Composition (wt. %) of the alloys used in this study.
\r\n\t2) Human sexual disorders in males and females.
\r\n\t3) Psychological aspects of the human sexual response cycle and its disorders.
\r\n\t4) The therapeutic aspects.
\r\n\tThe human sexual response cycle and human sexual behavior are interrelated. How this inter-relationship and its association to normal sexual health need to be delineated. In a world torn between sex and sexually transmitted disease, clear-cut scientific information in the form of a monograph is required to educate.
\r\n\r\n\tHuman sexuality, gender identity, and sexuo-erotic orientation play great roles in human health and disease. Sex education is the need of the hour and a reflection will be timely.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-151-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-150-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-152-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"13af09c4cf93ae89789a3db597972cf6",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11267.jpg",keywords:"Master and Johnson's Cycle, Sex Education, Premature Ejaculation, Orgasmic Disorders, Sexual Aversion Disorders, Dyspareunia, Vaginismus, Sex Hormones, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Impotence, Low Libido, Blood Analyses",numberOfDownloads:111,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 18th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 2nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sheriff is a life counselor, sex educationist, and researcher with over 35 years of teaching experience, five authored books, and editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology and the Journal of Royal Society of Medicine. 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Projections show dramatic increases in older population; approximately by 2030 there will be an estimated 8 million people who are 85 years or older [1-3]. Moreover, 25% of the population in USA will be age 65 years or older in 2050. The percentage over the age of 85 is expected to triple [4-7]. Europe has experienced the similar transition to an older population profile over the last century which reflects a world-wide demographic trend towards an ageing population. Department of Health reports that in Britain, the number of people aged over 65 years has doubled in the last 70 years and the number of people over 90 years is expected to double in the next 25 years [8]. Similarly D\'Astolfo et al state that older adults aged 65 plus, are the fastest growing segment of the Canadian population [9].
The European Union has identified the provision of health and social care for this population as a crucial challenge for the 21st century. In a shift away from merely extending life, ways of reducing morbidity and coping with disability, preventing incapacity, extending the quality of life and enhancing the functional independence of older people will be an important component of service provision [10,11]. Recent efforts have begun to concentrate on the predictors of successful aging, but age-based comparisons of the pain experience remain challenging due to the complexity and non-uniformity of the aging process [12]. Therefore, there is an urgent and growing need for interventions that are effective in decreasing pain, suffering, and pain-related disability in this group.
Although chronic pain is a highly prevalent and often disabling condition among older adults, the prevalence in the elderly is not properly defined. Some studies suggest that fifty percent of community dwelling adults aged 60 years or above have been found to experience pain and this number increases to 45–80% in the nursing home population with analgesics being used in 40% to 50% of residents [1,13-19]. Brown et al report higher percentage and state that more than 90% of the elderly living in the community experienced pain within the past month [6]. Given the prevalence of chronic pain, its impact on health, and its costs, which approach $100 billion annually, chronic pain represents a major public health issue [20].
While the existence of acute pain remains approximately the same across the adult life span, there is an age-related increase in the prevalence of chronic pain at least until the seventh decade of life [13,15]. Approximately 57% of older adults report experiencing pain for 1 or more years compared with less than 45% of younger people. Furthermore, long-term care data indicate that over 40% of patients, who were known to have pain at an initial assessment, had worsening or severe pain at the time of the second assessment 2–6 months later [21].
Chronic musculoskeletal pain (CMP) is the most common, non-malignant disabling condition that affects at least one in four older people [22,23]. The most musculoskeletal pain in the joints of the upper and lower extremities, especially hips, knees, and hands, is associated with the degenerative changes of osteoarthritis. Older adults may also develop tendonitis and bursitis, as well as inflammatory joint and muscle disease [24]. The most common painful musculoskeletal conditions among older adults are osteoarthritis, low back pain, fibromyalgia, chronic shoulder pain, knee pain, myofascial pain syndrome and previous fracture sites [7,23,25].
It is reported that the most common causes of pain identified in nursing home patients included arthritis and previous fractures. Arthritis alone affects well over 20 million Americans with an increase to 40 million expected by 2020. Twenty-nine percent of Medicare patients in nursing homes with a fracture in the prior 6 months suffer with daily pain [13]. Also surgical procedures are more frequently performed on older people. In the Medicare population in the United States for example, rates of total joint replacement surgery for patients with severe hip or knee osteoarthritis are more than doubled between 1988 and 1997. Over the same time period, rates of spine surgery in Medicare patients increased by 57% [23]. Chronic low back pain (CLBP) is one of the most common, poorly understood, and potentially disabling chronic pain conditions in older adults [26]. Many older adults remain quite functional despite CLBP, and because age-related co-morbidities often exist independently of pain, the unique impact of CLBP is unknown [27]. The Framingham Study (1992-1993) reported 63% of women pain in one or more regions, compared to 52% of men. Widespread CMP was more prevalent among women than men (15 versus 5%, respectively) [28].
Finding that CMP is linked with the subsequent development of severe mobility disability may have important public health implications for the rapidly aging population [29]. Among 898 nondisabled community-dwelling older adults, it was found that the risk of disability increases with the number of areas reported with CMP [30]. The results of the another study indicated that more than 90% of the elderly living in the community experienced pain within the past month, with 41% reporting discomforting, distressing, unbearable, or severe pain. CMP was found to be the most predominant pain, and inactivity was the most effective strategy used to lessen pain [6]. D\'Astolfo et al emphasized that CMP is a significant burden on the Canadian health care system. It is considered the third most expensive disorder in terms of spent health care dollars, surpassed only by cancer and heart disease [9].
The impact of CMP is a cycle of disuse and inactivity. This cycle in turn leads to a further reduction in function, accompanying psychological effects and decreased quality of life [7,31]. Interrelated problems caused by the inadequate treatment of pain in older adults have been highlighted by several authors. Consequences of poorly managed CMP in this population may include fear of movement, decreased ambulation, functional decline, functional dependence, disability, impaired posture, risk of pressure sores, muscle atrophy, increased subsequent exacerbation of frailty. Older adults may also have impaired appetite, malnutrition, impairment of excretory functions (bowel and bladder) and impaired memory, the impairment of enjoyable recreational activities, impaired dressing and grooming, sleep disturbance, behavioral problems, social isolation, depression, anxiety and even suicidal thoughts [7,10,14-16]. Furthermore, depression, behavioral changes, and cognitive impairment can complicate therapy and make assessment more difficult. Pain-induced decline in mobility and activity may further lead to increase the risk of trauma, particularly caused from falls [14].
Falls are one of the major causes of death among older adults and the most important cause of hospitalization and increased healthcare utilization and costs in this population [9]. CMP measured according to number of locations, severity, or pain interference with daily activities is associated with greater risk of falls in older adults [32-35]. Leveille et al conducted the population-based study. At baseline, 40% of participants reported polyarticular chronic pain, and another 24% reported chronic pain in only one joint area. A total of 1,029 falls were reported during 18 months of follow-up. The researchers found that patients who had chronic pain had higher rates of falls during follow-up than those who were pain-free [33]. In the another population based study, total of 605 participants aged 75 years and older, CMP was reported by 48% of the participants, of whom majority had moderate to severe pain in lower extremities or back. The participants with moderate to severe pain had more than twice (odds ratio 2.33, 95% confidence interval 1.44-3.76) the risk for impaired balance compared with those without pain. The researchers came up with a conclusion that there was a direct relationship between the moderate to severe CMP and impaired postural balance [36].
In spite of high prevalence and consequences of CMP among older adults, there have been relatively few studies in older populations with pain. Studies have indicated that less than 1% of the thousands of papers published on pain focus on the aging society [13,17]. Therefore, health care professionals remain ineffective in assessing and treating pain. Improving the health care professionals’ knowledge and skills related to pain assessment in older adults and adopting aggressive approaches to comprehensive pain assessment are crucial to improve older adult’s quality of life [15,37]. The study conducted recently reported that although CLBP was a common and debilitating problem in older adults, primary care physicians did not feel "very confident" in their ability to diagnose any of the contributors of CLBP listed (most items <40%). The results point to a need for more primary care physician education about CLBP in older adults [38].
Older people may not report pain, and nurses or caregivers may not enquire about it. Both older people and their caregivers can hold age related attitudes regarding pain and view pain as an expected consequence of the ageing process. Older adults may not report pain because they do not want to be a burden for their families and caregivers. It results mostly in lack of information by healthcare professionals about pain control of older people. Furthermore, extensive documentation requirement may deter health-care professionals from appropriately prescribing effective treatments [39,40]. Other factors such as inadequate reimbursement and financial incentives for pain management efforts, negative reinforcement in training programs for attending to pain while being rewarded for less important and more detailed interventions, lack of training for pain management skills, lack of recognition and interaction among various medical disciplines (and even among different pain groups), limited access to diagnostic or therapeutic facilities or experts, inadequate pharmacy services, insufficient staffing for proper pain assessment and interventions, inflexible access to medications based on formulary selections, and other restrictive policies may also contribute to failure in treatment of pain [4,40].
Treatments for CMP are focused at decreasing pain, making it more tolerable and improving patients function. Considering the needs of individual older patients can better explain what their expectations are regarding pain treatment outcomes. Treating pain should be done individually as well as following some general principles. Multidisciplinary pain programs that combine several modes of pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment have demonstrated efficacy for the management of chronic pain in older adults. However, those programs appear to be not being used effectively, because older patients are less likely to be offered this treatment in pain management clinics, and receive fewer treatment options when attending such clinics due to inadequate representation [12,41].
Pharmacological therapy for chronic musculoskeletal pain is the most effective when combined with non-pharmacological approaches: physical therapy (e.g., exercise program, TENS, application of heat or cold), psychological methods (e.g., relaxation, biofeedback, hypnosis, cognitive-behavioral therapy), educational programs, social interventions and complementary therapies (e.g., acupuncture) [14,16,37,41,]. In an older population, where the risk of adverse events is higher, the non-pharmacologic options will usually cost less and cause fewer side effects.
Although the high risk for adverse drug reactions in the older adults, pharmacologic interventions remain the primary modality for treating CMP in the geriatric population [20]. The management of CMP in older patients mostly consists of opioids, non-opioids and adjuvant analgesics.
Drug distribution usually is different in older patients as compared to younger patients because of changes in blood flow to organs, protein binding, and body composition that occur with aging [3]. In addition, many older adults continue to report substantial pain despite the regular use of analgesic medications. Polypharmacy, as well as inappropriate prescribing, for the older patients is a major problem and a challenge that contributes to costs, adverse drug events, confusion, compliance issues, and errors in management. [42-44] It is reported that CMP is one of the most common geriatric consultation and admission the hospital. Geriatric consultations increase the total number of medications and the cost of medications used by elderly patients. These restrictions have led to a need for effective non-pharmacological interventions to manage CMP [42].
