the technology continues to improve that can significantly increase the efficiency of the solar panels. The power generated by solar panel fluctuates during the day (starts from zero before sun rise and increases until noon time and decreases to zero by the sun set) and it is directly dependent the weather conditions (sunny, cloudy, rainy, etc.). This can cause disruption in the power supply during the day and intervals of zero voltage at night, especially in the northern latitudes with little day light during winter.
\nThe application electric field during electrokinetic remediation results in ions orientation in the pore fluid that resists electric current. The ions orientation reduce the efficiency of the remediation process, however, the interruption of the electric field allows the restoration of original ions orientation, which can enhance the remediation process. The non-stabilized electric current generated by solar panels can stimulate the remediation process by the effect of restoration of ions orientation as explained earlier. Many studies have proven that the use of current intermittence can enhanced the outcome of an electrokinetic remediation. In a previous study, the authors have investigated the use of solar panels to generate power for the electrokinetic remediation to remediate soil contaminated with copper [39]. Three solar panels were used to generate electric field across the contaminated soil 41, 27 and 13.5 V. The results showed that the power generated by the solar panels was enough for mitigation of soil contaminated with heavy metals. In recent work, the authors used solar panels to generate power for the electrokinetic bioremediation to mitigate clay soil contaminated with phenanthrene. The results showed that solar panels can be used successfully to produce enough power for electrokinetic bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbons. Moreover, the intervals of zero voltage at night can decrease soil temperature in field applications, which is a benefit.
\nPollutants are released to the environment from anthropogenic activities and natural weathering processes. Human activities such as mining, industrial, and agricultural activities typically lead to contamination of soils by heavy metals and organic pollutants. Some heavy metals and PAH compounds have been identified as mutagenic, carcinogenic, and/or teratogenic contaminants.
\nPhytoremediation is a green and sustainable process in which plant species are used to remove, degrade, or sequester pollutants from soil or groundwater. Phytoremediation has been shown to be efficient and economically feasible for the treatment of large areas with low contaminant concentrations as compared to other remediation treatments. Both organic and inorganic contaminants can be removed or degraded by the growing plants by several mechanisms, namely; phytodegradation, rhizofiltration, phytoaccumulation, rhizodegradation, and phytostabilization. Phytodegradation is the breakdown of the absorbed organic chemicals by plant metabolic processes or by compounds produced by the plant. Phytodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons was achieved in a soil that was also contaminated with heavy metals. Rhizofiltration is the removal of contaminants such as heavy metals and radionuclides in the soil by the root membranes [40]. Phytoaccumulation is the incorporation of inorganic chemicals such as heavy metals in plant tissues. Rhizodegradation is the degradation of organic contaminants near the root mass by bacteria and fungi stimulated by the root exudes and enzymes released by the plant. Recent study showed that phytoremediation with
In the decade, the combination of phytoremediation and electrokinetic remediation has been proposed in an attempt to avoid the limitations of phytoremediation. Electrokinetic-enhanced phytoremediation technology consists of the application of a low intensity electric field to the contaminated soil in the close vicinity of growing plants. In this hybrid technology, the removal or degradation of the contaminants is performed by the plant, whereas the electric field enhances the plant activity by increasing the bioavailability of the contaminants by desorption and transport of the contaminants. In recent research studies, electrokinetic phytoremediation technology with electric field applied between 8 and 24 h/day has shown promising results for the restoration of heavy metal contaminated soils. The use of electrokinetic-assisted phytoremediation for soils with hydrocarbon contaminants has not been reported in the literature.
\nElectrokinetic remediation has received more attention in recent years as a well-developed technique for in situ soil decontamination. The principles of electrokinetics have been recently explored to enhance bioremediation and phytoremediation treatment of contaminated sites. Electrokinetics requires low-level electric current which makes solar energy by lower end solar panels an excellent source of power for the technology. Solar energy is an innovative power alternative for electrokinetic-enhanced bioremediation/phytoremediation and can be economically viable, in particular for remote sites with no active power lines.
\nThe electrokinetic bioremediation is a promising technique that can be used to mitigate contamination with organic and inorganic compounds. The main challenges facing the application of electrokinetic are the process cost and the pH gradient. The application of electric current results in high energy consumption that increases the overall cost of the remediation process. This is considered one of the major factors restricting the field application of the technology. Very few studies in the current literature have addressed the cost of energy in electrokinetic bioremediation. Research to date has shown that electrokinetic bioremediation can be used to mitigate contaminated soil, however, the results showed a low to moderate percentage of contaminant degradation. Future research is needed to address the optimization and the removal efficiency of the electrokinetic bioremediation. Researchers and engineers address the pH issue using two different approaches conventional and innovative techniques. The conventional techniques involve the addition of chemical compounds to control the pH. The innovative techniques involve circulation/mixing of the electrolyte solution at the anode and cathode compartment to neutralize the pH. Both conventional and innovative techniques can result in a further increase in the overall cost of remediation process. Moreover, the effect of the increase in temperature associated with electrokinetic bioremediation has not been fully investigated.
\nThe recent advancement in biotechnology and bioengineering provides incredible opportunities for enhancing electrokinetic bioremediation and phytoremediation. The application of electrokinetic bioremediation/phytoremediation involves various microorganisms aspects including the challenges facing the microbes survival in contaminated sites; isolation and characterization of bacterial strains with superior degradation capabilities in bioremediation; the improvement of the metabolism of microorganisms through manipulation using genetic engineering; identifying powerful degrading enzymes using metagenomics; and exploring new engineering ways to enhance bioremediation.
\nIt is anticipated that, with intense research effort, the promising potential of the hybrid electrokinetic bioremediation/phytoremediation technology will encourage further research in order to optimize the efficiency and expedite the transfer of the technology for in situ applications. Carefully designed, simulated and monitored laboratory and field studies are necessary to explore the fundamental and practical aspects of the technology. It is important to simulate and test different electrode configurations and identify hyperaccumulator plants of heavy metals and PAH compounds. It is also necessary to understand the influence of electric field in the physiology of the plant and soil microflora as well as the geobiochemistry involved in the degradation of organics in the rhizosphere.
