Selected studies based on the thermal conductivity of graphite composites.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7431",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Textile Industry and Environment",title:"Textile Industry and Environment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book, the relationship between the textile industry and the environment is examined from four different viewpoints. Recycling of spinning mill wastes, ozone usage that provides less chemical and water utilization, reuse of treated water in the dyeing processes, and approaches in the treatment of wastewaters of dyeing plants and finishing factories are solutions offered to reduce environmental pollution arising from textile production processes. Apart from this, energy management is also a subject that can be associated with the environment, and as a consequence, the possibility of utilizing textile materials to which phase change materials are applied, not only for comfort purposes but also as energy storage materials, means that technical textiles could be a solution for energy storage.",isbn:"978-1-83880-028-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-027-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-137-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75336",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"textile-industry-and-environment",numberOfPages:104,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"be9d70201ab46060419025deb99c16f3",bookSignature:"Ayşegül Körlü",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7431.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7838,numberOfWosCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:39,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 3rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"255885",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayşegül",middleName:null,surname:"Körlü",slug:"aysegul-korlu",fullName:"Ayşegül Körlü",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255885/images/system/255885.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Ayşegül Körlü received her Msc and PhD degrees in textile engineering from Ege University. She has been employed by the Department of Textile Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Ege University since 1988. Currently, her main research interests are sustainable and ecological finishing processes, pretreatment of natural fibers, functional textiles and occupational safety in textile industry. She has co-authored numerous publications and has taken part in the management of many national and international projects.",institutionString:"Ege University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Ege University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1377",title:"Wastewater Engineering",slug:"textile-engineering-wastewater-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"65473",title:"Sustainable Production Methods in Textile Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84316",slug:"sustainable-production-methods-in-textile-industry",totalDownloads:1910,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The textile industry is part of the industries that continuously harm the environment because of the high water consumption and the presence of various pollutants in the wastewater. Wastewater treatment is lacking or includes only physical treatment in underdeveloped and developing countries due to installation and operating costs of a treatment plant. As a result, a broad spectrum of hazardous and toxic substances, such as (azo) dyes, heavy metals, acids, soda, and aromatic hydrocarbons, pollute precious sources of clean water, in which untreated water is discharged. The main solution to this problem is to reduce the treatment cost. For this purpose, the process should be optimized to reduce the amount of water and chemicals. In this chapter, first studies on the reference document (BAT) referred by the European Council are reviewed. Minimizing production costs, obtaining high-quality products, and reducing the amount and the pollutant content of wastewater are complex problems that cannot be solved by the conventional optimization methods. Therefore, nonconventional optimization methods applied on the textile processes are also reviewed from the latest studies in the literature.",signatures:"Miray Emreol Gönlügür",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65473",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65473",authors:[{id:"288485",title:"Dr.",name:"Miray",surname:"Gönlügür",slug:"miray-gonlugur",fullName:"Miray Gönlügür"}],corrections:null},{id:"64467",title:"Use of Ozone in the Textile Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81774",slug:"use-of-ozone-in-the-textile-industry",totalDownloads:1586,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Wet processing of textile materials consumes a large amount of electricity, fuel, and water. Therefore, greenhouse gas emissions and contaminated effluent are environmental problem. The most of the governments in the world warn all the industrial sectors containing textile manufacturing to be careful about environmental pollution. Increasing in public awareness of environment and competitive global market forces the textile industry to manufacture textile products environmentally. Environmental pollution in textile wet processes can be reduced by four main ways. They are process optimization (reducing in water, chemical energy consumption, and time loss), use of ecofriendly chemicals, reuse of water, and new technologies like ozone and plasma technologies, transfer printing, enzymatic processes, etc. This chapter is about the use of ozone in the textile industry.",signatures:"Ayşegül Körlü",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64467",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64467",authors:[{id:"255885",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayşegül",surname:"Körlü",slug:"aysegul-korlu",fullName:"Ayşegül Körlü"}],corrections:null},{id:"64003",title:"Chemical and Tinctorial Aspects Related to the Reuse of Effluents Treated by Ozonation in Dyeing Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81468",slug:"chemical-and-tinctorial-aspects-related-to-the-reuse-of-effluents-treated-by-ozonation-in-dyeing-pro",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to study the interactions that are established between inorganic auxiliaries and the by-products of contaminants present in effluents coming from dyeing operations during oxidation treatment processes using ozone, and the influence of