According to American Geriatric Society (AGS) nonopioids are generally the first line of therapy for mild to moderate or “tolerable” CMP [16,23,43]. Acetaminophen (APAP) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most common analgesics used to. APAP is usually the first choice because it is relatively safe for older people. It was reported that APAP treatment reduced pain behaviors associated with musculoskeletal pain in persons with dementia in community-dwelling [45,46]. Dosing of APAP should be limited to avoid liver toxicity, and topical analgesics are preferred for focal pain. The long-term use of NSAIDs should be avoided when possible because of their high frequency of adverse effects; e.g., risks of gastrointestinal bleeding and renal dysfunction which are significantly higher in older adults than in the younger population. The newer cyclooxygenese-2 (COX)-2 inhibitor NSAIDs are believed to be associated with a lower side effect profile in older adults [41]. COX-2 inhibitor NSAIDs has been linked to an increased incidence of acute coronary syndrome, although there is evidence that cardiovascular-related adverse events are not limited to the selective COX-2 inhibitors. Additionally, chronic use of either APAP or NSAIDs has been associated to elevations in blood pressure [47].
Data was collected from 428 patients aged ≥50 years with non-inflammatory musculoskeletal pain during a consultation with their general practitioner (GP). In cases, where a prescription is issued, this is more strongly influenced by previous NSAID prescriptions than the patient\'s pain level. Researchers concluded that GPs mostly adopt an individualized approach to the treatment of musculoskeletal pain in older adults [48]. A survey of inpatients’ drug knowledge showed that 66–90% of older adults did not know which of several medicines contained APAP, and only 7% knew the maximum daily dose. Therefore close monitoring of pain medication use is necessary in older patients, particularly those with cognitive impairment. According to the 2009 guidelines for pharmacologic management of persistent pain in older persons published by the AGS, NSAIDs should be used only with extreme caution in highly selected individuals once other safer therapies have failed. Absolute contraindications for NSAIDs use in older adults are chronic kidney disease, heart failure, and active peptic ulcer disease [16,46,49].
Worries connected to taking opioids and a reluctance to report pain have caused inefficient pain management with opioids in older patients. In reality, addiction risk with opioids is low (<0.1%) when analgesics are used for acute pain in patients who are not substance abusers [4]. Opioids are one of the pharmacologic classes recommended for treatment from moderate to severe pain in guidelines released in 2009 by the AGS. According to the AGS, opioids should be considered for patients who have pain related functional impairment or diminished quality of life due to pain [23,50].
Within this population, short-acting opioids can be used in treatment of patients with intermittent pain, whereas sustained-release opioids should be given for continuous pain (with short-acting preparations available for breakthrough pain). Once total daily dose requirements have been determined, a long acting agent may be used. Sustained-released opioids should be used for the treatment of continuous pain while using short-acting preparations for breakthrough pain. Both morphine and oxycodone are commonly used and available in both short-acting and sustained-release preparations. For patients who may not be able to take oral preparations periodically, opioids are available as parenteral, sublingual (buprenorphine hydrochloride), suppository (oxymorphone hydrochloride), and transdermal (eg, fentanyl patch) products. Long-acting opioids should seldom be initiated in opioid-naive older patients [7,46].
Patient-controlled analgesia (PCA), whether using oral or parenteral agents, can be most beneficial in a cognitively intact population, with the likelihood of the best pain control in conjunction with the least amount of opioid needed to control musculoskeletal pain [4].
An oral long-acting agent such as morphine (the oral dose required is usually about 3 to 4 times greater than the parenteral dose needed for the same duration) or oxycontin in conjunction with a similar short-acting agent can also be used. Some people will metabolize the medication more quickly, and if breakthrough pain occurs after 8 hours of adequate pain relief, therefore the solution would be to increase the frequency of dosing to every 8 hours from every 12 hours rather than to increase the 12-hour dosage. A controlled-release morphine or controlled-release oxycodone should never be prescribed more frequently than every 8 hours [4].
Meperidine hydrochloride should not be used because of the accumulation of a nephrotoxic metabolite. Benzodiazepines have also been used in the treatment of a variety of painful conditions, particularly muscle spasms related to pain crises. Transdermal fentanyl patches should generally be avoided as a first-line agent in older patients, because absorption is unpredictable, being affected by differences in body temperature and subcutaneous fat and water in older patients as compared with younger adults studied in clinical trials [23]. Trescot et al reported that long-term effectiveness of 6 months or longer use of opioids is variable with evidence ranging from moderate for transdermal fentanyl and sustained-release morphine with a Level II-2, to limited for oxycodone with a Level II-3, and indeterminate for hydrocodone and methadone with a Level III [51].
Although opioid therapies may have a lower risk for organ failure than other therapies, confusion, dizziness, nausea, sedation, constipation, impaired balance, falls and hip fractures, depression, and agitation are other potential related side effects that can affect this population in particular. Finally, older adults with CMP taking opioid analgesics should be reassessed for ongoing attainment of therapeutic goals, adverse effects, and safe and responsible medication use [46].
Adjuvant medications, while not classically categorized as analgesics, may be effective in treating certain CMP syndromes in older adults. Steroids, anticonvulsants, topical local anesthetics, and antidepressants are adjuvant agents. Depression/anxiety is often unnoticed in older patients and requires consideration when managing patients with pain [4,23,41]. The study of the relationship between depression and pain complaints in older patients has revealed that initial control of depression greatly facilitates pain management. If depression is not addressed aggressively, interventions to manage pain are unlikely to be successful [7]. Tertiary amines (e.g., amitriptyline, imipramine, trimipramine, doxepin, clomipramine, should be avoided in older patients because of greater anticholinergic side effects, including sedation, delirium, urinary retention, constipation, glaucoma exacerbation, and dizziness and, for amitriptyline, especially, the risk of cardiac arrhythmia. By contrast, secondary amines (nortriptyline, desipramine, protriptyline, amoxapine) tend to have better adverse event profiles in older patients [41].
Tramadol is another agent available to help control mild to moderate pain and, except in a substance-abuse population. It should have a low tolerance problem and may be beneficial in a variety of pain situations [23].
In about 90% of cases, additional adjuvant medications will be needed to control pain. Vitamin D is also likely to be helpful in some pain situations. Vitamin D and calcium have also been shown to decrease fracture rates, which are a source of pain themselves. Lower concentrations of 25(OH)D are associated with significant back pain in older women, but not men. Because vitamin D deficiency and CMP are fairly prevalent in older adults, these findings suggest it may be worthwhile to query older adults about their pain and screen older women with significant back pain for vitamin D deficiency [52]. Calcitonin has been shown in clinical trials to relieve pain associated with vertebral compression fractures. Topical agents are also available for site-specific pain. Also, topical treatments can be useful for patients who have difficulty swallowing pills and for patients taking multiple medications. The safety of topical lidocaine has been established as well. Topical capsaicin should be started at the lowest dose recommended. However the burning sensation associated with capsaicin application during the chemical desensitization phase makes for poor tolerability; many older patients are not able to endure the treatment long enough to achieve therapeutic effects [4,41,50].
Adverse drug reactions occur more than twice as frequently among older adults than younger ones and increase as the number of medications increases. On average, a 70-year-old takes seven different medications. A high prevalence of medication errors in older adults results from accumulation of factors that contribute to medication errors in all age groups, such as polypharmacy, polymorbidity, enrollment in several disease-management programs, and fragmentation of care [53]. The essential approach to treating older adults is not necessarily to find a set number of medications and try to stay below it, but to find the right medication at the right dosage and for the shortest possible duration on a case-by-case basis. This individualized approach to treating patients will provide a much safer and more effective means of practicing and will improve patients\' quality of life [54]. In general, as specific initial and titrating dosage regimens for the elderly are not readily available, the “start low and go slow” approach to drug prescribing in the elderly is particularly important as it applies to pain management (AGS 2002) [16,21,42].
Ideally, first-line interventions should directly address the source of pain in older adults with CMP. A comprehensive examination of the patient to identify impairments associated with the painful condition will direct those interventions. Physical therapy interventions reduce stress and correct malalignments of joint structures, correct muscle imbalances, and enhance the shock absorption capacity of tissue structures. Selection of appropriate treatments must include consideration of contraindications associated with the patient’s comorbid conditions (e.g., osteoporosis or osteopenia) [10,20,57].
Passive treatment modalities focused solely on temporarily decreasing pain symptoms (e.g., heat treatments, cryotherapy, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation [TENS]) should be used sparingly as part of the physical therapy intervention [1,2]. These modalities should be a means to an end, the end being decreasing pain to a sufficient extent to allow patients to participate in subsequent active treatments aimed at positively affecting functional abilities [20,50,55-57].
Superficial heating agents (e.g. hot packs, warm hydrotherapy, paraffin, fluidotherapy and infrared) or deep heating agents (e.g. short-wave and microwave diathermy, and ultrasound) can be used to increase blood flow, membrane permeability, tissue extensibility and joint range of motion in ways that can contribute to decreasing pain. Heat and cold alter both peripheral and central nervous system excitability, and can thus serve as a means of modulating pain [20,58].
Although thermal agents are frequently used in the physical therapy treatment of patients with pain, the literature on the effects of thermal agents on pain in older adults is limited. Thermal agents are commonly used in the self-management of chronic pain [55]. In a study of 235 (mean age of 82 years) community-dwelling adults, Acetaminophen, regular exercise, prayer, and heat and cold were the most frequently used pain management strategies (61%, 58%, 53%, and 48%, respectively). 272 community-dwelling older adults aged 73 years or older reported hot and/or cold modalities (28%) as a pain-reduction strategy [59]. Chatap et al conducted a study to determine the effects of hyperbaric CO(2) cryotherapy in older adults with pain whose origin was usually musculoskeletal (80.3%). They found that the pain scores decreased significantly after four sessions, from 45mm to 13mm on visual analog scale (P<0.001) in those with chronic pain. They concluded that hyperbaric CO(2) cryotherapy is an innovative tool that should be incorporated within the non-pharmacological armamentarium for achieving pain relief in older patients [60].
Although there is scant evidence on the use of joint mobilization and manipulation specifically for older adults, research has addressed the use of these treatments for knee and hip osteoarthritis (OA), conditions common in older adults [20]. A recent qualitative systematic review aimed to determine if manual therapy improves pain and/or physical function in people with hip or knee OA. Four RCTs were eligible for inclusion (280 subjects), three of which studied people with knee OA and one studied those with hip OA. There is silver level evidence that manual therapy is more effective than exercise for those with hip OA in the short and long-term. The researchers concluded that due to the small number of RCTs and patients, this evidence could be considered to be inconclusive regarding the benefit of manual therapy on pain and function for knee or hip OA [61].