\nWhereas the genera of great apes are known to differ strongly among each other in their social structure, the small apes or gibbons clearly are a more uniform group [1, 2, 3]. Distributed in Asian rain forests, its members typically live in socially monogamous, unimale unifemale, territorial groups [4, 5], although some flexibility in group composition and sexual behavior occurs [6, 7, 8]. Non-monogamous (extra-pair) matings and groups with multiple adult males and multiple adult females occasionally occur in gibbons [7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
It has repeatedly been suggested, however, that gibbon taxa may differ in subtle details of their social organization [16]:
Wild family groups of Malayan siamangs (
Several reports suggest that the black-cheeked species of the crested gibbons (genus
Recent studies on gibbon calls documented that the various taxa strongly differ in how they present their long and loud morning song bouts [37, 38, 39, 40]. In some taxa, mated pairs produce duet song bouts but usually no solo songs (genera
Moreover, duets strongly differ in their complexity among taxa, with the most complex ones being uttered by siamangs (
Although the reports cited above suggest that some gibbon taxa may differ in social organization, very little quantitative evidence for such species-specific differences in the social structure are currently available. Previous comparisons have been limited to sample sizes of 2–3 pairs per genus [17, 19, 22, 23], thus precluding statistical testing. Palombit [3] correctly identified a great need for detailed data on more hylobatid pair bonds, so that we may identify consistent social patterns in light of intra-specific variation.
Early reviews on monogamy found shared behavioral traits in monogamous primates and suggested that the males generally initiate grooming and groom females more often than the reverse situation occurs [45]. In socially monogamous pairs, pair partners usually maintain close spatial association and often perform spectacular, well-coordinated, pair-specific display behavior. This does not necessarily imply, however, that the sexes share mutual socioreproductive interests [46]. Shared interests may be not be required for the evolution of social monogamy, and pair formation does not require an absence of sexual conflict, or symmetric costs and benefits for males and females.
Several of the hypotheses explaining the evolution and maintenance of social monogamy in mammals make predictions regarding female and male contributions to the pair bond [47].
According to the ‘resource-defense hypothesis’, both a male and a female benefit from pair bonding to defend resources together [48]. In this case, a male and a female should be equally interested in maintaining proximity and affiliation with a pair mate and defending their territory.
According to the ‘mate-defense hypothesis’, a male should bond with a female when either the spatial distribution of females or the temporal distribution of fertile periods makes it difficult for males to defend access to more than one female at a time [49]. In this case, a male should be more interested in maintaining proximity and affiliation with the partner.
According to the ‘male-services hypothesis’, a female benefits from bonding with a male when the male provides important services such as territorial or antipredator defense, infant care, or protection from infanticide by competing males [48, 50, 51, 52]. In this case, a female should to be more interested in maintaining proximity and affiliation with the partner while the male should provide some significant services.
The goal of our study was to answer the following two questions: (1) Do gibbon taxa differ in the strength of their pair bonds? (2) Do gibbon taxa differ in the way pair bonds are created and maintained?
We present the first comparative and quantitative study on differences of the pair bond among multiple gibbon taxa. We have collected observational data on several captive groups of siamangs (genus
Three of the gibbon species that were observed during this study. (a) Siamang (
In order to estimate pair bond strength, we quantified the following three generally-accepted indicators of pair bond strength (behavioral synchronization, relative distance between mates, and amount of partner directed grooming) following [44, 53].
In order to gain insight in the pair bonding mechanism, we examined which sex invests more in the pair bond by measuring the amount of grooming directed at the respective partner.
Although allogrooming
Our data collection methods have previously been described [44, 53]. Siamang (
Crested gibbon data were collected in the same way by S.R.-W. between August and October 2001. A total of seven crested gibbon groups (
Data for Pileated Gibbons (
In order to assure comparability of data collected by the observers M.O., S.R., J.v.d.L. and K.N., dual observations were carried out on 31 July 2001 and on 13 February 2007, respectively, until consistent values of inter-observer concordance were obtained [66].
At each zoo, observation time for each sampling method was distributed evenly across the animals’ activity period between 0700 and 1800 h (until 1700 h during the winter months, and between 0800 and 1800 h for crested gibbon groups Du, Eb, Mu, Os2).
We used focal animal sampling with the continuous recording rule [66, 67, 68, 69] to collect information on the frequency and duration of grooming behavior between mates. Focal animals were changed every 20 min. Each of 11 siamang pairs was observed for 80 h, except for pairs Mu (50 h) and Du (90 h), and each crested and pileated gibbon pair for 35 h. Grooming occurred in discrete sessions that could be counted. We allowed an interval of up to 10 seconds between bouts of grooming before we counted them as two sessions, rather than one.
We used scan sampling to record behavioral synchronization of activities between mates. We defined 11 behavioral categories: socio-positive behavior (including allogrooming, embracing) and infant care, play, agonistic, territorial, sexual, comfort-related, feeding and food-related behavior, observe, rest and sleep, excretion, and locomotion. Scans were made every 1 min (or every 2 min in siamang groups Dr1, Kr1, Kr2, St). Siamang pairs were scanned for synchronization of behavioral categories during blocks of 5 or 10 min, separated by intervals of 20 min. Crested and pileated gibbon pairs were scanned for synchronization in parallel to the focal animal observations of grooming behavior. Each of 13 siamangs pairs was observed for 20 h, except pairs Zu (15 h), Be and Fr (30 h), and Du (40 h). Each crested and pileated gibbon pair was observed for 35 h. The occurrence of synchronized behavior between pair-mates is expressed in % of the total number of scans for a given pair.