auxiliaries and by-products on the behavior of dyes in subsequent dyeing processes using the treated water. Carrying the treatment until the complete elimination of the contaminants present in it is a very expensive operation. Because of this, it is chosen to discolor and reuse the spent dyebaths treated as many times as possible to take advantage of the water and the inorganic salts contained therein. The variable composition of the dyebaths involves kinetic aspects during the treatment, which is important to take into account in the design of the process. Various by-products are already generated from the beginning of the treatment, which will have an influence on the following stages of the same treatment process, as well as on the kinetics of the dyeing processes carried out using the treated water and on the results obtained in such dyeing processes. All this will depend on the chemical and dyeing class to which the dyes used during the subsequent dyeing processes belong.",signatures:"Pablo Colindres Bonilla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64003",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64003",authors:[{id:"259209",title:"Dr.",name:"Pablo",surname:"Colindres Bonilla",slug:"pablo-colindres-bonilla",fullName:"Pablo Colindres Bonilla"}],corrections:null},{id:"66213",title:"Utilization of Cotton Spinning Mill Wastes in Yarn Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85127",slug:"utilization-of-cotton-spinning-mill-wastes-in-yarn-production",totalDownloads:1864,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Efficient use of natural resources and utilization of recoverable wastes are getting more and more important day by day since recovering wastes have both economic and environmental benefits. As the source material costs constitute the majority of the yarn production costs, decreasing raw material costs provide considerable advantages for spinners. From the point of textile manufacturing, various production wastes can be reused in textile industry. In each step, from ginning (for cotton fibers) to end product formation, recyclable/recoverable waste materials are generated. However, mainly polyester products are recycled (r-PET) and used again in textile industry by 100% or in blends with other man-made or natural fibers. Compared to research on r-PET, recovered cotton fibers inspired interest recently. The main objective of this study is to fill the gap in the literature via investigating the properties of the yarns produced with recovered cotton wastes, generated in different sources. For this purpose, spinning mill waste types were selected. In this experimental study, different waste types (card waste, blowroom waste, and fabric waste) and blending ratios were used. As a conclusion, the effect of waste type and blend ratio on the physical and mechanical properties of the yarns and the fabrics, produced with virgin and waste cotton fibers, were analyzed.",signatures:"Tuba Bedez Ute, Pinar Celik and Memik Bunyamin Uzumcu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66213",authors:[{id:"292303",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",surname:"Celik",slug:"pinar-celik",fullName:"Pinar Celik"},{id:"292576",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuba",surname:"Bedez Ute",slug:"tuba-bedez-ute",fullName:"Tuba Bedez Ute"},{id:"292577",title:"Dr.",name:"Memik Bunyamin",surname:"Uzumcu",slug:"memik-bunyamin-uzumcu",fullName:"Memik Bunyamin Uzumcu"}],corrections:null},{id:"66171",title:"Phase Change Materials for Textile Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85028",slug:"phase-change-materials-for-textile-application",totalDownloads:1685,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to determine which of the existing PCM families are more suitable for textile thermoregulation while proposing new solutions. Indeed, many of these materials are either limited by their overall enthalpy of phase change or by their thermal window. Thus, it focuses on the study of binary mixing allowing the widening of the temperature range of the phase change and the consolidation of the enthalpy balance by adding chemical species. PCM was microencapsulated to be applied onto textile substrate, before studying the thermal properties.",signatures:"Fabien Salaün",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66171",authors:[{id:"27644",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabien",surname:"Salaün",slug:"fabien-salaun",fullName:"Fabien Salaün"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"23",label:"women in science book program"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10147",title:"Waste in Textile and Leather Sectors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"36eb1ed7179e0790a029523c97f1df04",slug:"waste-in-textile-and-leather-sectors",bookSignature:"Ayşegül Körlü",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10147.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255885",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayşegül",surname:"Körlü",slug:"aysegul-korlu",fullName:"Ayşegül Körlü"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"528",title:"Advances in Treating Textile Effluent",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c495cd9fb5e8a7d522285164bc3829f",slug:"advances-in-treating-textile-effluent",bookSignature:"Peter J. 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change problems that land-use planners are facing worldwide. With increased population growth and urbanization, cities around the world are becoming more affluent and putting even greater pressures on various land uses. The greatest challenges include managing traffic and transportation, the urban sprawl of cities, and affordable housing in ways that can improve people’s health and social well-being in a city-based framework, keeping in mind qualitative principles of equity, public participation, and sustainability. The proposed book hopes to bring together leading scholars in the field of transportation or engineering, land use planning, affordable housing, and smart cities growth, to discuss contemporary land use issues and challenges facing cities in both developed and developing countries. The book is also intended to serve as important reference material for academics, land use planning professionals, and students around the globe seeking to understand contemporary land-use problems and innovative solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-237-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-236-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-238-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"e669f527567e12a187e61b3dbb18155f",bookSignature:"Dr. Seth Appiah-Opoku",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11454.jpg",keywords:"Land Use, Transportation Interaction, Smart City, Housing, City Typology, Urbanization, Urban Sprawl, Affordable Housing, Transit Management, Squatter Settlement, Manufactured Home, Sustainability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 9th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 8th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 25th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Seth Appiah-Opoku is a member of the American Institute of Certified Planners. 