A Cochrane systematic review concludes that manual therapy alone is insufficient in the management of persistent neck pain. However, there is strong evidence that either manipulation or mobilization combined with exercise is effective in reducing pain. This review also concluded that manual therapy with exercise improves function and the patients’ global perceived effect of treatment [62]. The Philadelphia Panel (2001) concluded that there were insufficient data for the general population to reach a conclusion about the effect of massage for low back pain, neck pain, and shoulder pain. A systematic review by Harris et al [63], determined that slow-stroke back massage and hand massage showed statistically significant improvements on physiological or psychological indicators of relaxation in older people. A limited number of studies on massage have been conducted exclusively with older individuals. Hawk et al compared the clinical outcomes of spinal manipulation and a non-manipulative mind-body approach (Bioenergetic Synchronization Technique) for patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain in older adults. They reported that for this particular group of patients, both groups demonstrated similar improvement scores on the Pain Disability Index [64].
Protective and supportive devices assist a decrease in pain and increase in function for patients with joint instability or malalignment. Therapeutic taping for patellar realignment is effective in reducing pain and improving function in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee. Recently introduced kinesiotaping method helps to increase blood circulation, decrease pain and relaxation on fascia, tendon and muscles regarding painful musculoskeletal conditions. Impact-absorbing shoes may help to relieve foot, ankle, knee and hip pain from osteoarthritis. Patients with metatarsalgia associated with rheumatoid arthritis experienced decreased pain using custom-fitted foot orthotics. Besides supportive and protective devices, ambulation devices like wheelchair, cane, crutch etc. can help to relieve stress from lower extremity especially during immobilization period after musculoskeletal injuries in older adult. Therefore appropriate device selection and measurements are important in order to improve efficiency. Decisions regarding the use of protective or supportive devices should therefore be individualized to the patient based on the information gained in the examination [20,57,58].
Despite positive conclusions regarding the use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), methodological weaknesses of published studies limit the ability to conclusively support the use of TENS for chronic pain conditions in older adults. High-frequency TENS appears to be the most effective TENS application for postsurgical pain and can be used with modulating frequencies to control neurologic accommodation. A recent systematic review of TENS for persistent pain concluded that an insufficient number of high-quality randomized clinical trials existed to evaluate the use of TENS for the management of persistent pain. To date, only a small number of studies have been found that examined the effect of TENS exclusively with older adults [57,58].
Most recently, van Middelkoop M et al found no difference in effectiveness of TENS and sham TENS and no difference between TENS and active treatments. The data provided low quality evidence for TENS versus sham-TENS and very low quality evidence that percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (PENS)/acupuncture is more effective than TENS for post-treatment and short-term pain relief [65]. They concluded that application of TENS attenuates blood pressure and vasoconstrictor responses during exercise and metaboreflex activation, associated with improved sympatho-vagal balance in healthy young and older individuals [66]. A recent study by Weiner et al provides some support for the use of percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (PENS) for low back pain in older adults. Subjects randomized to PENS plus physical therapy intervention had significantly greater reductions in pain intensity measures at the end of the 6 weeks (P<.001). These pain reduction effects were maintained at 3-month follow-up [67].
In evidence-based meta analysis by Zhang W et al in 2008, authors search recommendations for the management of hip and knee osteoarthritis (OA). Recommendations cover the use of 12 non-pharmacological modalities: education and self-management, regular telephone contact, referral to a physical therapist, aerobic, muscle strengthening and water-based exercises, weight reduction, walking aids, knee braces, footwear and insoles, thermal modalities, TENS and acupuncture [68]. Same author groups made similar meta-analysis in 2010 and reported that among non-pharmacological therapies, effect size for pain relief was unchanged for self-management, education, exercise and acupuncture. However, with new evidence the effect size for pain relief for weight reduction reached statistical significance [69].
Complementary and alternative medicine is most often used to treat painful musculoskeletal conditions as well as conditions that are comorbid with pain in older adults as a holistic therapy. [70]. Molton et al researched the pain coping strategies among older, middle-aged, and younger adults living with CMP. They reported older adults report a wider range of frequently used strategies and significantly more frequent engagement in activity pacing, seeking social support, and use of coping self-statements than did younger or middle-aged adults [71]. Self-management programs for pain have particular relevance for the field of geriatric pain management [56,71]. Despite their documented efficacy in young to middle aged samples cognitive-behavioral and self-management pain therapies have been little-studied in elderly populations. A variety of self-management programs aim to enhance the ability of patients to successfully self manage their pain, using a variety of techniques [72,73]. The most common behavioral modes of therapy include self-regulation strategies such as relaxation, biofeedback, hypnosis, imagery, and meditation. Although there are variations among these approaches, they share some or all of the following components: 1) education about pain and its consequences; 2) relaxation skills training (e.g., progressive muscle relaxation); 3) cognitive coping skills training; 4) problem solving (e.g., addressing problems with homework exercises or goals that are proposed to be met after each class); and 5) communication skills training (e.g., how to talk to physicians or health care providers about pain). In pain management, self management therapy serves to focus a patient’s attention to exercise control in decreasing sympathetic arousal [37,74]. Besides patient education caregiver education is especially important for caring in the elderly. Both one-on-one as well as group programs can be effective [3,7].
The American Psychological Association recognizes cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) as an empirically supported intervention in management of chronic musculoskeletal pain; including rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, fibromyalgia, and low back pain. Its foundation is the gate control theory integrating the sensory, affective, and cognitive components of pain. Cognitive processes are thoughts, self-statements, or evaluations about the pain and beliefs, interpretations, or attributions regarding this condition [37,75]. 10-session psychosocial (i.e. cognitive behavioral orientation) pain management program that was specifically designed for older adults was used in ninety-five community dwelling seniors with at least one chronic musculoskeletal pain condition. Although decreases in pain intensity were observed in both the treatment and wait-list control groups, the intervention was found to result in fewer maladaptive beliefs about pain and greater use of relaxation, which is considered to be an adaptive coping strategy [76]. Beissner et al reported if physical therapists incorporate CBT techniques (eg, relaxation, activity pacing) when treating older patients with chronic pain. Commonly used CBT interventions included activity pacing and pleasurable activity scheduling [75].
The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine defines mind–body medicine in the following way: Mind-body medicine focuses on the interactions among the brain, mind, body, and behavior, and the powerful ways in which emotional, mental, social, spiritual, and behavioral factors can directly affect health. It regards as a fundamental approach that respects and enhances each person’s capacity for self-knowledge and self-care, and it emphasizes techniques that are grounded in this approach [72]. Morone et al conducted a structured review of eight mind–body interventions: biofeedback, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation, guided imagery, hypnosis, tai chi (TC), qi gong, and yoga for older adults with chronic nonmalignant pain. He reported that there is some support for the efficacy of progressive muscle relaxation plus guided imagery for osteoarthritis pain. There is limited support for meditation and TC for improving function or coping in older adults with low back pain or osteoarthritis. TC, yoga, hypnosis, and progressive muscle relaxation were significantly associated with pain reduction in these studies [72].
It is reported that prevalent coping strategies included analgesic medications (78%), exercise (35%), cognitive methods (37%), religious activities (21%), and activity restriction (20%) for older adults with chronic pain due to a musculoskeletal cause [77]. Reid et al suggested in their review (N = 27) that a broad range of self-management programs (yoga, massage therapy, TC, and music therapy) may provide benefits for older adults with CMP highlighting the need for research to establish the efficacy of the programs in different age and ethnic groups of older adults and identify strategies that maximize program reach long-term participation [74].
Biologically based therapies, one of the major categories of complementary and alternative therapies, according to the federal National Institutes of Health (NIH), involve supplementing a person’s normal diet with additional extracts, nutrients, herbs and/or certain foods. Among older adults, glucosamine sulfate and chondroitin sulfate are popular supplements used for the treatment of osteoarthritis and are among the most well studied biologic alternative medicines. Glucosamine and chondroitin are components of the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage; glucosamine is a substrate required to synthesize glycoproteins and glycosaminoglycans, components of synovial fluid, ligaments, and other cartilaginous joint structures, and chondroitin is a glycosaminoglycan that functions as a building block for joint matrix structure. Another commonly used biological agent for arthritis is S-adenosyl L-methionine (SAMe). This is a synthetic version of a naturally occurring coenzyme that is produced by the liver from methionine SAMe has been attributed with analgesic and antiinflammatory properties, and can stimulate articular growth [50].
In recent years exercise, which is one of the non-pharmacological approaches, is getting the most important component of CMP management. Regular exercise, interventions to increase physical activity, strengthening the muscles, accompanied with weight loss are effective methods in the management of CMP such as OA, low back pain etc. in older adults. Regular moderate level exercise training or increased physical activity does not aggravate pain and joint symptoms as expected in OA according to RCTs and elicit significant health benefits. But pain, swelling, fatigue and weakness during activity or lasting more than 1-2 hours after exercise should be always considered as sign of excessive stress. Any activity that worsens pain or the other symptoms, and in acute flare-up periods of rheumatoid arthritis should be discontinued [78,79].
The most studied CMP among older adults in literature belongs to knee OA. High and low-intensity aerobic exercises are equally effective in improving pain in persons with knee OA [80]. Specifically, aerobic exercise, water-based (aquatic) and land-based exercises, aerobic walking, quadriceps strengthening, and resistance exercise, physiotherapy-based exercise modalities reduce knee pain in older adults [80-84]. But a recent systematic review states that there are few RCTs recommending the use of exercise in reducing pain related to hip and knee OA and the content, duration and frequency of the exercise sessions is very heterogeneous [85].
Regular exercise also as an important adjunct to other interventions (e.g. thermal agents, patient education, etc.) is the most frequently preferred pain management strategies after medication in some older adult populations [55,58].
Various forms of exercise can modulate pain either directly or indirectly. Passive or active exercise has a direct effect on pain through increasing input from joint mechanoreceptors. Indirect effects of exercise on pain may be related to increased blood flow, decreased edema, inhibition of muscle spasm, enhanced ROM, flexibility, strength and weight loss which may improve biomechanical factors and decrease joint stress, and provide [58,81,86,87]. Improved sleep, enhanced mood, relaxation, reduction in anxiety and general well-being following regular exercise also can alter pain sensitivity positively in same way. After a single exercise session pain tolerance increases significantly [58,88].
