Surface area, pore size and volume of calcined seashells and eggshells biomaterials.
\r\n\tFrederick Law Olmsted, who is considered the father of American landscape architecture, often commented that landscape architecture is a profession that creates natural design approaches in human interaction with the environment.
\r\n\tLandscape design answers the people's need for parks and gardens in urban areas.
\r\n\tIt is a necessary design tool to understand to make more livable places in our living environment. Landscape Planning gives an option to protect our natural resources and natural environment. It draws a balance between the use and protection of natural areas. Urban Design is one of the important issues for landscape architecture. It is a common point of architecture, planning, and the landscape architecture profession. It helps to create sustainable, healthy spaces in urban development. Rural planning and development is the core issue of landscape architecture that makes a balance between natural and human interactions.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book project welcomes research papers related to all Landscape Architecture topics. We hope to provide an opportunity for Landscape Architecture researchers to distribute information to the academic community.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-699-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-698-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-700-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bf47534a17fef030dc256b541482553c",bookSignature:"Dr.Ing. Mustafa Ergen and Associate Prof. Yasar Bahri Ergen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10766.jpg",keywords:"Landscape Design, Sustainable Development, Healthy Spaces, Livable Spaces, Protection of Nature, Landscape Planning, Urban Design, Rural Planning, Rural Development, Landscape Architecture, Townscapes, Vegetation Conservation",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 15th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"22 minutes",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Mustafa Ergen received his Dr.-Eng. degree at the Technical University of Dortmund, Germany. His studies focus on cityscapes, urban and landscape planning, design, and Geographic Information Systems, and Remote Sensing.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Yasar Bahri Ergen received a Doctoral Degree from Gazi University, Turkey. Currently, he is the chair of the City and Regional Planning Department at Siirt University.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/166961/images/system/166961.jpg",biography:"Mustafa Ergen graduated from Abant İzzet Baysal University’s Department of Landscape Architecture in 2000 in Turkey. In 2005, he completed his first master’s degree at the Gebze Institute of Technology in Urban and Regional Planning in Turkey and his second master’s degree at Anhalt University of Applied Sciences in Landscape Architecture, Germany, in 2006. He studied Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania between 2007 and 2008 in Greece and was granted a specialization diploma in Environmental Management. He received the Dr.-Ing. degree at the Technical University of Dortmund, Germany, in 2013. In 2005, he started his professional life at the Yüzüncü Yıl University, Turkey, as a Research Assistant. Between 2010 and 2016, he worked in the Department of Urban Design and Landscape Architecture at Amasya University in Turkey. Currently, He works in the Department of Architecture at Siirt University in Turkey. He speaks English fluently, he has an intermediate level of the German language, and his mother tongue is Turkish. His studies focus on cityscapes, urban and landscape planning, design, and Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing.",institutionString:"Siirt University Email",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Siirt University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"167276",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yasar",middleName:"Bahri",surname:"Ergen",slug:"yasar-ergen",fullName:"Yasar Ergen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167276/images/system/167276.jpg",biography:"Yasar Bahri Ergen graduated from İstanbul State Academy of Engineering and Architecture Department of Architecture in 1973. In 1976, he completed his master degree at the İstanbul State Academy of Engineering and Architecture in City Planning. From 1982 to 1984 he lived in the US to conduct research in his field of expertise. He received the Doctoral Degree from Gazi University in 1987. His academic life started in 1982 and took turn from the US to Gazi University. After 1995, he established Departments of Architecture and City and Regional Planning at Bozok University and Amasya University. In 2017, he established Faculty of Fine Arts and Design and the Faculty Departments at Siirt University. Currently, he is the chair of the City and Regional Planning Department at Siirt University.",institutionString:"Siirt University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"346794",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Miskulin",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/346794/images/15795_n.png",email:"mia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5235",title:"Sustainable Urbanization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76200e89c8c93b3c0b22062aa09a84ff",slug:"sustainable-urbanization",bookSignature:"Mustafa Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5235.