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Noll",authors:[null]},{id:"711",title:"An Inter-Working Petri Net Model between SIMPLE and IMPS for XDM Service",slug:"an_inter-working_petri_net_model_between_simple_and_imps_for_xdm_service",signatures:"Jianxin Liao, Yuting Zhang and Xiaomin Zhu",authors:[null]},{id:"712",title:"Modelling Systems by Hybrid Petri Nets: an Application to Supply Chains",slug:"modelling_systems_by_hybrid_petri_nets__an_application_to_supply_chains",signatures:"Mariagrazia Dotoli, Maria Pia Fanti, Alessandro Giua and Carla Seatzu",authors:[null]},{id:"713",title:"Modeling and Analysis of Hybrid Dynamic Systems Using Hybrid Petri Nets",slug:"modeling_and_analysis_of_hybrid_dynamic_systems_using_hybrid_petri_nets",signatures:"Latefa Ghomri and Hassane Alla",authors:[null]},{id:"714",title:"Use of Petri Nets for Modeling an Agent-Based Interactive System: Basic Principles and Case Study",slug:"use_of_petri_nets_for_modeling_an_agent-based_interactive_system__basic_principles_and_case_study",signatures:"Houcine Ezzedine and Christophe Kolski",authors:[null]},{id:"715",title:"On the Use of Queueing Petri Nets for Modeling and Performance Analysis of Distributed Systems",slug:"on_the_use_of_queueing_petri_nets_for_modeling_and_performance_analysis_of_distributed_systems",signatures:"Samuel Kounev and Alejandro Buchmann",authors:[null]},{id:"716",title:"Model Checking of Time Petri Nets",slug:"model_checking_of_time_petri_nets",signatures:"Hanifa Boucheneb and Rachid Hadjidj",authors:[null]},{id:"717",title:"A Linear Logic Based Approach to Timed Petri Nets",slug:"a_linear_logic_based_approach_to_timed_petri_nets",signatures:"Norihiro Kamide",authors:[null]},{id:"718",title:"From Time Petri Nets to Timed Automata",slug:"from_time_petri_nets_to_timed_automata",signatures:"Franck Cassez and Olivier H. Roux",authors:[null]},{id:"719",title:"Timed Hierarchical Object-Oriented Petri Net",slug:"timed_hierarchical_object-oriented_petri_net",signatures:"Hua Xu",authors:[null]},{id:"720",title:"Scheduling Analysis of FMS Using the Unfolding Time Petri Nets",slug:"scheduling_analysis_of_fms_using_the_unfolding_time_petri_nets",signatures:"Jong kun Lee and Ouajdi Korbaa",authors:[null]},{id:"721",title:"Error Recovery in Production Systems: A Petri Net Based Intelligent System Approach",slug:"error_recovery_in_production_systems__a_petri_net_based_intelligent_system_approach",signatures:"Nicholas G. Odrey",authors:[null]},{id:"722",title:"Estimation of Mean Response Time of MultiAgent Systems Using Petri Nets",slug:"estimation_of_mean_response_time_of_multi-agent_systems_using_petri_nets",signatures:"Tomasz Babczyński and Jan Magott",authors:[null]},{id:"723",title:"Diagnosis of Discrete Event Systems with Petri Nets",slug:"diagnosis_of_discrete_event_systems_with_petri_nets",signatures:"Dimitri Lefebvre",authors:[null]},{id:"724",title:"Augmented Marked Graphs and the Analysis of Shared Resource Systems",slug:"augmented_marked_graphs_and_the_analysis_of_shared_resource_systems",signatures:"King Sing Cheung",authors:[null]},{id:"725",title:"Incremental Integer Linear Programming Models for Petri Nets Reachability Problems",slug:"incremental_integer_linear_programming_models_for_petri_nets_reachability_problems",signatures:"Thomas Bourdeaud'huy, Said Hanafi and Pascal Yim",authors:[null]},{id:"726",title:"Using Transition Invariants for Reachability Analysis of Petri Nets",slug:"using_transition_invariants_for_reachability_analysis_of_petri_nets",signatures:"Alexander Kostin",authors:[null]},{id:"727",title:"Reliability Prediction and Sensitivity Analysis of Web Services Composition",slug:"reliability_prediction_and_sensitivity_analysis_of_web_services_composition",signatures:"Duhang Zhong, Zhichang Qi and Xishan Xu",authors:[null]},{id:"728",title:"Petri Nets for Component-Based Software Systems Development",slug:"petri_nets_for_component-based_software_systems_development",signatures:"Leandro Dias da Silva, Kyller Gorgonio, and Angelo Perkusich",authors:[null]},{id:"729",title:"Formalizing and Validating UML Architecture Description of Service-Oriented Applications",slug:"formalizing_and_validating_uml_architecture_description_of_service-oriented_applications",signatures:"Zhijiang Dong, Yujian Fu, Xudong He and Yue Fu",authors:[null]},{id:"730",title:"Music Description and Processing: An Approach Based on Petri Nets and XML",slug:"music_description_and_processing__an_approach_based_on_petri_nets_and_xml",signatures:"Adriano Barate",authors:[null]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5787",title:"Cutting Edge Robotics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f5caeb19605b2ebe7260f03131c26a24",slug:"cutting_edge_robotics",bookSignature:"Vedran Kordic, Aleksandar Lazinica and Munir Merdan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5787.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"60616",title:"Thermal Conductivity of Graphite-Based Polymer Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75676",slug:"thermal-conductivity-of-graphite-based-polymer-composites",body:'Polymers can be moulded into various shapes and forms which afford their application in different fields [1, 2, 3]. This is owing to their unique properties such as lightweight, durability and low production cost. Polymers have substituted natural materials (e.g. steel and glass) in most of their former uses [1, 2, 3]. Besides these unique features, their success in certain applications is hindered by their poor electrical, thermal and mechanical properties. The incorporation of different fillers has been subject to researchers and scientists as a suitable solution to overcome these limitations. However, the resulting composite properties were found to be directly dependent on several aspects such as matrix-type, filler-type, interaction between the filler and polymer as well as the distribution of the filler within the polymeric matrix [4].