Another benefit of exercise is its effect on risk of falling among older adults with CMP. Older adults with CMP are at increased risk of falling because of pain related muscle weakness, increased body sway and impaired balance [33,89,90]. Primarily strengthening program and physical agents as an adjunct are recommended for joint pain management among this population [90]. The most effective physical therapy approach for the prevention of falls is a combination of balance and strength training [91] in addition to aerobic training such as walking, aerobic dance, circuit training, aquatics and active lifestyle [92]. RCTs are needed to learn whether pain reduction with exercise could affect fall risk in older adults with CMP.
An exercise program should address primer functional problems and impairments (pain, limited joint range of motion, muscle weakness) for functional independence. After relieving from these impairments or reducing them exercise program can begin [78]. A physical therapist has the primary responsibility to plan an exercise program accommodating pain or other disabilities [93]. Flexibility, strength and aerobic endurance are the basic components for exercise programs aiming to control pain. Time needed for adaptation to exercise stress may be 2 to 3 months for older arthritic adults with low physical capacity [78].
Exercise sessions should have three phases: The first phase, a warm-up period lasting 5-10 minutes, involves repetitive low-intensity range-of-motion exercises. The second phase, the training period, includes range of motion, strength, or aerobic capacity exercises, or a combination of these. The final phase, cool-down period lasting 5 minutes, involves flexibility exercises [78,94]. In addition the time of the exercise during the day can change according to the chronic condition. Older adults with OA better perform exercise in the morning, whereas older adults with rheumatoid arthritis may be better several hours after awakening. Low-impact, non-weight-bearing exercises and exercise machines distributing the load to all limbs usually recommended for artritic patients [79].
Flexibility exercise should begin at the beginning of an exercise program during the warm-up, preferably cool-down period. Static stretching is recommended during cool down period for the osteoartritic older adults at as full as possible pain-free range for the greatest improvements [95]. Stretching exercises must be modified when the joint is inflamed or painful. Painful joints should not be over stretched and superficial heat application, relaxation prior to stretching helps reduce pain [78]. Older adults tend to have some movement patterns and positioning, which causes joint movement limitation resulting in painful movement patterns. Consideration of the potential for future painful conditions also should be treated by stretching [96].
Stretching exercises should be performed at least 3 times per week or daily if the pain and stiffness are minimal or must be modified when the joint is inflamed or painful. The progression should be gradual from one stretching to 4-10 repetitions for each major muscle group. The stretch position should be hold 10-30 seconds. [78]. Effective stretching exercises require longer holding times with increasing age and loss of extensibility, so if there is no pain, 60 seconds is necessary for older adults to achieve a long-term effect. Four repetitions of a 60-second hold performed regularly, 5 to 7 days a week, appear to be most effective [96].
Aerobic exercise programs aiming improvement in strength and proprioception reduce pain in OA patients. Examples of aerobic exercise are bicycling (stationary bike, recumbent-type bike etc.), walking, dance, Tai-Chi and aquatic exercises such as swimming, Ai-Chi etc. Daily activities and some hobbies like walking the dog, mowing the lawn or playing golf, are also considered as aerobic exercise [78,92]. To prevent overuse of specific joints and to elicit long-term participation, activity selection for aerobic exercise is important and depends on the patient’s current disease state, joint stability, opportunities, individual’s preference and abilities [96].
There are few studies addressing effect of aerobic exercise on CMP in older adults [97, 98]. A 14-year prospective longitudinal study showed that regular aerobic exercise over the long period in physically active seniors was associated with about 25% less CMP than reported by more sedentary ones [97].
The aerobic exercise intensity should range between 50%-60% of HRmax (220 - age in years), 10-12 point in rating of perceived exertion (an ordinal scale, 6 to 20), or be positive on the “talk test” [78]. The talk test represents the ability to engage in a conversation during exercise. When the exerciser reaches an intensity at which he or she can “just barely respond in conversation,” the intensity is considered to be safe and appropriate for cardiovascular adaptation [96]. The initial intensity may be 9-11 point in rating of perceived exertion for frail and sedentary older adults [92]. A 2.5% increase in the intensity or volume weekly is appropriate for adaptation and prevention of musculoskeletal injuries among arthritic older adults [78].
The ideal volume for the beginner is 20 to 30 minutes per day but for sedentary, frailer or more deconditioned older adults, it would be easier to begin with one to five exercise bouts of 3-5 minutes in a day and gradually reach to ideal length. Totally 60 and 90 minutes of moderate level physical activity during a week is recommended by the ACSM (American Colleges of Sports Medicine) [78,92].
The initial frequency of exercise training is recommended 3 [78,92] and later maximum 4 days a week in order not to cause injury according to ACSM [78].
Joint pain can limit older adults from contracting multiple muscles to provide a cardiovascular stimulus during aerobic exercise and causes muscle weakness. In those cases and for frail older adults, it is sensible to add aerobic activity following strengthening and balance exercise to stabilize or support the joint and decrease pain followed by functional improvement [15,82,83,92,96]. Both high and low intensity resistive training significantly reduces pain [99]. A Cochrane systematic review showed that there was evidence for modest reduction in pain following progressive resistive training. It is also reported that there was no significant difference in reducing pain between progressive resistive training with functional, aerobic and flexibility training [100,101].
Because low articular pressures during isometric contractions can be well tolerated, isometric strengthening with a few repetition should be given if the joints are inflamed, unstable, swollen, painful or if it is initial phase of strengthening program [78,79]. Isometric strength training should target the major muscle groups. The intensity should gradually increase to 75% from approximately 30% of the maximal voluntary contraction; the number of repetitions to 8-10 from one; number of sessions to 5-10 from 2 times throughout the day. During a contraction held for maximum 6 seconds (20 seconds resting between contractions), older adults should keep on breathing. Contractions should be performed at different muscle lengths or joint angles, too [78]. As soon as possible, when it is tolerated, isotonic training involving 8-10 major muscle groups should begin to improve overall function maximum of 2 days a week. The intensity should gradually increase to 80% from 40% of 1RM (repetition maximum) for adaptation [78]. 1RM is the weight a person can lift one time with good form. The ACSM recommends no more than three trials with a 30- to 60-second rest between trials to find out the most accurate 1 RM, but older adults may have a better response with a multiple RM of 6 to 10 because they need experience to learn to generate that type of force. Elastic bands or tubing, cuff and hand weights, barbells, dumbbells, hand-held blades, fixed weights, medicine and stability balls etc. can be used as equipment [96,102].
For safety reasons, older adults especially those with cardiovascular problems adults should not perform more than two to three sets of a given exercise and repetition number must be carefully determined. For muscular endurance sets of 12-15 repetitions with lighter resistances, for strength development 8-12 repetitions with higher resistance should be used [78].
Another option for exercise is stabilization exercises, which target co-activation of specific muscles and provide joint stability based on the spine [103]. Increased strength and cross-sectional area of the vertebral muscles reduces CLBP by maintaining muscle balance [102].
Tai-Chi [TC], shortly defined as a traditional Chinese mind-body exercise, has recently become popular worldwide because more people with musculoskeletal problems are looking for complementary and alternative treatments [104,105]. TC gives emphasis to diaphragmatic breath, relaxation and composed of slow, gentle, smooth, harmonic and coordinated movements of different body parts, and weight shifting [104,106]. TC involves routines or “forms” ranging from the classic 109 postures to as few as 42 and now has multiple styles modified from the original form. In addition to physical benefits, the focus required to complete these routines elicits mental and cognitive benefits [96].
TC is a moderate-intensity exercise, so it is suitable for physically frail older adults. Besides reducing the pain, people practice TC for also improving physical condition, muscle strength, coordination, flexibility, balance, decreasing risk for falls, stiffness, fatigue, improving sleep, cardiovascular and respiratory function, mood, depression, anxiety, self-efficacy, health-related quality of life and overall wellness in both eastern and western populations [103,104,106,107]. The therapeutic benefits of TC for chronic conditions have been showed in researches recently.
TC is common in older adults especially those with OA, because it is shown to improve pain [103,108], although it is stated that the methodological quality of TC research is generally less than strength and aerobic training research [84]. The physical component of TC provides current recommendations for OA (strength, balance, flexibility, and aerobic cardiovascular exercise) and the mental component could contribute to chronic pain reduction by modulating complex factors of OA pain [104].
Significant pain-relieving effect is shown especially at knee rather than other joints like in the upper extremities where less weight-carrying activity involved in TC [109-111]. It is believed that weight-carrying TC footwork provides pain-relieving effects on knee OA [106]. TC also showed no significant difference in pain reduction of older adults with knee and hip OA compared to hydrotherapy, where there is less knee joint stress than TC [112].
A systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that TC had a small positive effect on pain in people with arthritis and the extent to which it benefits other forms of CMP is unclear but the review also reported that the studies included were low-quality [108]. However a more recent study indicates that water- or land-based exercise, aerobic walking, quadriceps strengthening, resistance exercise, and TC reduce pain and disability from knee OA with evidence rating of A category [80].
There is another discussion about TC that if its benefit increases when combined with the other exercise types or not. Yip YB et al showed that self-management exercise program including stretching, walking, and TC types of movement, had positive effect in reducing pain [113] but a recent systematic review concluded that TC based exercise programs elicited better outcomes than mixed ones but without clear differences [85].
Among different TC styles (Chen, Yang, Wu styles…ect.) the “Sun” style is the most studied one. Sun style TC requires higher stance with bending knees less than other types, so it is more comfortable. In fact in all styles the patient can prefer high or low stance [106]. Song R et al reported that a Sun-style TC exercise could be applied to OA patients in outpatient clinics or public health centers if they are not in acute inflammatory stage to reduce arthritic symptoms [114]. Simplified Yang-style TC is also shown to be effective in osteoartritic knee pain [115,116].
Beside osteoartritis, benefits of TC have been found in some other musculoskeletal problems such as fibromyalgia [6], rheumatoid arthritis [117] and nonspecific CLBP [118].
Aquatic exercise is another good option for the treatment of musculoskeketal problems because water is a safe exercise environment and its temperature provides analgesia for painful muscles and joints [78,119]. The water temperature is recommended between 85 and 90 Fahrenheit (29-32 Celsius) for artritic older adults [79].
The buoyancy of water causes less impact or compressive forces on the joints and therefore allows pain-free motion without the biomechanical stress experienced on land [119]. Older adults with OA or history of surgery may benefit from aquatic exercise. Water resistance can be used for strengthening to progress to land-based exercise among older adults with arthritis. Moreover aquatic exercise, usually practiced with a group, motivates practitioners [78,96]. It is reported that among older adults class attendance is higher for hydrotherapy compared with TC [112] because it provides a playful environment, many social and psychological benefits for them [119]. It also should be considered that heart rate is lower than heart rates when performing at the same level of oxygen consumption on land. “Aquatic heart rate reduction” should be included in the formula while determining target heart rate or it is sensible to use rating of perceived exertion when determining aquatic exercise intensity [96,119].