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6396",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da1643c7ce5482ec846a188d34ce2839",slug:"urban-agglomeration",bookSignature:"Mustafa Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6396.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"52748",title:"Oscillation Criteria for Second‐Order Neutral Damped Differential Equations with Delay Argument",doi:"10.5772/65909",slug:"oscillation-criteria-for-second-order-neutral-damped-differential-equations-with-delay-argument",body:'\nIn the chapter, we are mainly concerned with the oscillatory behavior of solutions to second‐order nonlinear neutral damped differential equations with delay argument of the form
\nwhere \n
Throughout, we suppose that the following hypotheses hold:
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
By a solution of Eq. (1), we mean a nontrivial real‐valued function \n
We make the standing hypothesis that Eq. (1) admits such a solution. As is customary, a solution of Eq. (1) is said to be oscillatory if it is neither eventually positive nor eventually negative on \n
\n
Oscillation theory was created in 1836 with a paper of Jacques Charles François Sturm published in
Henceforth, the oscillation theory for ordinary differential equations has undergone a significant development. Nowadays, it is considered as coherent, self‐contained domain in the qualitative theory of differential equations that is turning mainly toward the study of solution properties of functional differential equations (FDEs).
\nThe problem of obtaining sufficient conditions for asymptotic and oscillatory properties of different classes of FDEs has experienced long‐term interest of many researchers. This is caused by the fact that differential equations, especially those with deviating argument, are deemed to be adequate in modeling of the countless processes in all areas of science. For a summary of the most significant efforts and recent findings in the oscillation theory of FDEs and vast bibliography therein, we refer the reader to the excellent monographs [2–6].
\nIn a neutral delay differential equation the highest‐order derivative of the unknown function appears both with and without delay. The study of qualitative properties of solutions of such equations has, besides its theoretical interest, significant practical importance. This is due to the fact that neutral differential equations arise in various phenomena including problems concerning electric networks containing lossless transmission lines (as in high‐speed computers where such lines are used to interconnect switching circuits), in the study of vibrating masses attached to an elastic bar or in the solution of variational problems with time delays. We refer the reader to the monograph [7] for further applications in science and technology.
\nSo far, most of the results obtained in the literature has centered around the special
and proved that Eq. (4) is oscillatory if
\nLater on, Grace and Lalli [9] extended the results from [8] to the more general equation
\nwith
\nand showed that Eq. (6) is oscillatory if there exists a continuously differentiable function \n
In Ref. [10], Dong has involved to study the oscillation problem for a half‐linear case of Eq. (1) and by defining a sequence of continuous functions has obtained various kinds of better results. Afterward, his approach has been further developed by several authors, see, e.g., [11–14]. However, it appears that very little is known regarding the oscillation of Eq. (1) with \n
On the other hand, Eq. (1) can be considered as a natural generalization of the second‐order delay differential equation of the form
\nVery recently, the authors of [19] studied the oscillation problem of Eq. (9) with \n
For the simplicity and without further mention, we use the following notations:
\nwhere \n
The organization of this chapter is as follows. Before stating our main results, we present two lemmas that ensure that any solution \n
for \n
\n
holds and Eq. (1) has a positive solution \n
on \n
\n
We assert that \n
we get
\nand so the assertion is proved.
\nNow, we claim that \n
Integrating the above inequality from \n
for \n
\n
holds and Eq. (1) has a positive solution \n
on \n
\n
for \n
Letting \n
which yields
\nand hence we see that \n
which together with Eq. (1) and the assumption \n
On the other hand, from Eq. (23), we have
\nthat is,
\nfor some positive constant \n
and so, Eq. (28) becomes
\nwhere \n
then
\nor, equally
\nIntegrating the above inequality from \n
or
\nIt follows from this last inequality that
\nfor \n
\n
holds and Eq. (1) has a positive solution \n
on \n
\n
exists. Therefore, there exists \n
As in the proof of Lemma 2, we obtain Eq. (27), i.e.,
\nThus,
\nwhere \n
Define the function \n
Integrating the above inequality twice from \n
for \n
Using results of Lemmas 1 and 2, we can obtain the following oscillation criteria for Eq. (1).