We also used scan sampling to record the distance between mates. Distances were recorded to an accuracy of 0.5 m. If the individuals were closer to each other than 0.5 m, we recorded distance according to the following definitions: 0.3 m: shortest distance without body contact, 0.2 m: body contact through extremities, 0 m: body contact through trunk. Siamang pairs were scanned during blocks of 10 min, separated by intervals of at least 10 min. During each scan sampling block, distance was recorded every 10 s. Crested and pileated gibbon pairs were scanned for the distance between mates every 1 min, and scans were carried out in parallel to the focal animal observations of grooming behavior. Each of 17 siamangs pairs was observed for 10 h, except pairs BrA, Bu, DrA (20 h), Be, Du, KrA (30 h), and Fr (210 h). Each crested and pileated gibbon pair was observed for 35 h.
The size of the enclosure varied between zoos (some gibbon groups were held in cages, others on islands). In small cages, the cage walls set outer limits to the inter-individual distances. Because small cages may have forced our pairs into closer proximity than bigger enclosures, we did not directly use absolute inter-individual distances in our comparisons. Instead, we calculated the relative distance (%) between mates, i.e. the inter-individual distance relative to the maximal possible distance in the pair’s given environment (cage or island). This method was described by [44]. In order to test whether cage size had an influence on pair bonding behavior, we used the maximal possible distance in the pair’s given environment as an indicator of cage size. In siamangs, our largest sample, this value ranged from 5.7 m in the smallest cage to 43.5 m on the largest island. We arbitrarily defined cages with values of less than 10 m as “small enclosures”, the others as “large enclosures”.
In addition to determining relative distance, we used scan sampling to estimate the time pair partners spent in each of the following distance classes: 1: body contact or distance of less than 0.3 m, 2: 0.3–1 m, 3: >1 m–3 m, 4: >3 m.
For comparison of our data on partner-directed behavior with literature data, we used male and female proportions of these behavioral variables, where male and female proportions complement each other to 100%. Proportions should be independent of the observation method and permit comparison of data from different observers.
One-sample sign test tests were used to compare classes of sex-specific grooming proportions within genera. For comparison of data among three genera, we used Kruskal-Wallis tests with Dunn’s
The average degree of behavioral synchronization across 11 behavioral variables is shown in Figure 2. Values range from 15.5% to 63.9% in siamangs, from 8.0% to 38.7% in crested gibbons, and from 19.2% and 42.7%. As shown in Table 1, however, the overall degree of behavioral synchronization does not differ significantly between the genera (Kruskal-Wallis test, P
Comparison of the average degree of behavioral synchronization between siamangs (
Taxon | Kruskal- Wallis test ( | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Taxon mean | 35.02 ± 15.39 (N = 14) | 23.73 ± 11.30 (N = 7) | 32.69 ± 7.95 (N = 9) | 0.186 |
Average degree of synchronization [% ± standerd deviation] across 11 behavioral variables for siamangs (
Average relative partner distances and time proportions spent in four distance classes for each study group are listed in Table 2. Considerable differences were found among pairs. Time spent in distance class 1, for instance, varies from 0.3% to 49.7% in siamangs, from 5.6% to 32.3% in crested gibbons, and from 0.0% to 20.5% in pileated gibbons. Similarly, time spent in distance class 4 varies from 1.3% to 61.2% in siamangs, from 14.1% to 47.4% in crested gibbons, and from 31.6–84% in pileated gibbons. The time gibbon pairs spent in each of the four partner distance classes are shown in Figure 3. The three taxa do not differ significantly among each other in the time groups spent in any of the four partner distance classes (Kruskal-Wallis tests, P
Group | Relative distance | Distance classes [%] | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[%] | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |
(a) Siamangs | |||||
Antwerp | 32.80 | 11.90 | 14.00 | 50.00 | 24.10 |
Berlin Zoo | 29.80 | 13.70 | 10.00 | 40.80 | 35.50 |
Branféré 1 | 14.50 | 5.40 | 19.50 | 31.20 | 43.90 |
Branféré 2 | 12.10 | 10.30 | 29.70 | 23.90 | 36.10 |
Branféré 3 | 18.30 | 1.80 | 17.00 | 20.00 | 61.20 |
Budapest | 29.30 | 10.70 | 21.10 | 34.10 | 34.10 |
Dortmund | 10.10 | 29.50 | 34.80 | 16.60 | 19.10 |
Dresden 1 | 29.00 | 12.50 | 18.10 | 67.50 | 1.90 |
Dresden 2 | 24.00 | 12.90 | 31.10 | 54.70 | 1.30 |
Duisburg | 29.10 | 12.30 | 12.20 | 48.70 | 26.80 |
Frankfurt | 40.40 | 3.30 | 12.60 | 62.30 | 21.80 |
Krefeld 1 | 30.90 | 3.50 | 15.10 | 37.60 | 43.80 |
Krefeld 2 | 35.90 | 0.30 | 7.40 | 38.60 | 53.70 |
Munich | 31.20 | 24.90 | 13.80 | 16.20 | 45.10 |