Research has escalated on the use of conductive fillers to improve not only the electrical and thermal conductivities but also the overall physical properties of the resulting composite product. Different conductive fillers such as metal powder, carbon black, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and natural graphite were employed as reinforcing fillers of various polymeric materials [5, 6]. Amongst all these fillers, graphite garnered in much interest owing to its unique properties such as abundant availability, low cost and easy functionalization [7].
The polymer/graphite composites exhibited a high thermal conductivity and an electrical conductivity at a fairly low concentration. Polymer/graphite composites have been used in many applications including structural, aerospace and sporting goods. Most recently, researchers have focused their attention on the development of polymer/graphite composites for applications whereby thermal conductivity is needed [8, 9]. It is documented [7] in the study that the significance of thermal conductivity and/or thermal diffusivity in polymer composites is related to the need for considerable levels of thermal conductivity in circuit boards and heat exchangers. According to the studies [10], conductive composites are frequently used in wide applications such as heating elements, temperature-dependent sensors, self-limiting electrical heaters, switching devices, antistatic materials for electromagnetic interferences and shielding of electronic devices. This chapter reviews recent development on the thermal conductivity of polymer/graphite composites.
Graphite is a carbon-based layered material whose structure is composed of successive layers of graphene sheets (carbon) and received much interest owing to its exceptional thermal, mechanical and electrical properties [5, 11, 12]. It is thermodynamically stable and soft with the successive layers being parallel to the base plane. The layers are bonded together by van der Waals forces. Graphite consists of carbons that are hexagonally bound to each other by covalent bonds with an interatomic separation of 0.142 nm and an interlayer separation of 0.335 nm. It is sp2-hybridized with three of four valence electrons of hexagonally attached carbons that are linked to the valence electrons of the neighbouring carbon by σ-bonding. Therefore, the fourth electron resonates freely within the graphene layer but it is no longer interacting with a specific carbon atom. Van der Waals forces acting between adjacent graphene layers result from the delocalization of π-electrons. Thus, the interatomic interaction within the single graphene layer is stronger, that is, 75 times when compared to the interaction between the adjacent layers [11]. Hence, there has been much graphite modification that takes place in between the layers in order to improve its dispersion in different polymeric materials. Graphite can be classified into two types: natural and synthetic graphite as shown in Figure 1.
Schematic representation of graphite classification.
Naturally occurring abundant graphite is classified into three categories depending on the geological environment, that is, amorphous, flake and highly crystalline [11]. Amorphous graphite has a content of graphite ranging from 25 to 85% depending on the geological conditions. It is usually derived from mesomorphic environment such as shale, slate and coal. Amorphous graphite is regarded as the less pure form of graphite with lack of considerable ordering and presence of microcrystalline structure. It has been applied in different applications where graphite is often utilized; however, its utilization depends on the degree of purity. Flake graphite is formed in either metamorphic or igneous geologic environments. It is obtained through froth floatation which results in 80–90% graphite. Flake graphite is less abundant as compared to amorphous graphite and has good electrical properties. It has been employed in various applications of graphite such as secondary steel manufacture, lubricants, pencils, powder metallurgy and coatings. Despite being found almost all over the world, crystalline (Vein/lump) graphite is commercially mined in Sri Lanka. It originates from crude oil deposits that through time, temperature and pressure were converted to graphite. As reflected by its name, it has a higher degree of crystallinity due to its direct deposition from a high-temperature fluid phase and its purity is more than 90%. Thus, it has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Vein graphite enjoyed its success in different applications such as batteries, lubricants, grinding wheels and powder metallurgy.
Synthetic graphite is produced by treating carbonaceous precursors such as coal, petroleum and synthetic or natural organic chemicals in inert atmosphere to temperatures above 2400°C as well as thermal treatment of nongraphitic carbons, graphitization or chemical vapour deposition (CVD) from hydrocarbons under temperatures of 1883°C [11]. High temperatures are often employed to facilitate solid-state phase transition effect in order to produce graphite crystals. The production method is the primary factor that influences the resulting graphite properties. Synthetic graphite can also be categorized into two, that is, electro-graphite and artificial graphite. Electro-graphite is a pure carbon-shaped graphite produced from coal tar pitch and calcined petroleum pitch in the electric furnace, while artificial graphite results from the thermal treatment of calcined petroleum pitch at 2800°C. In general, the synthetic graphite has a low density, a high electrical resistance and porosity. Synthetic graphite is employed in different applications such as energy storage, carbon brushes and aerospace. Further modifications are often not required for its application in various fields. To avoid confusion, graphite will be used in this document without discriminate, whether it is synthetic or natural-based.
Modification of graphite has been subject of research in order to afford interaction with large polymer molecules and to achieve a better graphite dispersion [5, 11]. Many efforts have been done to overcome the absence of functional groups on the surface of graphite (or graphene sheets) and space between the sheets. There are three classic forms of modified graphite, that is, graphite-intercalated compounds (GICs), graphene oxide (graphite oxide (GO)) and expanded graphite (EG).
Schematic presentation of the preparation of expanded graphite (EG).