\n\n
on \n
where
\nThen, Eq. (1) is oscillatory.
\n\n
on \n
By Eq. (2) and the assumption \n
which together with Eq. (1) implies
\nWe consider the generalized Riccati substitution
\nAs in the proof of Lemma 1, we get Eq. (18), which in view of the assumption \n
Integrating Eq. (55) from \n
So it follows from Eq. (56) and the definition (54) of \n
By Eq. (53) we can easily prove that
\nOn the other hand, since \n
and thus Eq. (58) becomes
\nNow, we consider the following three cases:
\nCase I: \n
In this case, since \n
Case II: \n
In this case, we see that \n
Case III: \n
Since \n
for \n
Hence, there exists \n
and thus
\nfor some positive constant \n
Using these three cases and the definition of \n
for \n
and using the inequality
\nwe obtain
\nIntegrating the above inequality from \n
Taking Eq. (57) into account, we get
\nTaking the lim sup on both sides of the above inequality as \n
\n
Setting \n
\n
on \n
where \n
\n
Next, we present some complementary oscillation results for Eq. (1) by using an integral averaging technique due to Philos. We need the class of functions \n
The function \n
\n
\n
for all \n
\n
where \n
\n
on \n
Define the function \n
where \n
Multiplying Eq. (81) by \n
Setting
\nand
\nand using the inequality
\nwe obtain
\nThus,
\nThat is,
\nIt follows that
\nwhich is a contradiction to Eq. (77). The proof is complete.
\n\n
In the next part, we provide several oscillation results for Eq. (1) under the assumption that the function \n
\n
on \n
Then Eq. (1) is oscillatory.
\n\n
on \n
Proceeding as in the proof of Theorem 1, we obtain the inequality (66), i.e.,
\nfor \n
that is,
\nIntegrating the above inequality from \n
Taking the lim sup on both sides of the above inequality as \n
Setting \n
\n
for all sufficiently large \n
Define a sequence of functions \n
for \n
By induction, we can see that \n
\n
where \n
and
\n\n
for \n
or
\nWe assert that
\nIf not, then
\nas \n
By virtue of Eq. (107), we have \n
that is,
\nMoreover, by induction, we have that
\nThus, since the sequence \n
\n
where \n
\n
on \n
By Eq. (113), there exists a constant \n
Proceeding as in the proof of Lemma 4, we obtain Eq. (110) and from that, we have
\nLet
\nThen it is easy to see that \n
which contradicts the admissible value of \n
\n
where \n
\n
on \n
Proceeding as in the proof of Theorem 3 and using defining \n
Thus,
\nAnd therefore,
\nwhich contradicts Eq. (120). The proof is complete.
\n\n
or
\nfor \n
\n
on \n
From Eq. (103), we have
\nfor all \n
Multiplying the above inequality by the integration factor
\none gets
\nfrom which we have that
\nThis is a contradiction with Eq. (126).
\nNow denote
\nTaking the derivative of \n
Proceeding in a similar manner to that above, we conclude that
\nwhich contradicts to Eq. (127). The proof is complete.
\nThe combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas for energy generate a large amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission, causing global warming and climate change. Presently, legislation such as the Paris Agreement of 2015, provided a framework on dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions (GHG) mitigation, and it is anticipated across the industrialised world to cut down the amount of CO2emissions and limit global warming to less than 2°C [1]. Additionally, the demand for energy is expected to increase by 50% in 2030, and also oil and gas are considered the principal feedstock of about 90% of chemicals produced worldwide, and it is forecasted that petrochemical industries will become the largest driver for global oil consumption by 2050 [2]. In this light, it is therefore important to mitigate the environmental impact of burning carbon-based fuels, in which potential progress has already been made in CO2 capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) technologies [3]. The CCUS is considered a means to deliver low carbon energy, decarbonising industries, and facilitates the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. The stages involved include CO2 capture, transport of the captured CO2, utilisation and secure storage of the captured CO2.