Studen | 11.50 | 49.70 | 22.40 | 19.30 | 8.60 |
Washington | 26.50 | 20.50 | 14.90 | 21.40 | 43.20 |
Zurich | 36.10 | 1.30 | 17.80 | 62.30 | 18.60 |
Mean | 25.97 | 13.21 | 18.32 | 37.95 | 30.52 |
(b) Crested gibbons | |||||
Duisburg | 33.68 | 5.70 | 39.19 | 41.04 | 14.07 |
Eberswalde | 12.12 | 32.30 | 17.01 | 15.68 | 35.01 |
Mulhouse 1 | 30.40 | 7.65 | 19.52 | 25.40 | 47.42 |
Mulhouse 2 | 23.31 | 23.68 | 14.33 | 15.85 | 46.14 |
Mulhouse 3 | 21.12 | 30.73 | 14.79 | 17.03 | 37.45 |
Osnabrück 1 | 21.99 | 17.80 | 16.22 | 24.09 | 41.89 |
Osnabrück 2 | 21.63 | 5.64 | 30.05 | 27.01 | 37.30 |
Mean | 23.47 | 17.64 | 21.59 | 23.73 | 37.04 |
(c) Pileated gibbons | |||||
Phnom Tamao 1 | 28.77 | 7.30 | 14.20 | 28.20 | 50.30 |
Phnom Tamao 2 | 7.28 | 10.70 | 17.70 | 17.70 | 54.40 |
Phnom Tamao 3 | 41.99 | 0.00 | 3.90 | 11.30 | 84.80 |
Phnom Tamao 4 | 23.18 | 20.50 | 6.00 | 28.90 | 44.60 |
Phnom Tamao 5 | 24.58 | 11.30 | 16.70 | 23.60 | 48.40 |
Phnom Tamao 6 | 12.82 | 13.80 | 11.20 | 26.40 | 48.50 |
Phnom Tamao 7 | 23.13 | 5.50 | 9.70 | 53.20 | 31.60 |
Zurich 1 | 18.29 | 14.90 | 20.10 | 24.70 | 40.40 |
Zurich 2 | 34.83 | 0.90 | 7.40 | 17.20 | 47.50 |
Mean | 23.47 | 9.43 | 11.88 | 25.69 | 50.06 |
Average relative partner distances and time proportions spent in four distance classes: (a) siamangs (
Time proportion spent in 4 distance classes (left) and of the mean relative partner distances (right) in siamangs (
The relative distance between pair partners is also shown in Figure 3. The three taxa do not differ in this variable (Kruskal-Wallis test, P
The number of grooming sessions/hour (average of male and female) varies from 0.0 to 3.9 in siamangs (
Average intra-pair grooming frequency per hour, mean duration of grooming sessions, and proportion of time spent grooming in siamangs (
In order to study which sex invested more in maintaining the pair bond, we determined the %-proportion of partner-directed grooming for each adult. Because male and female proportions in a pair complement each other to 100%, the grooming proportion of one sex will suffice to provide the full information. The results are summarized in Figure 5.
Average male-female proportions of intra-pair grooming frequency per hour, mean duration of grooming sessions, and time spent grooming in siamangs (
In these analyses, one pair of siamangs (Kr2) and one pair of pileated gibbons (PT3) had to be excluded because pair partners were not observed to groom each other at all and male–female proportions of grooming variables could, therefore, not be calculated. Neither Kr2 nor PT3 were newly formed pairs, and the reason why no grooming occurred among pair partners is unknown.
Male proportions in the number of grooming sessions per hour varied from 8.5% to 78.3% in siamangs, from 2.9% to 62.5% in crested gibbons, and from 0.0% to 85.4% in pileated gibbons. The difference between the genera is statistically significant (Kruskal-Wallis test, P
In addition to the grooming data collected by focal animal sampling, we also collected data on male–female grooming proportions for three additional siamang groups (An, Be, Zu) during the scan sampling observations. Male grooming proportions in these groups amounted to 95.4%, 85.7% and 100%, respectively.
Finally, we compiled data from the pertinent literature on other gibbon groups. If several reports were available on the same group, we used the study with the larger data base. These data are summarized in Table 3 and also includes members of the dwarf gibbons (
Group | Cap- tive/wild | Data type | Classes of male grooming proportion [%] | Source | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | ||||
An | c | f | 95.4 | ts | ||
Be | c | f | 85.7 | ts | ||
Br1 | c | f | 8.5 | ts | ||
Br2 | c | f | 78.3 | ts | ||
Br3 | c | f | 74.1 | ts | ||
Bu | c | f | 29.5 | ts | ||
Do | c | f | 60.1 | ts | ||
Dr1 | c | f | 69.7 | ts | ||
Dr2 | c | f | 51.5 | ts | ||
Du | c | f | 49.2 | ts | ||
Fr | c | f | — | — | — | ts |
Kr1 | c | f | 76.7 | ts | ||
Kr2 | c | f | 72.0 | ts | ||
Mu | c | f | 8.5 | ts | ||
St | c | f | 78.3 | ts | ||
Wa | c | f | 74.1 | ts | ||
Zh | c | f | 100.0 | ts | ||
TS1 | w | t | 60.5 | [19] | ||
RS2 | w | t | 73.7 | [19] | ||
Milwaukee | c | f | 26.0 | [72] | ||
Tulsa | c | f? | 88.8 | [73] | ||
Berlin | c | f | — | — | — | [74] |
Cheyenne, MH 21 | c | t | 86.3 | [75] | ||
Cheyenne, MH 23 | c | t | 7.0 | [75] | ||
Melbourne | c | ? | 60.8 | [76] | ||
Ketambe, CH-CJ | w | f | ca 48.0 | [10] | ||
Ketambe, PP-PN | w | f | ca 84.0 | [10] | ||
Ketambe, Pm-Pn | w | f | ca 60.0 | [10] | ||
Lourosa, pair 1 | c | t | 88.9 | [77] | ||
ICGS | c | t | 56.9 | [26] | ||
Siamangs, total number of pairs | 5 | 8 | 15 | |||
Du ( | c | f | 4.4 | ts | ||
Eb ( | c | f | 24.7 | ts | ||
Mu1 ( | c | f | 62.5 | ts | ||
Mu2 ( | c | f | 20.6 | ts | ||
Mu3 ( | c | f | 22.1 | ts | ||
Os1 ( | c | f | 38.3 | ts | ||
Os2 ( | c | f | 2.9 | ts | ||
Twycross ( | c | t | 17.7 | [78] | ||
Twycross ( | c | t | 18.0 | [78] | ||
Perth, old pair ( | c | t | 36.4 | [79] | ||