In order to broaden the applications of polymers, the incorporation of a suitable filler with required functionality is the most cost-effective and reliable method [17]. Some of the polymers fall short when it comes to electrical, thermal and mechanical as compared to ceramics and steel. However, the unique properties of polymers such as lightweight and mouldability into different shapes make them suitable candidates for various applications. Amongst other fillers, graphite features unique properties such as a high thermal and electrical conductivity, a low coefficient of thermal expansion, an exceptional thermal resistance, a high thermal shock resistance, improved stiffness and an increased strength. It is abundantly available and easily functionalized to afford various applications. The thermal conductivity of the graphite and/or its composites is of significant importance considering the demands as thermal conductance in heat exchangers, circuit boards, machinery, electronic appliances and many other applications as explained in Section 1.
Beside the modification of graphite, the major contributor to the distribution of graphite in the polymeric matrix relies on the selected preparation method. Classic preparation methods for graphite/polymer composites are
Different types of composites arising from and interaction between the host polymer and graphite layers obtained from different preparation methods.
In situ polymerization involves the polymerization of monomer (or/and oligomer) in the presence of the filler [6, 21, 24, 25, 26]. This method is one of the most effective processes to facilitate the dispersion of the filler in the polymeric material. Moreover, it enhances strong interaction between the composite component; hence, the mechanical properties of the resulting composite are superior to the composite prepared by either solution casting or melt intercalation [25]. This technique, however, is associated with some limitations such as polymer and filler selection and limited to laboratory scale. Moreover, it is environmentally unfriendly process which makes it not feasible for composite preparation.
In solution casting, the polymer is dissolved in suitable solvents and then the filler is added into the polymer solution [22, 27]. In order to improve the dispersion of the fillers, the sonication step is usually adopted [27, 28]. Some polymers are, however, not soluble in most available solvents which then limit the choice of a polymer for this technique. This process is not environmentally friendly due to the fact that the solvent has to be evaporated from the system which can be harmful except if the solvent is water. For industrial production, this technique will be expensive with regard to the recovery of the solvent used. Nevertheless, the mechanical properties of the resulting composites are superior to melt intercalation due to the sufficient time given for the filler to interact with each other as well as the polymeric matrix. A comparison between solution casting as well as solution casting followed by melt pressing was conducted by Bai et al. [22]. It was reported that solution-casted samples had high ability to form the percolated filler network as compared to solution casting followed by melt pressing. The percolation network is essential for the conduction paths within the composite material. However, the appropriate solvent can be chosen to avoid the formation of micro-voids within the composite [29]. The solution casting followed by hot pressing serves as a good procedure to eradicate the voids within the composite material [29].
Melt intercalation is the most favourable process with regard to industrial and environmental perspectives [23, 30, 31]. Polymer and filler are mixed together in the melt-compounding technique which leads to exposure to high shear and heat. The mixture is heated to a temperature above the melting temperature of the polymer for certain period to allow homogeneity. Classic compounding techniques include a single-screw extruder, a twin-screw extruder and an internal mixer. All these techniques can be utilized alone or in combination to afford better dispersion of the fillers. Injection moulding and/or melt pressing are usually used to mould the composite for characterization. In general, the percolation threshold is little bit higher than the other processing techniques, that is, solution casting and in situ polymerization [30]. Interestingly, the balance between the mechanical properties and other properties such as electrical conductivity can be achieved through this method which is of significance towards the commercialization of the resulting composite products. Its limitations involve the choice of polymer/filler, limited filler distribution and thermal degradation of the host polymer [23]. The properties of the polymer such as molecular weight, viscosity and chain length play a major role on the properties of the resulting composite product, hence influencing conclusions reached by different authors [11].
The combination of solution casting followed by melt intercalation/pressing has also been reported [28, 32, 33]. The main was to ensure the interaction between the fillers in order to promote the conductance path network within the host matrix. On the other hand, electrospun graphite composites were also reported in the study [34]. Despite the advantages associated with these techniques,
Numerous researchers studied the thermal conductivity of polymer composites with regard to their importance to reach appreciable levels of thermal conductance in circuit boards, heat exchangers, appliances and machinery as summarized in Table 1 [7, 17, 39]. Amongst all thermal conductive fillers, graphite merits special interest not only due to its high thermal conductivity, that is, 25–470 W m−1 K−1, but high thermal stability, exceptional chemical resistance and mechanical properties [40]. A comparative study of the thermal conductivity between graphite and other conductive fillers (
System | Maximum particle content | Preparation method | Thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1) | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|
LDPE/graphite | 10 vol.% | Melt mixing | 6.5 | [39] |
HDPE/graphite | 7% | Melt mixing | 1.59 | [40] |
LDPE/low-temperature expandable graphite | 50 wt% | Melt mixing followed by pan milling and dilution with neat LDPE | 5.04 | [51] |
LDPE/untreated low-temperature expandable graphite | 50 wt% | Melt mixing | 7.02 | [51] |
LDPE/low-temperature expandable graphite (LTEG) | 37 vol% (60 wt%) | Melt mixing | 11.24 | [36] |
Ethylene vinyl acetate/natural graphite | 7.5 | Melt mixing | ~0.29 | [52] |
Ethylene vinyl acetate/expanded graphite (EG) | 7.5 | Melt mixing | ~0.31 | [52] |
Ethylene vinyl acetate/expanded graphite (EG) | 4 phr | Solution casting followed by melt pressing | 0.87 | [33] |
Ethylene vinyl acetate/natural graphite (NG) | 4 phr | Solution casting followed by melt pressing | 0.48 | [33] |
Epoxy resin/graphite | 44.3 wt% | Oven curing | 1.68 | [37] |
Epoxy resin/graphite | 4.5 wt% | Oven curing | 1.0 | [38] |
Epoxy resin/graphite | 2 wt% | Oven curing | 1.0 | [50] |
Selected studies based on the thermal conductivity of graphite composites.