Chronic pain has been found to be associated with difficulty in exercising regularly [120]. Motivation has a key role for older adults to participate in exercise willingly. Older adults’ outcome and self-efficacy expectations, negative sensations associated with physical activity, such as fear of pain especially back pain or falling influence motivation to engage in physical activities [121]. These negative sensations and related beliefs must be eliminated through facilitating appropriate use of pain medications before exercise or alternative measures such as heat/ice before or after exercise to relieve activity related pain, use of braces or straps, or isolating the damaged joint during exercise. Additionally positive reinforcement and self-management interventions including explaining to older adults how exercise will help reduce pain, cognitive-behavioral therapy, relaxation and distraction techniques and graded exposure to overcome fear of falling or pain can improve participation to exercise among older adults with arthritic pain. Even pain should be minimized in every way possible, the older adult may have to learn to tolerate some pain or discomfort [73,79,86,121].
The use of supervised exercise sessions such as classes in the initial exercise period followed by home exercises and calling patients back for intermittent consultations, or “refresher” group exercise classes may also assist long-term adherence [83]. Generally older adults are interested in self-managing their chronic pain but can’t find opportunity. Austrian et al indicated that 73% of the 68 patients (70 years of age and over with chronic pain) included in his study were willing to participate in an exercise program for pain management but 16% of them had this opportunity [40].
Most types of exercise with some evidence are frequently preferred for pain management in older adult populations with CMP especially for arthritis, mostly knee OA, and secondly CLBP. Exercise content, time and frequency are very heterogeneous in RCTs, so it is hard to determine the best exercise structure. At that point individualized approach to exercise prescription is required.
Because aging is an extremely variable process, older adults require more individualized management than younger individuals. Treatment decisions should weigh the risks of pain with the risks of treatment. In order to provide the most efficient and safest therapy approach in the older adults with musculoskeletal pain, the identification and frequent re-evaluation of the cause of the chronic pain and the impact on the patient\'s general medical state are crucial.
The high cost and adverse side effect profiles associated with many analgesic treatments, as well as the potential for drug-drug interactions, operate as significant barriers to the use of standard pharmacologic treatments in older adults [19,74]. Based on studies conducted to date, combined pharmacologic and non- pharmacologic therapies give the best results for pain relief. Regardless, alternative or complementary medical interventions should be recognized as options for older adults with chronic musculoskeletal pain [4,56]. While some studies have demonstrated that integrating complementary medicine into the care of older patients can yield promising results. Additionally, some of the challenges encountered with conventional pain management of older adults can be ameliorated by integrating complementary and alternative medicine approaches [56].
New generation Al alloys are being developed to meet lightweight requirements in the automotive and aerospace sectors. For a successful introduction, the alloys must possess specific strengths, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance superior or at least equal to those exhibited by conventionally used Al alloys. Concerning corrosion, the currently used high strength 2xxx and 7xxx series alloys in the aerospace sector are highly susceptible to severe localized corrosion (SLC), but adequate care should be taken in ensuring that the proposed replacements (the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys) exhibit better in-service corrosion performances.
There are reports in the literature [1, 2, 3] comparing the corrosion resistance of selected conventional alloys to that of the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys, and most of these studies were based on the use of electrochemical techniques [1, 3]. However, electrochemical techniques alone cannot give enough information about the corrosion behavior of these alloys. This is because electrochemical techniques are largely designed to generate data from activities occurring on the surfaces of materials. Sub-surface details from tens to hundreds of microns beneath the surface are very difficult to obtain via electrochemical methods. Attacks in precipitation-hardened aluminum alloys can penetrate hundreds of microns beneath the surface as fissures with non-linear pathways that are difficult to follow from the surface. This is in addition to the fact that the attacks can also transit easily from one form to the other, and the active area of corrosion is very difficult to establish [4].
Thus, it is always important to examine the surfaces and cross-sections of the corroded alloys via microscopic techniques before concluding. In this regard, it is also important to mention that conclusions from nano to mesoscale microscopic approaches should be drawn with caution because even macro/microscale results can be very misleading if care is not taken.
In this work, the comparison between the corrosion resistance of the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys and that of conventional aluminum alloys have been made using scanning electron microscopy with the results correlated with potentiodynamic polarization results. Alloys from all the precipitation-hardened series (2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx) were selected. The selected alloys are industrial alloys in the common tempers in which they are being employed. These alloys derive their strengths from the formation of finely and uniformly distributed nano-sized phases in their matrix. To accomplish the precipitation of these phases, alloying elements with reducing solid solubility as temperature decreases are used for this purpose. Examples of elements that fall into this category include, copper, magnesium, zinc and, lithium. The potentials of the intermetallic particles formed by these elements are often different from that of the matrix (i.e. these particles are either cathodic or anodic to the matrix) when exposed to aggressive environments, and this results in the development of localized corrosion which compromises the integrity of the alloys in service. The form and extent of localized corrosion are alloy specific. Establishing the severity and how insidious the different forms of attacks in competing alloys are crucial to improving the performance of the components built from these alloys. Thus, in this work we have compared the forms and how insidious the corrosion attacks in selected industrially important alloys are, especially by contrasting between the attacks in new generation and conventional aluminum alloys in sea-water environment.
The conventional alloys employed in this study are the AA2024-T3, AA6082-T6 and the AA7050-T7451 alloys, and the new generation alloys are the AA2050-T84, AA2098-T351, AA2198-T8 and AA2198-T851 alloys. The compositions of these alloys are as presented in Table 1. These alloys are commercial alloys in the tempers in which they are mostly employed.
Cu | Li | Fe | Zr | Cr | Mg | Zn | Si | Mn | Ag | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AA2024-T3 | 4.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 1.6 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.15 | ||
AA2050-T84 | 3.64 | 1.0 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.36 | 0.02 | 0.39 | |||
AA2098-T351 | 3.4 | 1.0 | 0.04 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.003 | 0.3 | |
AA2198-T8 | 3.32 | 0.96 | 0.005 | 0.51 | 0.31 | 0.004 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.26 | |
AA2198-T851 | 3.31 | 0.96 | 0.004 | 0.4 | 0.31 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.25 | ||
AA6082-T6 | 0.33 | 0.74 | 0.05 | 0.71 | 0.40 | |||||
AA7050-T7451 | 2.15 | 0.04 | 0.14 | 1.53 | 6.80 | 0.08 |
Composition (wt. %) of the alloys used in this study.
Prior to the corrosion tests, the samples were sequentially polished to a 1 μm surface finish using SiC papers and diamond pastes.
The main investigation in this work was based on optical and scanning electron microscopy of the surfaces and cross-sections of the alloys after a 72 h corrosion immersion test in 3.5% NaCl solution. Polished samples of the alloys were employed, and beeswax was used to expose an area of 1 cm2 on the alloys.
Other corrosion tests employed in the investigation were potentiodynamic polarization tests, agar-gel visualization test and scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) measurements.
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of the alloys were obtained in the 3.5% NaCl solution. A three-electrode cell comprising the sample as the working electrode, an Ag/AgCl reference electrode and a platinum wire as a counter electrode was employed for the polarization tests. The scans were initiated at −100 mV of the open circuit potential (OCP) values to +800 mV of the OCP. OCP measurements were conducted for 90 min prior to the polarization measurements, and a scan rate of 1 m V/s was employed.
Details of the agar-gel visualization test are similar to those reported in previous work from the same group [5], except that a universal indicator was employed this time in the place of phenolphthalein.
For the scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) measurements, an Applicable Electronic Produced SVET machine with an ASET 4.0 software was employed using a 5 mM NaCl solution. SVET maps and optimal images were obtained every 2 h. Further details on the SVET procedures can be found in a previously published work from the same group [6].
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was conducted using a JEOL JEM 6010 LA and TM 3000 microscopes equipped with an energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) detector. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was conducted using a JEM-2100F microscope. The TEM samples were prepared by twin-jet electropolishing using 35% nitric acid in methanol after an initial thinning through grinding with SiC papers.
The results of the corrosion studies are presented in two parts. Firstly, results from electrochemical analyses are presented and compared. Majorly, potentiodynamic polarization and SVET results are compared, while agar visualization test was employed to understand the pH variation around an SLC site further. Subsequently, SEM examination of the surfaces and cross-sections of the alloys are presented and compared.
Presented in Figure 1 are the potentiodynamic polarization results of the selected alloys in 3.5% NaCl solution. Figure 1a combines the potentiodynamic polarization curves of all the alloys investigated, while Figure 1a,b shows the curves of the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys (AA2050-T84, AA2098-T351, AA2198-T8 and AA2198-T851) and the curves of the conventional alloys (AA2024-T3, AA6082-T6 and AA7050-T7451), respectively. Figure 1d is a plot of extrapolated corrosion potential (Ecorr) and pitting potential (Epit) values for the different alloys from the plots in Figure 1a (The Epit, in this case, is the potential beyond which there is a large increase in current density compared with the pseudopassive region just above the Ecorr). These results show that, amongst the new generation alloys, the AA2050-T84 alloy with the lowest Ecorr value (≈−0.82 V) exhibited the highest tendency to corrode, while the AA2098-T351 and AA2198-T8 alloys, with the highest Ecorr values (≈−0.68 V), exhibited the lowest tendency to corrode. The Ecorr value (≈−0.76 V) of the AA2198-T851 alloy was in between those of the AA2050-T84 and AA2098-T351/2198-T8 alloys indicating that the AA2198-T851 alloy has more corrosion tendency than the AA2098-T351/2198-T8 alloys but lower tendency than the AA2050-T84 alloy.
Potentiodynamic polarization results of selected heat-treatable aluminum alloys in 3.5% NaCl solution.
Nonetheless, all the new generation alloys exhibited pseudo-passive behavior under the conditions tested. The Epit – Ecorr difference shows the potential range for the active – pseudopassive behavior. Pseudopassivation occurs because of the formation of a non-protective oxide layer on the alloys [7, 8]. It should be noted that the Epits in these alloys are not the actual pitting potentials of the alloys. These alloys develop severe localized corrosion at OCP (i.e. at potentials lower than the pseudopassive range). The oxide formed after the active regions is only formed on non-pitting sites. And the contribution of the pitting sites to the total current is overshadowed by the current flowing from the larger surface with an oxide layer [8]. Thus, the pseudopassive current predominates at this potential range. However, after the potentials designated as Epits, the contribution of the pitting areas to the overall current flowing from the surface becomes significant [8] and superior to the pseudopassive current, and this leads to pronounced current density increase per potential.