Perth, new pair ( | c | t | 50.0 | [79] | ||
Perth, family gr. ( | c | t | 37.9 | [79] | ||
Melbourne ( | c | f | 19.5 | [76] | ||
Besançon ( | c | t | 6.0 | [80] | ||
Mulhouse, group 1 ( | c | t | 0 | [81] | ||
Mulhouse, group 2 ( | c | t | — | — | — | [81] |
Mulhouse, group 3 ( | c | t | 0 | [81] | ||
Amsterdam ( | c | t | 16.0 | [82] | ||
Beekse Bergen ( | c | t | 22.2 | [82] | ||
Hannover ( | c | t | 57.5 | [82] | ||
ICGS ( | c | t | 100 | [26] | ||
Lincoln Park ( | c | f | 0 | [83] | ||
San Antonio ( | c | ? | 1.6 | [84, 85] | ||
4 | 1 | 0 | ||||
8 | 5 | 1 | ||||
Crested gibbons, total number of pairs | 15 | 6 | 1 | |||
Phnom Tamao 1 ( | `c | f | 55.7 | ts | ||
Phnom Tamao 2 ( | c | f | 0 | ts | ||
Phnom Tamao 3 ( | c | f | — | — | — | ts |
Phnom Tamao 4 ( | c | f | 8.1 | ts | ||
Phnom Tamao 5 ( | c | f | 0 | ts | ||
Phnom Tamao 6 ( | c | f | 85.4 | ts | ||
Phnom Tamao 7 ( | c | f | 12.5 | ts | ||
Zurich 1 ( | c | f | 38.2 | ts | ||
Zurich 2 ( | c | f | 0 | ts | ||
ICGS ( | c | t | 69.6 | [26] | ||
Perth, group 6 ( | c | f? | 0 | [86] | ||
Blackpool ( | c | f | 0 | [87] | ||
7 | 2 | 2 | ||||
Bronx, New York ( | c | t | 71.3 | [88] | ||
Portland, Oregon ( | c | f | 45.0 | [89] | ||
Berlin ( | c | f | 25.0 | [74] | ||
Besançon ( | c | t | 53.6 | [80] | ||
Melbourne ( | c | f | 10.8 | [76] | ||
Ketambe, AS-AY ( | w | f | ca 81.0 | [10] | ||
Ketambe, GD-GM ( | w | f | 93.0 | [10] | ||
Khao Yai, Pair A ( | w | t | 64.3 | [13] | ||
Khao Yai, Pair B ( | w | t | 37.5 | [13] | ||
Khao Yai, Pair C ( | w | t | 71.4 | [13] | ||
Khao Yai, Pair T ( | w | t | 20.0 | [90] | ||
3 | 4 | 4 | ||||
Berlin ( | c | f | — | — | — | [74] |
ICGS ( | c | t | 0 | [26] | ||
Munich ( | c | f | 50.7 | Average of [91, 92, 93] | ||
Perth ( | c | t | 50.0 | [79] | ||
1 | 2 | 0 | ||||
ICGS ( | c | t | 0 | [26] | ||
Dwarf gibbons, total number of pairs | 12 | 8 | 6 | |||
Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, 1 ( | w | f | 25.0 | [94] | ||
Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, 2 ( | w | f | 50.0 | [94] | ||
Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, 3 ( | w | f | 41.5 | [94] | ||
Hoolock gibbons, total number of pairs | 1 | 2 | 0 |
Male contributions (%) to intra-pair grooming in gibbons. Classes of male grooming proportion are defined as (1) 0–33%, (2) >33–66% and (3) >66%. Abbreviations: Hoolock: Hho = H. hoolock; Hylobates: Hag = H. agilis, Hla = H. lar, Hmo = H. moloch, Hpi = H. pileatus. Nomascus: Nco = N. concolor, Nga = N. gabriellae, Nle = N. leucogenys, Nsi = N. siki. Captive/wild: c = captive, w = wild. Data type: f = frequency, t = time. Grooming: – = no partner-directed grooming observed. Source: ts = this study.
Male contributions to intra-pair grooming in gibbons. (a) Siamangs (
Especially in siamangs and crested gibbons, the unilateral distribution of male grooming proportion is surprisingly consistent. We wondered whether there was something about the pairs which do not exhibit consistent results. Of the gibbons we observed, only the siamang sample was large enough to test several potential influences statistically. In the 16 siamang pairs that showed grooming, “Having infants” had no influence on the proportion of male grooming (Mann–Whitney
Results for the dwarf gibbons are less consistent than those for siamangs or crested gibbons (Table 3). Could the differences within the first two genera be influenced by wild
The frequency distribution of male grooming proportion is shown in Figure 6. These data differ significantly among the genera (Kruskal-Wallis test, df = 2, P
Monogamy is common among birds [95], but established in only about 3–9% of all mammals and about 15–29% of all primate species [45, 48, 96]. Among hominoid apes, only gibbons typically live in social monogamy (in the sense of [46]).
Various hypotheses explaining the proximate and ultimate mechanisms, which led to the evolution of social monogamy among gibbons are under debate [48, 97, 98, 99]. In these discussions, monogamy among gibbons is usually treated as, and implicitly assumed to be, a comparable, uniform entity. Cowlishaw [100], for instance, assumes that the pair bond is created by the different resource interests of the partners. The female is interested in the territory and the food resources in it, whereas the male is interested in the female partner.
Although several reports suggested that gibbon taxa might exhibit subtle distinctions in their group coherence or group composition (see Introduction), quantitative data for representative numbers of pairs have been lacking. It is generally assumed that pair bonds in all gibbon taxa are built up and maintained in the same way, and that males are mainly responsible for maintaining the pair bonds [3, 52].
As will be discussed below, this study provides evidence to the contrary. We compared indicators of pair bond strength and sex-specific pair bond investment between 7 pairs of crested gibbons, 9 pairs of pileated gibbons, and 11–17 pairs of siamangs (depending on the variable in question).