Mu and Feng [41] prepared graphite/silicone rubber composites using solution-casting and melt-mixing processing techniques. They reported that the thermal conductivity increased with an increase in graphite content; however, solution-casted composites had a high conductivity as compared to melt-mixed ones. The authors reported that the thermal conductivity of solution-casted composites reached a value of 0.32 W m−1 K−1 at 9 per hundred rubber (phr) of graphite, whereas for melt-mixed it was only 0.24 W m−1 K−1, which is the conductivity level similar to solution-casted composite at 4 phr. This was attributed to the conducting path networks created by contact between the graphite layers at a fairly low content in the case of solution casting compared to the reduction of surface-to-volume ratio in the case of melt mixing as shown in Figure 4. The latter resulted in a higher content of graphite required so that they can abut or contact in order to form the conducting paths. A comparison between two commercial graphite (EG-10, synthetic graphite, SGL Carbon, UK, and KS-15, synthetic graphite, Lonza, Switzerland) in two different polymeric matrices (high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and polystyrene (PS)) was conducted by Krupa and Chodák [7]. They reported a nonlinear increase of thermal conductivity with an increase in graphite content regardless of matrix and graphite type. It was, however, reported that the graphite KS displayed higher thermal conductivities than the thermal conductivities of EG-filled material especially for PS composites at a higher graphite content. The graphite KS had smaller particles with a narrow particle size distribution as well as a higher specific surface than graphite EG which corroborate the fact that the size of the particles did not influence the thermal conductivity, however, the contact between the graphite particles even if they are agglomerated. In another study, it was reported that the crystallinity of the polymer also plays a major role on the thermal conductivity of the resulting composite product [44]. It was reported that high-density polyethylene (HDPE)-based composites displayed high thermal conductivities over the whole graphite composition as compared to less crystalline low-density polyethylene (LDPE). Similarly, Deng et al. investigated the effect of chain structure on the thermal conductivity of expanded graphite/polymer composites [45]. Expanded graphite (EG) was blended with three different polymers, that is, polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), syndiotactic polystyrene (sPS) and amorphous polystyrene (aPS). The thermal conductivities of the neat aPS, sPS and PPS samples were reported as 0.18, 0.23 and 0.24, respectively. This was ascribed to the crystallinity of polymers. Similar result of observation was reported elsewhere in the study [46, 47]. The EG/PPS composites showed the highest thermal conductivity throughout the whole range in comparison to the two counterpart composites (Figure 5). The observed behaviour was attributed to the difference in polymer matrices with varied chain structures which may result in different crystallizations and interactions of composites.
Schematic presentation of the proposed mechanism for thermal conductive paths for (a) solution-casted and (b) melt-mixed samples.
The thermal conductivity of EG/polymer composites as a function of EG volume contents (the error bar is marked). The inset shows the thermal conductivity at a low content [
Sefadi et al. [48] studied the influence of graphite treatment with sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) in water on the thermal conductivity. Moreover, the authors exposed the samples to 50-KGy electron beam irradiation to improve the interaction between graphite and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), as host matrix. They reported an increase in thermal conductivity with an increase in filler content due to high conductivity of graphite, regardless of the treatment. However, the thermal conductivity of the irradiated samples was slightly lower than unirradiated samples. This was attributed to the restriction of the polymer chains
There has been an ever-increasing interest in incorporating additional conductive filler into a graphite composite product to overcome the limitation of these materials [22, 31, 53, 54, 55]. It can be argued that the maximum thermal conductivity value achieved in graphite composites is 11.24 W m−1 K−1 (see Table 1). It is envisaged that the incorporation of the second filler can further enhance the thermal conductivity of the resulting composite products [31, 53, 56]. Lebedev et al. [53] reported that the inclusion of 1 wt% of carbon nanotubes (CNT) into polylactic acid (PLA)/natural graphite composites improved thermal conductivity by more than 40% of magnitude. The thermal conductivity was increased from 0.93 W m−1 K−1 for neat polymer to 2.73 W m−1 K−1 after the addition of 30 wt% graphite, whereas after the inclusion of 1 wt% CNT, the thermal conductivity value reached 3.8 W m−1 K−1. This is ascribed to the additional CNT bridges which closely adjoin the surface of graphite. A similar study using HDPE as the polymeric matrix was recent conducted by Che et al. [31]. The authors reported that the thermal conductivity further increased with the addition of CNT compared to that with EG composites. In another study, it was demonstrated that a small content of a second filler, that is, below 2 wt%, has no significant influence on the thermal conductivity when compared to EG composites due to the fillers being wrapped in between the graphite layers [57]. A maximum increase of 38.5% compared to single filler-based composite was achieved at 5 wt% of the second filler. Self-hybrid composites of EG by crushing EG using a high-speed crusher to obtain different particle sizes were recently studied by Kim et al. [54]. The composites were prepared by mixing the crushed EG and raw EG with polycarbonate (PC) using melt extrusion. Hybrid composites (10 wt% crushed EG and raw EG) displayed a higher thermal conductivity by 12 and 20.7% compared to 20 wt% raw EG and crushed EG composites. The thermal conductivity value reached 2.62 W m−1 K−1 compared to 2.34 and 2.17 W m−1 K−1 for raw-EG and crushed EG-based composites due to synergistic effect. Various thermal conductive particles rather than carbon-based ones can also be used to enhance the thermal conductivity. Kostagiannakopoulou et al. [58] also reported that the thermal conductivity of the epoxy system increased significantly by increasing the filler content. However, the inclusion of the second filler, that is, multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) did improve the thermal conductivity at a higher graphite content (5, 10 and 15%). The highest enhancement percentage was 48 at 15% of graphite. The highest increase of ~176 was achieved in the case of 15% wt of the filler. A combination of graphite and aluminium nitride (AIN) was reported by Yuan et al. [59] and the thermal conductivity reached a value of 2.77 W m−1 K−1 that was 14.6 times that of neat polymeric matrix by combining only 50 wt% AIN and 6 wt% graphite.