Carbon dioxide capture will play a significant role as fossil fuel will continue to meet world energy needs during this transition to sustainable low-carbon energy system [4]. It has also been reported that this transition phase will linger for a long time, providing sufficient time for the development and commercialisation of renewable energy systems. The transportation sector especially logistics operations majorly depend on fossil fuels, resulting in large carbon footprint on the environment. Based on World Bank data, the shift into low-carbon energy such as renewable energy in logistics operations prove to minimise carbon emission and other greenhouse gases, create sustainable environment as well as improve economic performance [5, 6]. In 2018, the global CO2 emissions increased to 37.1 Gt which is forecasted to rise by about 10% in 2040, majorly due to the combustion of fossil fuels from industrial processes and transportation sector [7]. Hence, the impact of carbon emissions from logistics operations on the environment, global warming, climate change and health can be reduced remarkably by adopting renewable energy and green vehicles [6]. Therefore, government policy and legislations such as the Paris Agreement of 2015 are necessary to drive research and development into low-carbon energy and environmental sustainability. As a result of these policies, renewable energy and carbon capture technologies are being developed, and their implementation is expected to improve environmental quality and sustainability [5, 8, 9]. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energies promote eco-friendly environment. Hence, CCUS technologies will enable the use of fossil fuels in a cleaner way when integrated with power plants to mitigate global warming and climate change effects. CO2 has found utilisation in the following areas mineralisation, biological utilisation, food and beverages, energy storage media, chemicals, enhanced oil recovery, coal bed methane and hydraulic fracturing processes [7]. However, public awareness and acceptance of CCUS is still low in spite of the attention shown by the scientific communities, industries and governments. Findings by Tcvetkov et al. [10] show that most studies on CCUS are dedicated to carbon dioxide storage in geological formation with less attention on capture and transportation. Hence, this study focuses on carbon dioxide capture using natural and renewable biomaterials such as eggshells and seashells.
The essence of carbon capture is to separate carbon dioxide from other gases produced as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels for power generation and industrial processes. Figure 1 shows the three main approaches to accomplish this, which are pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture and oxy-fuel combustion methods.
Three common carbon dioxide capture approaches for coal fired power plant.
Before now, the capture of carbon dioxide is commonly achieved in the industry through absorption using liquid solvents such as selexol, rectisol, and mono-ethanol-amine, MEA [11]. The absorption process involves the use of two columns, namely the absorber and the stripper. This makes the process cost intensive in addition to corrosion issues. Consequently, a large amount of energy is needed to absorb CO2 [12]. On the other hand, physical adsorption via solid adsorption processes can selectively separate carbon dioxide from flue gas mixture. The advantages of adsorption include high selectivity, operation simplicity, low-cost, ease of regeneration, and low corrosiveness of adsorbent compared with solvent processes [11, 12].
The carbon dioxide adsorption approaches rely on the ability of the adsorbing material to preferentially adsorb CO2 over other gases. This is achieved through a packed bed system of the adsorbent materials. The adsorbent materials will continue to absorb CO2 until it is saturated, which is its adsorptive capacity. At this point, the packed bed undergoes desorption either through pressure swing adsorption (PSA) or temperature swing adsorption (TSA), which causes the release of the adsorbed CO2 to the point where the adsorbent material is at equilibrium [12, 13]. The commonly used adsorbent materials include zeolites, activated carbon, microporous/mesoporous silica, carbonates, carbon molecular sieves and metal organic frameworks. These materials possess adequate surface area and pore network structures that are highly microporous to accommodate and capture CO2 [12, 13]. The adsorbent materials are evaluated on the basis of adsorption capacity, preferential adsorption affinity for carbon dioxide over gases from flue gas stream, adsorption and desorption kinetics, low-cost, tolerance of impurities, mechanical strength, multicycle durability and regeneration of stability [13]. Additionally, the porous structure of the adsorbent material is engineered to improve mass transport by reducing diffusional resistance, and the microstructure and morphological texture must demonstrate the capacity to hold captured CO2 during multi cycling between the absorption and regeneration steps [13, 14]. However, since the process is based on gas-solid interaction, operational conditions such as gas flow rate, temperature and vibration could cause disintegration of adsorbent material due to crushing and abrasion, and consequently collapse pore network structures. It is also rare to find a single adsorbent material that maximises all the above highlighted attributes. Therefore, this review explores the use of other materials such as eggshell and seashell rich in calcium carbonate through reactive adsorption, which involves carbonation – calcination of CaO/CaCO3 for carbon dioxide capture.