For the conventional alloys, the AA7050-T8451 alloy, with an Ecorr value in the range of ≈−0.84 V, exhibited the highest tendency to corrode, followed by the AA6082-T6 alloy with an Ecorr value of ≈−0.72 V. The AA2024-T3 alloy, with an Ecorr value of ≈−0.63 V, exhibited the lowest tendency to corrode. Amongst the three conventional alloys compared, the AA2024-T3 alloy did not show any pseudo-passive range in the condition tested. In fact, amongst all the alloys compared, the AA2024-T3 alloy was the only alloy that did not exhibit a pseudopassive behavior. This implies that the contribution of the pitting areas to the total current was significant (from potentials equal to or below the Ecorr) and swamped that from the oxide-covered surface. Thus, the AA2024-T3 alloy possibly presented a higher active pitting area compared with the other alloys.
Nonetheless, for all the alloys, AA2024-T3 > AA2098-T351/AA2198-T8 > AA6082-T6 > AA2198-T851 > AA2050-T84 > AA7050-T7451 in terms of Ecorr values. Based on this, the AA7050-T7451 alloy exhibits the highest tendency to corrode and should be the most susceptible to corrosion amongst all the alloys. The AA7050-T7451 alloy also presented the lowest potential at which the current from the pitting areas contributes significantly to the total current flowing from its surface. Also, it is expected that the AA2024-T3 alloy should exhibit the least tendency to corrode in NaCl environment amongst the alloys investigated. Also, since the new generation alloys have lower Ecorr values compared with the AA2024-T3 alloy, the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys should be more susceptible to corrosion compared with the AA2024-T3 alloy.
However, potentiodynamic polarization results are not sufficient to establish the corrosion resistance of these alloys, especially as it is difficult to rely on extrapolated current density values for aluminum alloys in near-neutral NaCl environments. One of the reasons being that it is difficult to establish the active corroding area [4]. For a quick comparison, SVET immersion tests were conducted on samples representing the Al-Cu-Mg, Al-Cu-Li, Al-Mg-Si and Al-Zn-Mg series as presented in the section below.
Figures 2 and 3 present the SVET result of the AA2024-T3 (Al-Cu-Mg), AA2198-T851 (Al-Cu-Li), AA6082-T6 (Al-Mg-Si) and AA7050-T7451 (Al-Zn-Mg) alloys after 2 and 18 h of immersion (Two 2xxx series alloys were selected to have a conventional (AA2024-T3) and a new generation Al-Cu-Li alloy (AA2198-T851) representation. Also, the solution employed in this case was 5 mM NaCl solution. This solution is less aggressive compared with the 3.5% NaCl solution since it contains less chloride ions, and it was chosen to allow for easy monitoring of the in-situ corrosion activities on the alloys with time.)
SVET current density maps and optical images of the tested alloys in 5 mM NaCl solution after 2 and18 h of immersion.
Plots of peak current density values recorded on the alloys during the SVET immersion test.
Pronounced anodic activities were observed on the AA7050-T7451 and AA2024-T3 alloys within the first 2 h of immersion (Figure 2). The SLC sites were easily discernible on the AA2024-T3 alloy (Figure 2b) but difficult to find on the AA7050-T7451 alloy (Figure 2h) at macroscale because of the nature of pit covering and corrosion product formation on the later alloy (this is discussed further in the section below). For the AA2198-T851 alloy, the anodic activities were not that pronounced (compared with these two alloys), and only traces of SLC sites were observed (an example is indicated by the red arrow). Localized activities associated with SLC were not observed on the AA6082-T6 alloy. The localized activities observed in the early hours were transient and no stable SLC site was initiated on this alloy after 2 h.
In the later hours of the test, the anodic activities were reduced at the surfaces of the AA2024-T3 and AA7050-T7451 alloys were pronounced SLC activities were observed because corrosion products had covered the sites on the AA7050-T7451 and AA2024-T3 alloys. At this stage, visible SLC sites were evident on the AA2198-T851 alloy. However, corrosion products also formed on these sites and reduced the anodic activities recorded by the SVET. Again, for the AA6082-T6 alloy, no trace of SLC activity was recorded by the SVET and the optical macrograph also did not reveal any trace of SLC site.
Presented in Figure 3 is a plot of the peak current density recorded on the alloys throughout the test. As evident, the highest peak current density values were recorded on the AA2024-T3 and AA7050-T7451 alloys. Peak current density values as high as 298.3 and 377.8 μA/cm2 were recorded on both alloys, respectively. Lower peak current density values were recorded on the AA2198-T851 alloy with the highest being in the range of 60 μA/cm2. For the AA6082-T6 alloy, the peak current density values were near zero with the highest being about 11 μA/cm2. The average peak current density values recorded on these alloys were 114.49 μA/cm2 for AA7050-T7451, 73.03 μA/cm2 for AA2024-T3, 21.0 μA/cm2 for AA2198-T851 and 2.38 μA/cm2 for AA6082-T6. This implies that the AA7050-T7451 alloy was the most susceptible and the corrosion rate on the alloy was the highest. However, it should be noted that the peak current values on this alloy were emanating from a few SLC sites compared with the AA2024-T3 alloy. The number of SLC sites were highest on the AA2024-T3 alloy, and high current density values were emanating from multiple sites across the surface of the alloy. This possibly explains why no pseudo-passivity was observed on the AA2024-T3 alloy during potentiodynamic polarization, since the sum of the current from the pitting sites would be very significant, swamping the total current flowing from the oxide-covered area.
The SEM images of the surfaces of the alloys before the removal of corrosion products show SLC sites on the AA2024-T3, AA7050-T7551 and AA2198-T851 alloys but not on the AA6082-T6 alloy (not even trenching associated with the cathodic Al-Fe-Si rich phases were observed on the AA6082-T6 alloy). The reason for the immaculate corrosion resistance of the AA6082-T6 alloy in the test environment used may be because of the insignificant amount of Cu. Galvanic coupling activities associated with Cu-rich particles are often more pronounced than those associated with Fe and Si-rich particles. The AA6082 alloy is, however, susceptible in chloride environment when Mg2Si particles are precipitated in the presence of precipitate free zones (PFZs) at the grain boundaries (GBs), and this is most common in the weld heat-affected zones and overaged temper (T7) of the alloy. For the other alloys, the microstructural factors associated with the formation of SLC are readily present in their microstructure in the present tempers. These factors include S-phase and Cu-rich particle clusters for the AA2024, η phase (and its variants) and PFZs for AA7050, and T1 particles for the AA2198 alloy.
The SLC sites on these susceptible alloys were covered with corrosion products, and these sites were found within corrosion rings (especially as showcased in the SEM image of the AA2198-T851). The observed corrosion rings resulted from pH difference between the regions around the SLC pits and the surroundings. The reduction reaction of dissolved oxygen occurs in the surrounding region, while H+ ions are generated from the hydrolysis of Al3+ inside the pit. During the pitting process, the H+ ions migrate from within the pits to the mouths of the pits due to electrostatic potential difference [9]. Thus, H+ ions are present around the pit/SLC site and cause a local reduction in the pH around the pit mouths as evident in the agar-visualization result in Figure 4a–d (see the evolution of the sites labelled 1 and 2). Also, although the predominant reduction of H+ to generate H2 bubbles occurs inside the pits, some of the ions are reduced around the pit mouths. What is clear, as will be seen in the section below, is that there is a boundary between the low pH region around the SLC sites and the high pH region surrounding the sites, and this boundary defines the domain of the corrosion rings as clearly depicted by the black arrow of the site labelled 2 in Figure 4a–d. The site labelled 1.
Optical images showing the pH around SLC sites on AA2198-T851 alloy during agar visualization test and the corresponding surface after the removal of the gel.
SEM analysis was further carried out after the removal of corrosion products on the surfaces of the alloys that exhibited SLC. In agreement with the SVET peak current density values, the width and extent of the attack on an SLC site were most pronounced on the AA7050-T7451 alloy. However, those of the AA2024-T3 were not as pronounced as expected especially when compared with those on the AA2198-T851 alloy. Intergranular corrosion (IGC) expanding only within about 70 μm was observed on the surface of the AA2024-T3 alloy, whereas intragranular corrosion expanding beyond 100 μm was observed on the AA2198-T851 alloy. Also, it appears as if more materials were consumed on the AA2198-T851 alloy compared with the AA2024-T3 alloy. From these two alloys, the widths and the intensity of corrosion observed from the SEM images do not appear to correlate well with the current density values recorded during the SVET measurements. The peak current density values and the number of SLC sites indicate that the AA2024-T3 alloy was more prone to corrosion compared with the AA2198-T851 alloy. However, the SEM images of the surfaces after the corrosion test, tend to indicate otherwise. Also, the diameters of the corrosion rings were larger on the AA2198-T851 alloy compared with the AA2024-T3 alloy.
Nonetheless, the SVET results indicate that in order of rate of corrosion attack the AA7050 > AA2024 > AA2198-T851 > AA6082-T6 alloy. Thus, except for the AA6082-T6 alloy which exhibited no trace of corrosion during the test, the new generation AA2198-T851 Al-Cu-Li alloy is better than the conventional AA2024-T3 and AA7050-T7451 alloys. However, it is difficult to relate the observed SVET results to those of the potentiodynamic polarization curves of the alloys based on Ecorr values. The only relatable correlation is the magnitude of the current density values, which is quite high for the AA2024 alloy in agreement with the predominance of the pitting current over the pseudopassive current from OCP as observed on the potentiodynamic polarization curve. Thus, to get more details in a bid to establish the corrosion resistance of the alloys, a non-electrochemical approach is needed.
The non-electrochemical approach employed in this study involves optical and scanning electron microscopy analyses of the surfaces of the selected alloys after a 72-h immersion test. The surfaces were examined before and after the removal of corrosion products. Following these, cross-sectional examinations of the corrosion attacks were then carried out.
Presented in Figure 6 are the optical images of the surfaces of the alloys after the immersion test. The new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys are placed on top—Figure 7a–d, while the conventional alloys are placed below, Figure 6e–g. At this scale, discernible SLC pits were pronounced on the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys with the AA2050-T84 alloy appearing to exhibit the most number of pitting sites. The conventional alloys did not exhibit pronounced discernible pitting sites except for the AA7050-T7451 alloy (as depicted by the arrow). However, similar to the SVET sample, the surface of the AA7050-T7451 alloy was glossy and did not show any trace of corrosion (except for the area depicted with red arrow). No trace of SLC was found on the AA6082-T6 alloy at this scale. The AA2024-T3 alloy also appeared to show no trace of SLC sites when wet. However, after the surface was dried under an air stream, multiple SLC sites appeared to be present on the surface of the alloy. Thus, the optical micrographs presented tend to show that the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys are more prone to corrosion compared with the conventional alloys. Amongst the conventional alloys, the AA6082-T6 appeared to be the most resistant compared with the other two alloys.
