Surface atomic concentration (at.%) of the recovered fibers obtained at the different gasification times, plus concentrations for pristine fibers.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2216",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pesticides - Advances in Chemical and Botanical Pesticides",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Advances in Chemical and Botanical Pesticides",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Pesticides are considered as potential molecules to combat insects, pests, diseases and weeds in agricultural, horticultural cropping system as well as health management systems. Pesticides of chemical origin are highly effective against the target organism. However, the chemical pesticides have toxic effects on several non-target species and the growing environmental concerns raises the issues of safety and evaluation of toxicity. In this book the effects of chemical pesticides on fishes, earthworms, beneficial microbes and natural enemies in agricultural ecosystems are discussed. Furthermore, pesticides have the properties to disrupt endocrine and non-traditional pesticide compounds have been elaborately narrated. The recent technology on use of biomarkers in pesticide assay is described in two chapters. Some of plants having pesticidally active compounds are described. Use of biotechnological approaches for insect pest management and a new approach to recognize larva in the field by LIRA classifier system are two more interesting chapters of the book.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0680-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5306-1",doi:"10.5772/2609",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"pesticides-advances-in-chemical-and-botanical-pesticides",numberOfPages:396,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"47f8991faa031547b7e5bdf66b6e8131",bookSignature:"R.P. Soundararajan",publishedDate:"July 25th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2216.jpg",numberOfDownloads:48699,numberOfWosCitations:64,numberOfCrossrefCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitations:108,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:220,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 30th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 26th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 24th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 24th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"145081",title:"Dr.",name:"R.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Soundararajan",slug:"r.p.-soundararajan",fullName:"R.P. Soundararajan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/145081/images/system/145081.jpg",biography:"Dr. R. P. Soundararajan, Associate Professor in Horticultural College and Research Institute for Women of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India, has 15 years of experience in research and teaching in Agricultural Entomology. He is specialized in host plant resistance and insect pest management. He completed his Ph.D. on quantitative genetics in host plant resistance of rice crop against brown planthopper. He has published four books, 20 book chapters, and 45 research papers. He has guided 4 postgraduate research students. He is a life member of various academic bodies and active review committee member in several peer-reviewed academic journals.",institutionString:"Tamil Nadu Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Tamil Nadu Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"368",title:"Pestology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology-pestology"}],chapters:[{id:"37967",title:"Toxicity on Biochemical and Hematological Parameters in Bufo melanostictus (Schneider) (Common Indian Toad) Exposed to Malathion",doi:"10.5772/46231",slug:"toxicity-on-biochemical-and-hematological-parameters-in-bufo-melanostictus-schneider-common-indian-t",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Malaya Ranjan Mahananda and Bidut Prava Mohanty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37967",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37967",authors:[{id:"148072",title:"Dr.",name:"Malaya Ranjan",surname:"Mahananda",slug:"malaya-ranjan-mahananda",fullName:"Malaya Ranjan Mahananda"},{id:"149373",title:"Dr.",name:"Bidut Prava",surname:"Mohanty",slug:"bidut-prava-mohanty",fullName:"Bidut Prava Mohanty"}],corrections:null},{id:"37964",title:"Evaluation of Earthworms Present on Natural and Agricultural-Livestock Soils of the Center Northern Litoral Santafesino, República Argentina",doi:"10.5772/46228",slug:"evaluation-of-earthworms-present-on-natural-and-agricultural-livestock-soils-of-the-center-northern-",totalDownloads:1895,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"María Inés Maitre, Alba Rut Rodríguez,\nCarolina Elisabet Masin and Tamara Ricardo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37964",authors:[{id:"146423",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",surname:"Maitre",slug:"maria-maitre",fullName:"Maria Maitre"},{id:"148860",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba Rut",surname:"Rodríguez",slug:"alba-rut-rodriguez",fullName:"Alba Rut Rodríguez"},{id:"148861",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina Elisabet",surname:"Masin",slug:"carolina-elisabet-masin",fullName:"Carolina Elisabet Masin"},{id:"148862",title:"Prof.",name:"Tamara",surname:"Ricardo",slug:"tamara-ricardo",fullName:"Tamara Ricardo"}],corrections:null},{id:"37969",title:"Pyrethroids and Their Effects on Ion Channels",doi:"10.5772/50330",slug:"pyrethroids-and-their-effects-on-ion-channels",totalDownloads:4834,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,signatures:"Erin N. Wakeling, April P. Neal and William D. Atchison",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37969",authors:[{id:"147488",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Atchison",slug:"william-atchison",fullName:"William