Alkaline earth metal oxides have demonstrated a strong affinity for acidic gas such as carbon dioxide and sulphur oxides. These metal oxides, particularly calcium oxide (CaO), are effective for the removal of CO2 via carbonation at moderate temperatures of less than 700°C [11]. Hence, calcium oxide has proven a good sorbent material for carbon dioxide capture. With regards to availability and cost, an excellent source of CaO is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The most widely natural source of CaCO3 includes dolomite and limestone. However, these natural resources are non-renewable, energy intensive to exploit, their mining cause damage to the environment as well as landscape. More also, CaO sorbent derived from natural limestone decreases in its reactivity over a number of cycles of reaction with CO2 [15]. As a result of this, attention has been shifted to renewable sources such as eggshells, seashells and snail shells. These waste biomaterials provide sustainable source of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the range of 90–96% [16]. Calcined eggshell and seashells such as oyster shell are rich in lime (CaO) and can be combined with post-combustion and pre-combustion systems to separate CO2 through cyclic carbonation of CaO (calcined eggshell/seashell) to CaCO3, and subsequently the calcination of CaCO3 to release pure CO2 and regenerate back to CaO, as shown in Figure 2 [15, 17, 18, 19]. This reversible reaction between CaO and CO2 is a promising approach of removing CO2 from flue gas from power plants, producing a pure stream of CO2 ready for geological sequestration [15, 19]. To achieve this objective, the material should exhibit sufficient reactivity and thermal stability. Eggshell and seashell are a low-cost and abundant alternative to synthetic calcium carbonate and lime sorbents.
Carbonation – calcination process in calcium looping cycle application for carbon capture.
The poultry and seafood industries generate millions of tonnes of waste shells annually, which are disposed of in landfills. These biomaterials are rich in calcium carbonate, and subsequently, a large source of calcium oxide. The discarded eggshells and seashells after consumption of their food content, the heap waste shell is a habitat for microbes which causes environmental and air pollution due to emission of intensive odour especially during microbial decomposition [16]. These waste shell biomaterials can be recycled and used as a source of calcium oxide material for carbon dioxide capture purposes. Remarkable costs can be saved when these waste shells biomaterials are re-used, with emphasises on economic and sustainable environmental benefits of recycling instead of disposing. However, the carbon dioxide capture capacity of synthesised calcium oxide sorbents from eggshell and seashells decreases, as cycles of carbonation and calcination increases because of sintering over time [17]. To remedy this, it is important to generate more porous surface structure in the biomaterials through pre-treatment and regeneration processes.
The major solid mineral component of eggshells and seashells is calcium carbonate in the range of 92–96% and minor trace elements such as silica, alumina, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, potassium, zinc, manganese, iron, and copper. A detail composition of eggshell and seashells has been reported elsewhere [16]. The physical properties of some calcined eggshells and seashells biomaterials such as surface area, pore volume and pore diameter are shown in Table 1. These waste shells biomaterials exhibit the type-IV isotherm which an attribute of mesoporous texture morphology characterised with a network of micropores. The pore size re-affirms their microstructure characteristics to accommodate captured CO2. During calcination, the specific surface area and pore volume of the crushed eggshells and seashells biomaterials increases, as the calcination temperature increases. This is because of the evolution of porosity within the material as a result of the release of CO2 from CaCO3, leading to the formation of CaO [16, 20]. However, at a temperature greater than 900°C, the surface area and pore volume decreased due to prolonged thermal effect, resulting in sintering [16, 20].