The design of composites from graphite is inexpensive and available in abundance. This has initiated new ideas in the field of science for the development of a wide range of novel functional materials. Generally, the addition of graphite improved the thermal conductivity of the host polymer matrix irrespective of filler functionalization, the type of polymer and the method of preparation. Various processing techniques such as solvent casting melt blending and pan milling and masterbatch melt mixing have been used for the preparation of graphite composites. The type of mixing method seemed to have had an effect on the resultant thermal conductivity of the graphite/polymer composites. For instance, solution-casted composites had a high thermal conductivity as compared to melt-mixed system. It is understood that during solution casting, the EG particles will have a sufficient surface-to-volume ratio; as a result, they can contact easily and form conducting path networks at low EG contents. However, for melt mixing, one is of the idea that the EG particles’ shape is changed during the melt-mixing process, resulting in a decrease of surface-to-volume ratio. Therefore, only a higher content of EG can contact and form conductive paths. Furthermore, the type of polymer had an influence on the thermal conductivity of the polymer/graphite composites, with the crystalline polymers having a higher thermal in the composites. It was further observed that the type of treatment on the graphite or its polymer composites also played a significant role in the improvement or non-improvement of the thermal conductivity of the polymer graphite composites. For example, the silane-treated graphite composites showed a higher thermal conductivity than the non-silane-treated graphite composites. In some cases, the treatment of the graphite with UV/O3 did not have an influence on thermal conductivity of the resulting composite materials. Lately, the incorporation of the second filler with graphite can further enhance the thermal conductivity of the resulting composite products and widen the application of graphite composites.
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Indeed, the resurgence of religions in all the continents is tangled in different ways to modernization processes. The main argument of this chapter is that this religious change toward pluralism can be fully understood in the context of multiple modernities theory, provided that it be revised and modified. The key understanding of changes must come from a better insight of popular religions worldwide. Latin American, Eastern Asia and Islam regions are good examples of popular forms of religious revitalization that contrasts with the Northern European case. New ways of producing sense and spiritual search in non-Western areas are framing specific relationships between religion and modernities and bringing about pluralisms. The interweaving of old and new religious traditions is accentuating interculturality and is generating great conditions for the emergence of new types of syncretism and/or sociocultural and even material (and violent) conflicts. The consequence is the development of religious patterns within societies that have a specific and distinctively form of modernity of their own.",book:{id:"6169",slug:"culture-and-identity",title:"Culture and Identity",fullTitle:"Culture and Identity"},signatures:"Cristian Parker",authors:[{id:"207097",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristián",middleName:null,surname:"Parker",slug:"cristian-parker",fullName:"Cristián Parker"}]},{id:"70743",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90669",title:"Biotechnology and Cultural Heritage Conservation",slug:"biotechnology-and-cultural-heritage-conservation",totalDownloads:555,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The deterioration of cultural asset is induced by biological, chemical, and physical factors, influenced by anthropogenic activity and environmental conditions. In this study, the contribution of biotechnology is emphasized to define the conservation strategy, for a marble Fountain (Two Dragons, XV century) located in Palermo city center, based on an integrated approach and eco-friendly procedures. Biotechnological protocols are preliminarily applied as an integrated approach, based on microscopy observation, in vitro culture and genomic DNA analysis to recognize and characterize microbial communities. Several biological systems have been identified: green algae (Chlorella) and cyanobacteria (Cyanobium, Oscillatoria); bacteria (Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Micrococcus, Paracoccus); fungi (Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Phoma, Fusarium, Cladosporium). In order to address biological colonization, the commercial Tea Tree Oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) and laboratory-distilled (Calamintha nepeta and Allium sativum) EOs, have been assayed by in vitro Agar disc diffusion, Well-plates diffusion, and Micro-dilution methods; the result allows to define the most appropriate EOs concentration to use. In a green conservation prospective, this study highlighted that EOs can potentially replace the traditional biocides, but the activity must be preliminary evaluated by centring the choose specifically on each microbial taxon identified.",book:{id:"6944",slug:"heritage",title:"Heritage",fullTitle:"Heritage"},signatures:"Franco Palla",authors:null},{id:"39099",doi:"10.5772/38850",title:"Japan’s University Education in Social Sciences and Humanities Under Globalization",slug:"education-and-research-of-social-science-and-humanities-in-japan-under-globalization",totalDownloads:1841,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"2301",slug:"social-sciences-and-cultural-studies-issues-of-language-public-opinion-education-and-welfare",title:"Social