SEM images of the corroded (a, b) surface of AA2050-T84 alloy ((a) before and (b) after the removal of corrosion products) and (c, d) cross-section showing the depth and different SLC types in the alloy.
Optical images showing the corroded surfaces of selected aluminum alloys after 72 h immersion in 3.5% NaCl solution at macroscopic scale.
SEM images of the corroded surface of AA2098-T351 alloy (a, b) before and (c, d) after the removal of corrosion products. (e) A cross-sectional view of the corrosion.
However, polarization curves show that the AA6082-T6 and AA7050-T7451 alloy have high tendencies to corrode in the test environment. Thus, it is necessary to examine the extent of corrosion further at higher magnifications. In this regard, the surfaces of the corroded alloys and the cross-sections are examined using the SEM.
Figure 5 presents the SEM images of the corroded surface and cross-section of the AA2050 alloy before and after the removal of corrosion products. The SLC sites were situated within corrosion rings. The number of SLC sites per cm2 was about 14. The corrosion features observed on the surface of the alloy suggest that the attack was predominantly intergranular, and the attacks were aligned according to the direction of deformation (see the inset from the region highlighted with blue rectangle in Figure 5b). In certain regions, superficial attacks were observed at the mouths of the pits (as indicated by the green arrow in the inset Figure 5b). It does appear as if the corrosion products from the pit preferentially etches the surface around the pit mouth. As earlier mentioned, H+ ions migrate from within the pits to the mouths of the pits. This migration results in the decrease of the pH near the pit mouths. Thus, the local chemistry around the pit mouth is different from those in the surroundings. In this region, the solution can be aggressive owing to the reduced pH which can result in the mild attack of the surface of the alloy.
Cross-sectional images of the corroded AA2050-T84 alloy are presented in Figure 5c,d and Figure 8a,b. Attacks were observed penetrating as deep as 420 μm beneath the surface. Also, both intergranular and intragranular attacks were observed. The observed attack morphologies suggest that the attack initiated as IGC and then transited to intragranular. The magnified images in Figure 8 show the typical progression of the attack. Cu-rich particles were observed to promote the dissolution of the adjacent matrix in the direction of corrosion propagation. Non-uniform precipitation was also observed as depicted in the images. The A-regions were richer in particles than the B-regions. This may affect the rapid propagation of the attack as observed since a galvanic cell will be most likely created between the particle-rich bands and the bands with lesser particles. Another interesting feature was the activities of redeposited Cu (Figure 8b). The re-deposited Cu promoted the dissolution of the matrix in a version similar to the Cu-rich particles. This sort of secondary attack caused the transition of the attack from intergranular to intragranular.
SEM images of the cross-section of AA2050-T84 alloy showing SLC morphology and non-uniform precipitation in the alloy.
In the AA2050 alloy, initiation of IGC has been associated with Cu and Li enrichment of the GBs although reports are associating the corrosion susceptibility of the AA2050 alloy with the activities of T1 particles at the GBs [10, 11]. A recent detailed report by Yan et al. [12] has shown that IGC attacks are most likely due to Cu-Li enrichment or the presence of S-phase at the GBs. Also, Guerin et al. [13] showed that, even though the T1 precipitates populated the GBs in AA2050 alloy, the IGC observed in the T34 alloy was not due to the activities of the T1 phase. Other factors, such as high level of misorientation, were suggested to have more influence on IGC susceptibility. Thus, the attack observed in this work probably initiated at the GBs due to Cu and Li enrichment of the GBs, but the transition to intragranular corrosion occurred due to non-uniform precipitation, the presence of cathodic Cu-rich coarse particles in the corrosion paths, and the activities of re-deposited Cu which acted as local cathodic sites for the dissolution of the adjacent matrix.
The corrosion behaviors of these alloys are very similar, and this is why they are grouped in this section. Figure 7 presents the SEM images of the surfaces and cross-sections of the AA2098-T351 alloy. The corrosion features in the three alloys are similar.
These alloys exhibited SLC sites formed within corrosion rings, and the attacks spread on the surfaces of the alloy with re-deposited Cu at the edges of the attacks. From the examination of the images of the surfaces after the removal of the corrosion products, it was observed that the attacks spread laterally with that of the AA2098-T351 alloy being the most pronounced (as much as 2 mm). In addition to the lateral spread, undercutting also occurred for the three alloys. Furthermore, the number of pits per area were significantly lower compared with the AA2050-T84 alloy - ranging between 3 and 8 per cm2 for the three alloys. The AA2198-T8 alloy was the least susceptible to corrosion. It exhibited the lowest number of pits per area and the depth of attack was only in the range of 50 μm. The depth on the AA2098-T351 alloy was around 70 μm. The most susceptible of the three alloys was the AA2198-T851 alloy. The attack depth on this alloy was as much as 110 μm. The reason for the increased susceptibilities of the AA2098-T351 and AA2198-T851 alloys to corrosion is because of the “51” temper treatment. This treatment involves an extra deformation process which introduces more dislocations into the alloys. Dislocations are preferred sites for the precipitation of the T1 phase which is the phase responsible for the formation of SLC in these alloys [6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. Thus, the AA2198-T851 and AA2098-T351 alloys contain more T1 particles, particularly the AA2198-T851 alloy since it is artificially aged. The higher densities of the TI particles in these two alloys make them more susceptible compared with the AA2198-T8 alloy. And this is evident in the depths and spread of the attack. Nonetheless, the attacks on the three alloys spread more laterally and did not penetrate to very high depths as observed on the AA2050-T84 alloy. These three alloys, the AA2098-T351, AA2198-T8 and AA2198-T851, did not exhibit any form of intergranular corrosion. Also, it is important to note that the coarse intermetallic particles in these alloys are not associated with the initiation of SLC. The coarse particles cause the localized dissolution of the surrounding matrix, and, consequently are associated with the formation of trenches and cavities (micro-pits).
The increased depth in the AA2050-T84 alloy may be associated with the highly localized regions of attack with pronounced non-uniform precipitation in bands. Another important factor to note is that the SLC initiation in the AA2098-T351, AA2198-T8 and AA2198-T851 alloys is associated with the T1 phase which is present in the interiors of the grains as shown in Figure 9. This results in the intragranular attack observed. The GBs in these alloys are resistant to corrosion as shown in previous works from the same group [20, 21]. On the other hand, the SLC initiation in the AA2050 alloy is associated with Cu and Li enrichment at the GBs [12]. This results in intergranular corrosion which transits to intragranular (due to the effects of non-uniform precipitation, cathodic Cu-rich particles and Cu-redeposition) and penetrates very deep into the alloy. Thus, the corrosion behaviors of the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys are not the same, the corrosion morphology and rate in the AA2050 alloys are very different from those of the other new-generation Al-Cu-Li alloys. For the later alloys, the attacks propagate laterally, predominantly. What is however common amongst the alloys is that irrespective of whether the attacks are penetrating deeply into the alloy or spreading laterally, the deformation the alloys were previously subjected to played a role in the propagation of attacks. In the AA2098 and AA2198 alloys, the attacks spread laterally according to the rolling direction. Also, in the AA2050 alloy, the attack spread and penetrated according to the rolling effect. Thus, in these alloys, there is a relationship between deformation and the propagation of SLC.
HAADF image of the grain interior of AA2198-T851 alloy showing the typical hexagonal T1 precipitates present in new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys.
Figure 10 presents the SEM images of the surface of the AA2024-T3 alloy before and after the removal of corrosion products. Before the removal of corrosion products, it was difficult to locate the SLC sites. After the removal, small-sized SLC sites were observed all over the surface of the alloy. The number of SLC sites per area was more than 400. The cross-sectional images presented in Figure 11 shows the attack depths and the corrosion morphologies. The region in brown square region in Figure 11a is further analyzed in Figure 12. Figure 11c and 11d are magnified images of the blue and green square regions in Figure 11a and 11b, respectively. The red arrows indicate intergranular attack, the blue arrows indicate trenched particles and the yellow arrows indicate regions that have been attacked intergranularly. Attacks were observed to have penetrated as deep as 220 μm. Thus, the attack on this alloy is very insidious since numerous small-sized attacks are penetrating very deep into the alloy without pronounced signs at the surface, especially during corrosion as shown by the differences between the wet and dried surface in Figure 6.
SEM images of the corroded surface of AA2024-T3 alloy (a) before and (b–d) after the removal of corrosion products.
SEM images of the cross-section of corroded AA2024-T3 alloy showing different depths and morphologies of attacks.
SLC attacks in AA2024 alloy are usually nucleated at regions with clusters of Cu-rich particles irrespective of whether they are S-phase particles or not [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. However, in this work, most of the particles analyzed in the vicinity of attacks were predominantly S-phase particles. This is not surprising since the S-phase constitutes more than 60% of the coarse intermetallic particles present in the AA2024 alloy [28]. The S-phase associated attack resulted in pitting and transition to intergranular attack as the attack propagated. This is reflected in Figure 11, where trenching around cathodic particles are also revealed. Also, partial consumption of particles which resulted from the heterogeneities of the individual particles was observed (Figure 12).
SEM images of the cross-section of a corroded AA2024-T3 alloy showing different types of precipitates with respect to the corrosion activities. These images were obtained from areas within the brown square in
With respect to the attack features, three types of coarse particles were observed (Figure 12): highly heterogeneous particles (HT); more homogeneous particles (HM); and high Cu-containing particles (HC). Partial dissolution of particles is associated with the HT particles. From Figure 12, it can be seen that the HT particles contain regions that are richer in Cu relative to the other regions of the particles. The EDX analysis of the observed HT particles revealed that they were predominantly Al-Cu-Mg particles with significant differences in the weight percentages of the three elements. For instance, in one of the particles, the Al, Cu, Mg weight percentages were 25.16, 63.69 and 1.23, respectively, in one region and 35.29, 49.02 and 12.59 in another region. The presence of multi-components in a coarse particle has been previously reported in the literature [25, 29]. Micro-galvanic coupling can occur within HT particles [29], and the micro-galvanic interactions between the compositionally different domains in the particles (and the matrix) possibly resulted in the selective dissolution of the most active regions in the particles. These regions are most likely richer in Mg compared with the other regions, and are, therefore, anodic both to the matrix and the other regions of the particles. The HM particles were not found to be associated with any form of corrosion activities in this work. They are possibly (Al,Cu)x(Fe,Mn)ySi group of particles with lower Cu/Fe ratio as reported by Boag et al. [22] who also showed that trenches were not formed around these particles except after prolonged hours of exposure. The HC particles are Cu-enriched Al-Cu-Mg particles and Al-Cu-Fe-Mn particles. EDX analysis revealed that the Cu-enriched Al-Cu-Mg particles are dealloyed S-phase particles with Al and Mg contents in the range of 17 and 1.0 wt %, respectively, compared with 35.29 and 12.59 wt % of the HT particles. The selective leaching of the Al and Mg components resulted in the formation of Cu-rich remnants. The high Cu-content of the Al-Cu-Fe-Mn particles are associated with the re-deposition of Cu on these particles since they are cathodic particles [24]. The HC particles caused the dissolution of the adjacent matrix, and, hence, the formation of trenches.