Parameter | Mussel shell | Oyster shell | Chicken eggshell | Ostrich eggshell |
---|---|---|---|---|
Surface area (m2/g) | 89.91 | 24.00 | 54.60 | 71.00 |
Pore volume (cm3/g) | 0.130 | 0.04 | 0.015 | 0.022 |
Pore size (nm) | 3.5 | 6.6 | 0.54 | 0.61 |
Reference | [21] | [22] |
Surface area, pore size and volume of calcined seashells and eggshells biomaterials.
Figure 3 shows the X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) patterns of uncalcined (natural) and calcined (thermally treated) eggshell (quail) and seashell (oyster shell). The major component visible on the XRD pattern of the natural crushed shells is CaCO3and a small amount of Ca(OH)2. Both the quail eggshell and the oyster shell share identical diffraction patterns for both the natural and calcined forms.
XRD pattern of shells natural and calcined: (a) quail eggshell (*CaCO3, natural + CaO, calcined at 900°C) [
This suggests a similar mineralogical identity. After calcination (thermal treatment process), the diffraction lines attributed to rhombohedral phase for CaCO3 disappeared, with new diffraction patterns arising around 2θ = 32.3°, 37.4°, 53.7°, 63.9°, and 67.3° assigned to cubic phase for lime (CaO) appeared (Figure 3). It is worthy to note that the quail eggshell exhibited a crystallite size of 315 nm (CaCO3), while its calcined counterpart showed a size of 240 nm, CaO [23]. This crystallite size decrease can be ascribed to the exothermic natures of the calcination process. However, the lower intensity peaks for calcined eggshell and oyster shell could be related to the reduction in the crystallite size [21, 23]. Hence, the changes in the XRD pattern as a result of calcination are because of the release of carbon dioxide from the decomposition of CaCO3 into CaO.
The associated complexity and high cost for the production of carbon dioxide capture adsorbent materials such as activated carbon or zeolite has shifted attention to exploiting and developing cheap and renewable materials such as eggshells and seashells biomaterials. Figure 4 shows the procedure involved in the preparation of sorbent material from eggshells and seashells. The waste eggshells and seashells first undergo pre-treatment, which begins with acetic acid treatment with a concentration in the range of 1–10 molar to remove dirt, membrane layer, fibrous matters, proteins and other impurities as well as improve pore structure of the biomaterial [24]. Exposing the waste shells to acetic acid promotes the detachment of protein-collagen membrane depending on the extent, concentration and duration. At the end of this process, the sample is filtered and rinsed with distilled or deionised water. The separated eggshell or seashell is dried at 100–200°C for 5 h [16]. The dried biomaterials are crushed and then sieved into different particle size ranges depending on the application. The particles are calcined; the calcination process involves heat treatment to decompose the major component CaCO3 into CaO. The temperature of calcination could range from 500 to 1000°C depending on the application. It has been reported that at 900°C, the CaCO3 undergoes complete conversion into CaO [21]. The material produced after calcination is the sorbent material, which is placed in a desiccator to curtail the chances of coming in contact with humidity and carbon dioxide in the air.
Adsorbent material preparation procedure from eggshell and seashells.
In the pre-treatment phase, the reaction of acetic acid with CaCO3 results in the formation of calcium acetate, which has a larger molar volume than CaCO3 and CaO [25]. The acetic acid treatment helps to expand and improve particle pore structure. As a result of the expanded and enhanced pore network structure, improve performance is achieved over multiple carbonation-calcination reaction (CCR) cycles [24, 26, 27]. Hence, the increased porosity within the microstructure of the synthesised CaO sorbent biomaterial from eggshell or seashells leads to increased reactivity over time.