Sciences and Cultural Studies",fullTitle:"Social Sciences and Cultural Studies - Issues of Language, Public Opinion, Education and Welfare"},signatures:"Akiyoshi Yonezawa",authors:[{id:"120081",title:"Prof.",name:"Akiyoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Yonezawa",slug:"akiyoshi-yonezawa",fullName:"Akiyoshi Yonezawa"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"71819",title:"Significance in African Heritage",slug:"significance-in-african-heritage",totalDownloads:707,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Heritage professionals are at all times called upon to make significant judgments about heritage places/objects. There is a supposition therefore that heritage places or objects have intrinsic values that need to be discovered and assigned. This paper, using various examples from Africa, however, argues that values are not intrinsic to heritage but are a construct of heritage professionals/community, and therefore, a heritage place/object can have various values depending on who is making the judgment. It therefore follows that if values vary according to who is assigning them, then the significant/insignificant of a heritage place and object will also vary from one person/community to another. The paper concludes by arguing that significant/insignificant judgments are hegemonic constructions between contending forces, and therefore, it is difficult to have a universally accepted significant or insignificant judgment.",book:{id:"6944",slug:"heritage",title:"Heritage",fullTitle:"Heritage"},signatures:"Herman Ogoti Kiriama and Edith Nyangara Onkoba",authors:null},{id:"39079",title:"Are the Social Sciences Really- and Merely- Sciences?",slug:"are-the-social-sciences-really-and-merely-sciences",totalDownloads:2650,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2301",slug:"social-sciences-and-cultural-studies-issues-of-language-public-opinion-education-and-welfare",title:"Social Sciences and Cultural Studies",fullTitle:"Social Sciences and Cultural Studies - Issues of Language, Public Opinion, Education and Welfare"},signatures:"Jeffrey Foss",authors:[{id:"121172",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey",middleName:null,surname:"Foss",slug:"jeffrey-foss",fullName:"Jeffrey Foss"}]},{id:"73006",title:"Ideological Interaction Theory in Critical Discourse Analysis",slug:"ideological-interaction-theory-in-critical-discourse-analysis",totalDownloads:798,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Cultural and ideological references in critical discourse analysis aim at reframing decisions with exploring the cultural as well as ideological perspectives of the familiar and idiosyncratic styles. The chapter focuses on the development of the ideological interaction theory for connecting the discourse with language and personal thought. The concern criteria are ideology and the other social components like people, status, economy, media, and politics with their connectivity to the global situational trends. Therefore, the chapter surveys the personal traits as psychology, sociological surrounding, and cognitive efforts for the development of social as well as cultural interaction with the perspectives of individual influences.",book:{id:"6944",slug:"heritage",title:"Heritage",fullTitle:"Heritage"},signatures:"Yadu Prasad Gyawali",authors:null},{id:"58144",title:"Losing One’s Culture: The Narrative Identity of Nigerian Catholic Religious Sisters",slug:"losing-one-s-culture-the-narrative-identity-of-nigerian-catholic-religious-sisters",totalDownloads:878,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter reports on part of the findings of a doctoral research focused on identity construction of Catholic religious sisters in the Church and in the wider Nigerian society. Primarily, the chapter interrogates how Catholic religious sisters negotiate their culture identity within the context of living religious life. Data were collected from 18 sister participants, who were purposefully recruited from two religious congregations across the different states of Nigeria. These included six temporary professed, six final professed and six leaders (including superiors/formators) representing the different categories of sisters that live religious life. The data were thematically analysed using the Dialogical Self Theory I-positions. The second sentence revealed tendencies for the participants to lose their cultural identity in terms of their struggles and sometimes compromises in identifying Western culture as the dominate culture of religious life. In this regard, the participants reported that their Nigerian communitarian culture of love, care and hospitality is regulated to the background. In response, this chapter calls for further research towards exploring the impact of culture on Catholic religious sisters’ expression of identity.",book:{id:"6169",slug:"culture-and-identity",title:"Culture and Identity",fullTitle:"Culture and Identity"},signatures:"Chika Eze, Graham C. Lindegger and Susan Rakoczy",authors:[{id:"216952",title:"Dr.",name:"Chika",middleName:null,surname:"Eze",slug:"chika-eze",fullName:"Chika Eze"}]},{id:"72251",title:"Public Diplomacy: Functions, Functional Boundaries and Measurement Methods",slug:"public-diplomacy-functions-functional-boundaries-and-measurement-methods",totalDownloads:834,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"It is common practice when evaluating the effect of public diplomacy to associate it with soft power. This chapter challenges this view. 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