We determined three variables to compare pair bond strength between siamangs and crested gibbons (synchronization of behavioral variables, relative partner-distance, and allogrooming).
Synchronization of behavioral variables: The overall degree of behavioral synchronization does not differ significantly among the genera, suggesting that they do not differ in the strength of the pair bond as expressed by behavioral synchronization.
Relative partner-distance: The three gibbon taxa did not differ in the time spent in any of the four partner distance classes, except that siamang pairs spent less time in the largest distance class 4 (>3 m) than pileated gibbon (
Allogrooming: The three gibbon taxa did not differ in the number of grooming sessions/hour (average male and female), the proportion of time spent grooming, and the average duration of grooming sessions. As a result, siamang pairs, crested gibbon pairs and pileated gibbon pairs are involved in similar numbers of grooming sessions and spend similar amounts of time grooming.
In summary, pileated gibbons appear to spend more time apart by the largest distance class than siamangs. Based on this variable alone, their pair bond may be weaker than that of siamangs. No consistent differences in pair bond strength were found between siamangs and crested gibbons or between crested gibbons and pileated gibbons.
We examined which sex invests more in the pair bond by measuring the amount of grooming directed at the respective partner. For simplicity, we indicate the male proportion only; the female partner’s proportion is its complement to 100%.
Our results show that in pileated and crested gibbon pairs partner-directed grooming is mostly provided by females, whereas males are the main groomers in siamang pairs. This result is further supported by additional data we collected from the literature. In most siamang pairs, males are the main groomers. Furthermore, male proportion in grooming session duration and time spent grooming are higher in siamangs than in pileated gibbons, whereas the male proportions in the numbers of grooming sessions per hour do not differ between siamangs and pileated gibbons. Siamang males groom their partners more often than crested gibbon males do, but time spent grooming and male proportion in duration of grooming do not differ between siamangs and crested gibbons. Our pairwise comparison revealed statistically significant differences for
These results suggest that each genus differs in the mechanism of how pair bonds are created or maintained. Especially siamangs differ compared to pileated and crested gibbons: male-driven in the former, female-driven in the latter two. Obviously, the pair bond in gibbons does not appear to be a uniform entity. Date compiled in Table 3 also suggest that field and zoo observations are consistent (except that only one wild pair exhibits a “Class 1” male grooming proportion of 0–33%).
Our results support vocal and molecular studies suggesting that gibbons are a much less homogenous group than generally assumed [39, 101, 102]. It is becoming more and more obvious that including one gibbon taxon into comparative studies in order to represent “the gibbon” is not useful practice anymore.
In our overall sample of dwarf gibbon pairs (
Kleiman [45] proposed that males should be the more active groomers in monogamous primates because their dominance situation is reversed as compared to primates with polygynous social organizations. Simple dominance relationships, however, do not seem the only variables influencing partner-directed allogrooming in gibbons.
If partner-directed allogrooming reflects the investment into a pair bond [62, 63], then our results document that the readiness to invest differs among pairs. In most (but not necessarily all) pairs, both partners appeared to be interested in maintaining the pair pond, and both partners provided at least some allogrooming. In addition to individual differences, the interest in a pair partner may vary with time. Probably, the benefit of a pair bond is related to the reproductive potential of a partner. Observations on wild
How do our findings compare to the predictions of the three hypotheses for the evolution of pair bonds presented in the Introduction?
The ‘male-services hypothesis’ predicts that a female will invest substantially in a social relationship with a male willing to assume the costs of territorial or antipredator defense, infant care or protection from infanticidal males. This should result in females investing more than males in maintaining the pair bond. This prediction is met by our samples of crested gibbons (N = 22 pairs, Table 3), pileated gibbons (N = 11 pairs) and the combined sample of all dwarf gibbons (N = 26 pairs). In all three samples, females were the main groomers in most pairs.
The ‘mate-defense hypothesis’ predicts that bonding with a female is beneficial for a male when either the spatial distribution of females or the temporal distribution of fertile periods makes it difficult for the males to defend access to more than one female at a time. This should result in males investing more than females in maintaining the pair bond. This prediction is met by our sample of siamangs (N = 28 pairs), where males were the main groomers in most pairs.
The ‘resource-defense hypothesis’ predicts that both a male and a female benefit from pair bonding to defend resources together. This should result in a male and a female being equally interested in maintaining proximity and affiliation with a pair mate and defending their territory. None of the gibbon samples of this study appears to meet this prediction.
Only very limited information on the direction of partner-grooming is available for the fourth of the gibbon genera, the hoolocks (genus
It has also been reported that allogrooming between pair mates is virtually nonexistent in wild
Within crested gibbons (
A comparison of pair bond strength in three gibbon taxa – siamangs (
This study provides the first statistically significant evidence that the mechanisms of how pair bonds are created or maintained, differ between gibbon taxa. As indicated by the amount of partner-directed grooming, siamang males invest significantly more into the pair bond than females, whereas the opposite is true in crested gibbons, pileated gibbons, and an enlarged sample of dwarf gibbons (genus
Our results for crested gibbons, pileated gibbons, and a combined sample of dwarf gibbons correspond to predictions derived from the ‘male-services hypothesis’ for the evolution of pair bonds. According to this hypothesis, a female will invest substantially in a social relationship with a male willing to assume the costs of territorial or antipredator defense, infant care or protection from infanticidal males.
In contrast, our results for siamangs correspond to predictions derived from the ‘mate-defense hypothesis’. According to this hypothesis, bonding with a female is beneficial for a male when either the spatial distribution of females or the temporal distribution of fertile periods makes it difficult for the males to defend access to more than one female at a time.
Species-specific analyses are recommended for additional species of the genera
We would like to thank the staff members of the numerous zoos for permission to study the gibbons in their care. We also would like to thank Kim J.J.M. Nouwen for her contribution in the data collection for our sample of pileated gibbons (
There is no financial/personal interest, or contractual employment involving matters in this article or belief that could affect the authors’ objectivity.