The continuing reliance on fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and crude oil emits greenhouse gas (GHG) especially carbon dioxide (CO2), a major contributor to global warming. The application of physical and chemical absorption using solvents such as selexol, rectisol, and mono-ethanol-amine (MEA) to remove carbon dioxide from flue gas streams is limited by low-temperature, cost and energy-intensive to regenerate [11]. Produced CaO sorbent material from eggshells or seashells through the method outlined in Figure 4, has proven a good candidate for carbon dioxide capture from flue gas stream of power plants. This is owing to their affinity to carbonate in the presence of CO2; resulting in the formation of CaCO3 which is regenerated back to CaO via calcinations while pure CO2 is released for sequestration in the process as shown in Figure 5.
Schematic of the eggshell or seashell carbonation – calcination processes for carbon dioxide capture.
Unlike the adsorption process for CO2 capture using activated carbon or zeolite adsorbent materials, eggshells and seashells biomaterials are low-cost and offer exclusive environmental and economic benefits. Additionally, eggshell or seashell-derived CaO sorbent are abundant, renewable, simple to prepare and also possesses excellent thermal stability. The mechanism of CO2 capture by these biomaterials comprises of a series of carbonation-calcination reactions (CCR): calcium oxide (CaO) derived from eggshell or seashell reacts with CO2 in the flue gas stream, leading to calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which then undergoes calcination resulting in the release of a pure CO2 stream for sequestration, and at the same time is regenerated into CaO as shown in Figure 5 [24]. The pilot-scale demonstration of the concept has been reported for eggshell and oyster shell in the literature [24, 26, 27, 28, 29]. The reactions are summarised as follows: carbonation (CaO + CO2 → CaCO3) of the eggshell-derived CaO through reaction with CO2 forms calcium carbonate (CaCO3), while the calcination process (CaCO3 → CaO + CO2), regenerates the CaO bio-composite material, and liberate pure stream of CO2 for sequestration. Sacia et al. [27] investigated CaO sorbents derived from chicken eggshell for CO2 from coal-fired power plants. In the work, they discovered that the pre-treatment of the eggshell with acetic acid enhanced and expanded the derived-sorbent material pore structure and surface area, which favoured CO2 diffusion as mass transport is improved.
Figure 6 shows the effect of acetic acid concentration and treatment time on CO2 capture over multiple cycles. It is clear that the acetic acid treated eggshell outperformed the untreated counterpart. On the other hand, derived CaO from eggshell treated with a low concentration of acetic acid exhibited better reactivity and CO2 capture capacity than that treated with higher concentration. This can be attributed to the improved reactivity and porous surface structure within the biomaterials when treated with an optimised concentration of acetic acid [24, 26, 27].
Effect of acetic acid and treatment time on weight per cent CO2 capture using chicken eggshell [
Figure 6 also demonstrates that subjecting the eggshell or seashell to a higher strength acetic acid solution or for a longer treatment time could affect the pore structure, strength and stability of the derived CaO sorbent biomaterial. This is consistent with the result of the investigation reported by Sacia [17], on the use of eggshell for CO2 capture. Hence, the observed decrease in the reactivity and CO2 capture capacity under this condition. More also, the data shows that the derived sorbent from eggshell or seashell cannot be continuously regenerated over multiple cycles, as a result, fresh sorbent would be added as make-up during the process to sustain capture capacity (Figure 6). Depending on the acetic pre-treatment time, it has been reported that the CO2 capture ranges from 70 to 80% in the first cycle, and gradually drop to about 40% in the fifth cycle [27].
Figure 7 shows simulated thermogravimetric analyser (TGA) results to prove CO2 capture capacity of eggshell-derived sorbent using a typical flue gas stream (10% CO2 for 60 min cycles at 700°C). The weight of the sample indicates reactivity, while the weight increase signifies carbonation due to CO2 capture; the decrease represents the calcination process because of CO2 liberation. It is clear that the CO2 capture performance and reactivity gradually diminishes for multicycles over time.