From Figure 11, it is clear that there are links between the particle-associated attack and the GB attacks, and these links provide pathways for deep penetration into the alloy. However, it is important to note that the transition from pitting to intergranular corrosion is a typical corrosion characteristic of this alloy [30, 31, 32]. Also, because of the non-linear form of these links, the attacks branch significantly such that it is often difficult to follow the attacks from the surface to regions far beneath the surface through cross-sectional examination.
Unlike the new generation alloys, especially the AA2098 and AA2198 alloys, the initiation of SLC in the AA2024-T3 alloy is associated with the coarse intermetallic phases, and the propagation of attack appears to have no relationship with the rolling direction. Also, far more SLC sites were observed on the AA2024-T3 alloy, and the attacks penetrated very deep into the alloy - twice as deep as those observed on the new generation alloys (except for the AA2050-T84 alloy). This shows why the total current from the pits swamps that of the pseudopassive as observed on the polarization curves. Thus, it can be argued that the new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys (except for the AA2050-T84 alloy) are more corrosion resistant compared with the AA2024-T3 alloy.
Presented in Figure 13 are SEM images showing the corroded surfaces of the AA6082-T6 alloy before and after the removal of corrosion products and the cross-sectional image obtained afterwards.
SEM images of the corroded surface of AA6082-T6 alloy (a, b) before and (c) after the removal of corrosion products. (d) Cross-section of the corroded alloy showing the intergranular attack.
In this alloy, the predominant form of corrosion was trenching, and cavity (micro-pit) formation and this was associated with the activities of the coarse Fe-rich particles. The Fe-rich particles were the predominant coarse particles on this alloy. The formation of SLC was very rare. In fact, only a site was found in the entire area exposed, and it was not pronounced. The observed SLC was intergranular (Figure 13d) and penetrated only as deep as 30 μm. The formation of IGC in this alloy is as a result of the formation of Mg2Si particles at the GBs with widened precipitate free zones (PFZs) [33] as typified in the TEM image in Figure 14a. The Mg2Si (β) phase is highly anodic to the Al matrix [34, 35]. The absence of precipitates at regions immediately adjacent to the GBs promotes galvanic interactions between a highly anodic Mg2Si phase and the PFZs. Upon exposure, the Mg component of the Mg2Si phase is selectively dissolved leaving behind a Si-enriched particle remnant. Although some authors have argued that Si-enriched particles rapidly form SiO2 in the presence of water and are therefore not effective cathodes [36, 37, 38], it is believed that this remnant is cathodic and causes the dissolution of the adjacent PFZs [33, 39]. An example of the activities of the Si-enriched Mg2Si particles can be seen in Figure 14b,c. The images provided were obtained from a mildly corroded region of an AA6082-T6 sample that was exposed to 3.5% NaCl solution for 7 days. The corrosion products were not removed before obtaining the images. From these images, it can be seen that the Si-enriched particles cause the dissolution of the adjacent matrix leading to the selective dissolution of the GB.
(a) TEM bright-field image showing widened PFZ and Mg2Si precipitates at the grain boundary of the AA6082-T6 alloy. (b) SEM images showing Si-enriched remnants at the GB of the corroded surface of AA6082-T6 alloy.
Nonetheless, the AA6082-T6 alloy is the most resistant to corrosion amongst the selected alloys compared—the number of SLC sites per area and the depth of SLC penetration were the lowest. This agrees with the SVET result.
Figures 15 and 16 present the SEM images of the corroded surfaces (before and after the removal of corrosion products) and the cross-section of the AA7050-T7451 after the 72-h immersion test. Figure 15b is a magnified image of the marked region in Figure 15a. As with the other alloys, corrosion rings were also formed around SLC sites. However, except for the highly pronounced region of attack, the corrosion products blended well with the surface and covered pitting sites smoothly. And this is the reason behind the glossy appearance of the surface at macro-scale (Figure 6h). After the removal of the corrosion products, pronounced SLC sites numbering up to 24 per cm2 were revealed. The SLC was predominantly IGC, but other forms of intragranular corrosion were also observed (see Figure 16c and the region labeled z in Figure 16d). Furthermore, superficial IGC were observed across the entire surface examined (Figure 16e). It is clear from the images in Figure that the selective dissolution of the particles precipitated at the GBs plays an important role in the IGC attack. In the 7xxx series alloys, the η(Zn2Mg) phase and its variants are usually associated with IGC [40, 41, 42]. This phase is highly active compared with the matrix of the alloys and preferentially dissolves upon exposure to aggressive media. The potential difference between a widened PFZ and the grain interior also plays a role in the selective dissolution of the GBs in 7xxx series alloys [43].
SEM images of the corroded surface of AA7050-T7451 alloy before the removal of corrosion products showing different types of SLC sites on the alloy.
SEM images of the corroded (a–e) surface and (f) cross-section of AA7050 alloy after the removal of corrosion products. Different forms of corrosion including a superficial form of intergranular attack (e) were observed.
The SLC attacks propagated according to the elongation induced by the prior deformation process. The SLC attacks penetrated as deep as 143 μm into the alloy (Figure 16f). The SEM image in Figure 16c shows that the propagation of the SLC was also affected by grain specific bands similar to the grain features revealed by Donatus et al. [44, 45]. Again, superficial dissolution of regions around some pit mouths, similar to what was revealed on the AA2050 alloy, were observed. This further shows the effect of the local chemistry changes around the mouths of the pits.
Compared with the new-generation Al-Cu-Li alloys, the AA7050-T7451 alloy is far more susceptible to corrosion both in terms of depth of penetration (except for the AA2050-T84 alloy) and the number of attacks per cm2. Also, the attack on AA7050-T7451 is far more insidious compared with all the alloys tested since it is very difficult to detect at macro-scale.
Table 2 gives a summary of the corrosion type, morphology and the microstructural features associated with the corrosion of the selected aluminum alloys.
Alloy | SLC type and morphology | Associated microstructural features/phases |
---|---|---|
AA2050-T84 | Predominantly IGC and pitting developed from IGC Deeply penetrating and less branched attack | GB enrichment [12, 13]. Redeposited Cu. Non-uniform precipitation of particles. |
AA2098-T351 | Intragranular attack (no IGC) Exfoliating layers in attacked grains. Shallow and laterally spreading attack. | Intragranular T1 particles. |
AA2198-T8 | Same as AA2098-T351. | Same as AA2098-T351. |
AA2198-T851 | Same as AA2098-T351 + band-like attack. | Same as AA2098-T351. |
AA2024-T3 | Predominantly IGC and pitting with particle consumption, and particle-GB linked attack. Deeply penetrating and highly branched attack. | S-phase and heterogeneous Cu-rich particles. |
AA6082-T6 | IGC Less pronounced penetration. | Mg2Si (β) particles and precipitate free zones at GBs. |
AA7050-T7451 | IGC, pitting and intragranular band-like attack Deeply penetrating and less branched attack. | Zn2Mg (η) and η-phase variants at GBs [40, 41, 42], and the presence of PFZs [43]. |
Summary of SLC type and morphology and associated microstructural features and phases in the alloys investigated.
Presented in Figure 17a are curves showing the peak depth of corrosion attack and the number of SLC sites per cm2 for the selected alloys. In terms of depth of penetration, the most corrosion-resistant alloy is the AA6082-T6 alloy followed by the new-generation AA2098-T351, AA2198-T8 and AA2198-T851 alloys. The “51” treatment increased the susceptibility of the later alloys. The corrosion rate of the AA2050-T84 is the highest with the attack penetrating twice as deep as that of the nearest alloy (the AA2024-T3) alloy. In terms of the number of pits per cm2, the AA2024-T3 presented the highest number followed by the AA7050-T7451 alloys. These two alloys, alongside the AA2050-T84 alloy, are the least corrosion-resistant alloys.
Plots showing the observed (a) peak SLC depths and number of SLC sites per cm2 and (b) peak lengths of SLC on the selected aluminum alloys.
Figure 17b shows the length of the spread of SLC on the surfaces of the alloys. Although the new generation Al alloys are more resistant in terms of corrosion penetration and the number of pits per cm2, these alloys presented the largest lengths of SLC attacks on the average. This was most evident in the AA2098-T351 alloy. These alloys only exhibited an intragranular form of attack and this form of attack only propagated and spread laterally, but predominantly according to the direction of deformation.
It is also important to note that the corrosion behaviors of the Al-Cu-Li alloys are not the same. Different factors trigger and promote SLC in these alloys. The AA2050-T84 alloy presented a very different degree of susceptibility and morphology in comparison with the other third-generation Al-Cu-Li alloys namely, the AA2098-T351, AA2198-T8 and the AA2198-T851 alloys. However, it is important to state that the AA2098 alloy is a precursor to the AA2198 alloy [46]. This probably explains why their corrosion behaviors are similar. It is also very evident from the results that, except for the AA6082-T6 alloy, every other alloy that exhibited IGC presented very high rates of corrosion attack penetration. The new generation Al-Cu-Li alloys (except for AA2050-T84) that exhibited only intragranular corrosion were more resistant to corrosion penetration.
Furthermore, there seems to be a strong relationship between the direction of attack propagation and spread with the direction of deformation. This was evident in at least five out of the seven alloys investigated. Also, all the alloys exhibited trenching and the formation of cavities (micro-pits). These types of attack are associated with the activities of cathodic coarse intermetallic particles.
In conclusion, the new generation aerospace alloys (except for the AA2050-T84) are more resistant to corrosion than the conventional aerospace alloys (AA2034-T3 and AA7050-T7451) but are less resistant compared with the AA6082-T6 alloy. It was difficult to fully establish these differences from electrochemical approaches (especially from the potentiodynamic polarization technique). Thus, it is advisable always to employ a non-electrochemical approach when the corrosion resistance of Al alloys are to be compared, and this can be combined with electrochemical techniques to gain more insight.
The authors appreciate FAPESP for financial support through the grant Proc. 2013/13235-6 and for sponsoring the postdoctoral fellowships of Dr. Uyime Donatus (Process 2017/03095-3). The authors also wish to acknowledge the African Academy of Sciences Grant No [ARPDF 18-03], for providing financial support to carry out part of this research.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
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Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"