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Subtle changes that occur over time in periodontal tissues that are below the detection limit of visual examination or periodontal probing can be found and tracked accurately over time using 3D imaging, fluorescence spectroscopy, and optical coherence tomography. During debridement of teeth and dental implants, the effective removal of subgingival microbial biofilms and dental calculus deposits can be enhanced using magnifying loupes and operating microscopes and by novel methods based on the interactions of light with bacterial deposits, such as differential reflectometry and light-induced fluorescence. While such techniques can also be used using initial case assessment, their primary purpose is for checking debridement procedures, since the point when bacterial deposits are no longer present represents an endpoint for treatment. The concept of real-time feedback has been developed, using fluorescence readings to control the removal of deposits. Overall, optical methods can support traditional periodontal diagnosis and improve treatment planning and clinical periodontal care.",book:{id:"7244",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"24363",title:"Biomechanics of Tooth-Movement: Current Look at Orthodontic Fundamental",slug:"biomechanics-of-tooth-movement-current-look-at-orthodontic-fundamental",totalDownloads:26810,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"277",slug:"principles-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Joanna Antoszewska and Nazan Küçükkeles",authors:[{id:"50158",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Antoszewska",slug:"joanna-antoszewska",fullName:"Joanna Antoszewska"}]},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:2611,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most dentoalveolar procedures involve the reflection of mucosal flaps. This step is crucial for exposure or removal of impacted teeth, implant bed preparation, exposure of the alveolar bone for augmentation, periodontal surgeries, and repair of mucosal soft tissue defects, such as oroantral fistula. Because of the rich vascularity of the oral mucosa, great freedom is allowed for flap design, but it tends to result in carelessness and lack of thoughtful planning, which may lead to uneventful outcomes or/and complications. In this chapter, we review oral anatomy, classification, indications, and complications of common oral flap techniques; common flap designs are illustrated, and their fundamental principles are highlighted. The review has covered various flap designs based on their indications. Yet the common flap’s principles are fundamental for all types of flaps regardless of their application, namely, it should provide wide exposure, clear vision, good access, and assure rich vascularity and good final aesthetic outcome.",book:{id:"9387",slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:2895,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The mandibular bone is an important component of the facial bone, which has a unique role in digestive system, speech, and facial esthetics. For these important functions of mandibular bone, it is vital that surgeons should not only treat function but also consider the esthetics together. Mandibular fractures are among the most common traumatic injuries of the maxillofacial region. Even though treatment modalities are well established and being practiced for a long time, untreated and postoperative complications still decrease the patient’s quality of life. This chapter aims to describe the cause, clinical presentations, diagnoses, and current treatment methods on the basis of resent literature.",book:{id:"7572",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry"},signatures:"Guhan Dergin, Yusuf Emes and Buket Aybar",authors:[{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin"},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes"},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar"}]},{id:"56461",title:"Permanent Maxillary and Mandibular Incisors",slug:"permanent-maxillary-and-mandibular-incisors",totalDownloads:2699,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The permanent incisors are the front teeth that erupt between 6 and 8 years of age. They are eight in number, four upper and four lower, two centrals and two laterals. They have sharp biting surfaces designed for shearing and cutting of food materials into small chewable pieces. They are the teeth most visible to the others during eating, smiling and talking, and thus, they have high aesthetic value for the individuals. The unique characteristics, arch position, function, development and chronological age of each tooth will be highlighted. In addition, the different aspects with their geometric outlines, outlines and surface anatomy of these teeth will be described. A brief explanation about the pulp cavity, tooth socket and normal occlusion for each tooth will be included.",book:{id:"5814",slug:"dental-anatomy",title:"Dental Anatomy",fullTitle:"Dental Anatomy"},signatures:"Mohammed E. Grawish, Lamyaa M. Grawish and Hala M. 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The greater airway space, if used, contributes in different ways to the child’s development and the recovery of respiratory problems and should always be present as a weapon that physicians and the population should know. The value of the techniques becomes even more important when applied to children and young people with disabilities who can significantly improve their development and performance. Rapid Maxillary Expansion and Extraoral Traction Appliances are two important pediatric resources to treat these children. Clinical practice of the authors, is discussed, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and the need for multi and interdisciplinary collaboration in the follow-up of disabled people.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman"},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",abstract:"This study compared the perception of pain experienced by patients undergoing orthodontic treatment with conventional, self-ligating brackets and aligners, and investigated the impact that pain had on their daily lives. 346 consecutive patients were included in the study: 115 patients treated with conventional brackets, 112 Patients treated with self-ligating brackets, and 119 patients treated with aligners. The quantitative aspect of pain was assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale, while the qualitative aspect of pain was evaluated using the Moroccan Short Form of McGILL Pain questionnaire. In all three groups experienced pain after activation tended to decrease in the following week. This pain was greater in patients with conventional braces and less in patients with aligners. Using the M-SF-MPQ to describe the qualitative aspect of the pain revealed that the “cramping مزير,” “aching تيألم ” aspect was most accentuated in the 3 groups. Medication intake was correlated with the intensity of pain experienced in all 3 systems. As for the impact of pain on daily activities, patients in groups of conventional and self-ligating braces showed more pain than those in the aligners group. Overall, aligners were less painful than conventional and self-ligating appliances. Patients did not suffer from an alteration in their quality of life due to orthodontic treatment.",book:{id:"10780",title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg"},signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani"},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:68,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",abstract:"Herbal medicine has long been used to prevent and control disease, and it can minimize the potential side effects of chemical products. However, side effects from herbs do exist. Most of the challenges with herbal medicine revolves around inadequate information about the effect of herbs in the oral cavity, the mechanism of action, and potential side effects. There are several herbs described in this chapter have anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal in oral micro-organisms. It includes aloe vera, ginger, clove, cinnamon, garlic, neem, miswak, turmeric, tulsi, green tea, chamomile, fenugreek, anise plant, peppermint, bloodroot, caraway, eucalyptus, phyllanthus emblica, black seed, myrrh, rosemary, sage, and thyme; some may act as an alternative management option to current treatments for oral conditions such as caries prevention, gingivitis, periodontitis, oral burn, ulcers and inflammation, after extraction, dry mouth, pain reduction, anesthesia, intracanal medications, ill-fitting dentures, peri-implant mucositis and peri-implantitis. It can be used in several forms such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, topical agents or local drug delivery devices. However, more research is needed to understand their mechanisms and potential side effects.