Weight vs. time of eggshell-derived adsorbent for CO2 capture using TGA [
The reactivity and CO2 capture capacity of the eggshell or seashell derived CaO sorbent decline over time, so regeneration of sorbents in-situ is pivotal to maintaining CO2 capture. The regeneration can be carried out using deionised water and acetic acid solutions [27]. The effect of regeneration of the eggshell derived CaO sorbent on CO2 capture is shown in Figure 8. It is clear that regeneration with acetic acid is more effective than with water. Sacia [17] ascribed this observation to two factors. First, the use of acetic acid resulted in calcium acetate, which exhibited a higher molar volume than only Ca(OH)2 formed when water is used. Also, the combination of water and acetic acid allows for a surface structure rearrangement due to the solubility of calcium acetate in water. It has been found that the use of 2 M acetic acid offers the best performance after multiple cycle regeneration in terms of reactivity and CO2 capture [17, 24]. It can be observed that over three regenerations, all of the sorbent showed similar results trend.
Conversion vs. regenerations of eggshell derived CaO sorbent treated with a 1 M acetic acid for 30 min [
In the investigation of Sacia et al. [27], it was found that regeneration restored the reactivity of the eggshell-derived CaO sorbent, and subsequently, CO2 capture capacity in the range of 70–80% was achieved. The CO2 capture capacity increased on average after successive regeneration, as can be seen in Figure 8. This suggests that periodic regeneration can effectively increase the reactivity of the spent eggshell or seashell-derived CaO sorbent. In another study by Banerjee et al. [30], it was reported that after four successive regenerations over multi-cycles usage, the carbon dioxide capture capacity of the eggshell-derived sorbent material decreased from 6824 mg CO2/g to 1608 mg CO2/g an average compared to the fresh material. This indicates that the eggshell-derived CaO sorbent biomaterial could hold about eight times its own weight of CO2 from flue gas. Furthermore, Ma and Teng [31] investigated and reported the carbonation – calcination loop of CaO/CaCO3 process for CO2 capture using CaO derived sorbent from oyster shells. Though compared to reagent grade CaO from CaCO3, the oyster shell derived CaO possess bigger crystallite size and lower specific surface area. It was reported that at 740°C carbonation temperature, the oyster shell-derived CaO sorbent in cyclic carbonation exhibited superior performance to the reagent-grade CaO obtained from CaCO3. Therefore, utilising this waste biomaterial in CO2 capture encourages the reuse of materials in the industries, which will reduce the risk, cost and energy associated with mining limestone and dolomite for CaCO3 and CaO, and subsequently offers economic and environmental benefits. However, these benefits will be significant if the system is scaled-up to industrial standards.
There are large tonnes of eggshells and seashells discarded in landfill annually from poultry and food industries. Most of the seashells and eggshells are piled up on the seashore and thus would cause risks to water resources and public health. The applications of these biomaterials in construction such as concrete and cement production, catalyst manufacture, adsorbent for wastewater treatment, source of calcium in animal feed, manufacture of hydroxyapatite biomaterial, and additive in plastic manufacture has been explored extensively in the literature. These biomaterials contain about 96% calcium carbonate mineralogical component from which calcium oxide can be produced through thermal treatment. The carbonation – calcination loop of CaO/CaCO3 process has been investigated for CO2 capture potentials. Herein, the application of eggshell and seashell derived-CaO sorbent in the capture of carbon dioxide from flue gas is reviewed. The utilisation of this waste shell offers economic as well as environmental benefits because they are abundant, renewable and cheap. The CaO sorbent derived from eggshell and seashell has demonstrated the potential for carbon dioxide capture. It was also found that pre-treatment and regeneration provide means of restoring reactivity and CO2 capture capacity over multicyclic usage. Although this ensured sustainability and sorbent recyclability, the performance decreases ten cycles after regeneration. The future outlook will be to improve the carbon dioxide capture capacity and thermal stability of these biomaterials over multicycles operations.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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