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto"},{id:"80441",title:"Periodontitis and Heart Disease: Current Perspectives on the Associative Relationships and Preventive Impact",slug:"periodontitis-and-heart-disease-current-perspectives-on-the-associative-relationships-and-preventive",totalDownloads:65,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102669",abstract:"Due to the important advancement and the accumulation of new evidence on the periodontitis-cardiovascular disease (CVD) relationship as well as the major medical, economic and social burden caused by both diseases this chapter aims to review existing epidemiological and pathogenetic links related to this topic. Also, this chapter aims to highlight the impact of the periodontitis-CVD relationships on clinical practice and on the preventive approaches targeting to decrease the impact of periodontitis on CVD. Periodontitis is an infectious disease eliciting local and general inflammation, which leads to periodontal destruction and systemic involvement. Several pathways could explain the link between periodontitis and CVD such as bacteraemia, chronic persistent systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. The first step in the treatment of periodontitis addresses the elimination of microbial components, which lead to a decrease in local and systemic inflammation. Periodontal therapy seems to positively impact CVD. Specialists should inform patients with CVD on the negative impact of periodontitis on their systemic status and refer patients to the periodontist for an extensive examination as routine management of CVD. Some possible risks of periodontal therapy should be considered in patients undergoing antithrombotic medication.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandra Roman, Andrada Soancă, Bogdan Caloian, Alexandru Bucur, Gabriela Valentina Caracostea, Andreia Paraschiva Preda, Dora Maria Popescu, Iulia Cristina Micu, Petra Șurlin, Andreea Ciurea, Diana Oneț, Mircea Viorel Ciurea, Dragoș Alexandru Țermure and Marius Negucioiu"},{id:"79498",title:"Oral Aspects and Dental Management of Special Needs Patient",slug:"oral-aspects-and-dental-management-of-special-needs-patient",totalDownloads:108,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101067",abstract:"Individuals with special needs are the most underserved regarding healthcare needs in almost all populations. Special needs patients with intellectual disability have muscle coordination disorder, impaired oral motor function, drooling, weak muscles that cause chewing and swallowing problems. Also, soft diet consumption makes this population more prone to dental disease. They have more caries, missing teeth, orthodontic and periodontal problems. Besides more difficulties obtaining professional dental care than other segments of the population. Though many countries developed community-based systems to improve oral health for people with special needs, providing good oral health mainly depends on the effort of the families. Therefore the education of the caregiver about oral hygiene provision is also critical for the special needs patient to enjoy a lifetime of oral health the same as other members of the society.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Pinar Kiymet Karataban"},{id:"79699",title:"Metabolomics Distinction of Cigarette Smokers from Non-Smokers Using Non-Stationary Benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis of Human Saliva",slug:"metabolomics-distinction-of-cigarette-smokers-from-non-smokers-using-non-stationary-benchtop-nuclear",totalDownloads:55,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101414",abstract:"Implementations of high-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) facilities into metabolomics studies are unfortunately restricted by their large dimensions, high costings, and specialist technical staff requirements. Therefore, here the application and practical advantages offered by low-field (60 MHz), compact NMR spectrometers for probing the metabolic profiles of human saliva was explored, as was their value in salivary metabolomics studies. Saliva samples were collected from cigarette smoking (n = 11) and non-smoking (n = 31) human participants. 1H NMR spectra were acquired on both low-field (60 MHz) and medium-field (400 MHz) spectrometers. Metabolomics analyses were employed to evaluate the consistencies of salivary metabolite levels determined, and their abilities to distinguish between smokers and non-smokers. Low-field 1H NMR analysis detected up to 15, albeit permitted the reliable quantification of 5, potentially key diagnostic biomolecules simultaneously (LLOQ values 250–400 μmol/L), although these were limited to those with the most prominent resonances. Such low-field profiles were also found to be suitable for salivary metabolomics investigations, which confirmed the successful discrimination between smoking and non-smoking participant sample donors. Differences observed between these groups were largely ascribable to upregulated salivary levels of methanol, and its metabolite formate, in the smoking group, but higher smoking-mediated concentrations of acetate, propionate and glycine may arise from a diminished salivary flow-rate in these participants. In conclusion, determination of salivary biomolecules using low-field, benchtop 1H NMR analysis techniques were found to be valuable for bioanalytical and metabolomics investigations. Future perspectives for the applications of this non-stationary NMR technique, for example for the on-site ‘point-of-care’ testing of saliva samples for diagnostic oral disease screening purposes at dental surgeries and community pharmacies, are considered.",book:{id:"10827",title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg"},signatures:"Benita C. Percival, Angela Wann, Sophie Taylor, Mark Edgar, Miles Gibson and Martin Grootveld"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:36},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",slug:"hanna-gorska-warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD9pQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-14T11:58:32.jpeg",biography:"Hanna Górska-Warsewicz, Ph.D. is Associate Professor at Warsaw University of Life Sciences and Head of Department of Food Market and Consumption Research. She specializes in the subject of brands, brand equity, and brand management in production, service, and trade enterprises. She combines this subject with marketing and marketing management in both theoretical and practical aspects. Prof. Hanna Górska-Warsewicz also analyzes brands in the context of trademarks, legal regulations and the protection of intangible. She is an author or co-author of over 200 publications in this field, including 8 books. 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He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. 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He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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