Atchison"},{id:"148733",title:"Dr.",name:"Erin",surname:"Wakeling",slug:"erin-wakeling",fullName:"Erin Wakeling"},{id:"149016",title:"Dr.",name:"April",surname:"Neal",slug:"april-neal",fullName:"April Neal"}],corrections:null},{id:"37965",title:"Non-Traditional Pesticidally Active Compounds",doi:"10.5772/46230",slug:"non-traditional-pesticidally-active-compounds",totalDownloads:1689,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ahmed S. Abdel-Aty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37965",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37965",authors:[{id:"148938",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdel-Aty",slug:"ahmed-abdel-aty",fullName:"Ahmed Abdel-Aty"}],corrections:null},{id:"37957",title:"Endocrine disrupting pesticides",doi:"10.5772/46226",slug:"endocrine-disrupting-pesticides",totalDownloads:2606,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Eva Matisova and Svetlana Hrouzková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37957",authors:[{id:"16299",title:"Dr.",name:"Eva",surname:"Matisova",slug:"eva-matisova",fullName:"Eva Matisova"},{id:"16866",title:"Dr.",name:"Svetlana",surname:"Hrouzková",slug:"svetlana-hrouzkova",fullName:"Svetlana Hrouzková"}],corrections:null},{id:"37960",title:"Indirect Effects of Pesticides on Natural Enemies",doi:"10.5772/48649",slug:"indirect-effects-of-pesticides-on-natural-enemies",totalDownloads:3155,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:29,signatures:"Raymond Cloyd",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37960",authors:[{id:"14208",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond A.",surname:"Cloyd",slug:"raymond-a.-cloyd",fullName:"Raymond A. Cloyd"}],corrections:null},{id:"37977",title:"Photosynthetic Response of Two Rice Field Cyanobacteria to Pesticides",doi:"10.5772/46232",slug:"photosynthetic-response-of-two-rice-field-cyanobacteria-to-pesticides",totalDownloads:1859,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Binata Nayak, Shantanu Bhattacharyya and Jayanta Sahu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37977",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37977",authors:[{id:"148583",title:"Dr.",name:"Binata",surname:"Nayak",slug:"binata-nayak",fullName:"Binata Nayak"},{id:"149474",title:"Mr.",name:"Shantanu",surname:"Bhattacharyya",slug:"shantanu-bhattacharyya",fullName:"Shantanu Bhattacharyya"},{id:"153853",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayanta",surname:"Sahu",slug:"jayanta-sahu",fullName:"Jayanta Sahu"}],corrections:null},{id:"37954",title:"Plant Based Pesticides: Green Environment with Special Reference to Silk Worms",doi:"10.5772/47832",slug:"plant-based-pesticides-green-environment-with-special-reference-to-silk-worms",totalDownloads:3506,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Dipsikha Bora, Bulbuli Khanikor and Hiren Gogoi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37954",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37954",authors:[{id:"144815",title:"Dr.",name:"Dipsikha",surname:"Bora",slug:"dipsikha-bora",fullName:"Dipsikha Bora"},{id:"147060",title:"MSc.",name:"Bulbuli",surname:"Khanikor",slug:"bulbuli-khanikor",fullName:"Bulbuli Khanikor"},{id:"156114",title:"Mr.",name:"Hiren",surname:"Gogoi",slug:"hiren-gogoi",fullName:"Hiren Gogoi"}],corrections:null},{id:"37956",title:"Plants as Potential Sources of Pesticidal Agents: A Review",doi:"10.5772/46225",slug:"plants-as-potential-sources-of-pesticidal-agents-a-review",totalDownloads:6189,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:17,signatures:"Simon Koma Okwute",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37956",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37956",authors:[{id:"148339",title:"Prof.",name:"Simon Koma",surname:"Okwute",slug:"simon-koma-okwute",fullName:"Simon Koma Okwute"}],corrections:null},{id:"37961",title:"Neem Crude Extract as Potential Biopesticide for Controlling Golden Apple Snail, Pomacea canaliculata",doi:"10.5772/48626",slug:"neem-crude-extract-as-potential-biopesticide-for-controlling-golden-apple-snail-pomacea-canaliculata",totalDownloads:6029,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Rosdiyani Massaguni and Siti Noor Hajjar Md Latip",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37961",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37961",authors:[{id:"146825",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rosdiyani",surname:"Massaguni",slug:"rosdiyani-massaguni",fullName:"Rosdiyani Massaguni"},{id:"149116",title:"Dr.",name:"Siti Noor Hajjar Md",surname:"Latip",slug:"siti-noor-hajjar-md-latip",fullName:"Siti Noor Hajjar Md Latip"}],corrections:null},{id:"37955",title:"Evaluation of Combretum micranthum G. Don (Combretaceae) as a Biopesticide Against Pest Termite",doi:"10.5772/46224",slug:"evaluation-of-combretum-micranthum-g-don-combretaceae-as-a-biopesticide-against-pest-termite",totalDownloads:2349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Annick Tahiri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37955",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37955",authors:[{id:"147567",title:"Dr.",name:"Annick",surname:"Tahiri",slug:"annick-tahiri",fullName:"Annick Tahiri"}],corrections:null},{id:"37968",title:"Biotechnological Approaches for the Control of Insect Pests in Crop Plants",doi:"10.5772/46233",slug:"biotechnological-approaches-for-the-control-of-insect-pests-in-crop-plants",totalDownloads:5633,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:14,signatures:"Jackie Stevens, Kerry Dunse, Jennifer Fox,\nShelley Evans and Marilyn Anderson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37968",authors:[{id:"146559",title:"Dr.",name:"Marilyn",surname:"Anderson",slug:"marilyn-anderson",fullName:"Marilyn Anderson"}],corrections:null},{id:"37963",title:"Limited Receptive Area Neural Classifier for Larvae Recognition",doi:"10.5772/46229",slug:"limited-receptive-area-neural-classifier-for-larvae-recognition",totalDownloads:1204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Tatiana Baidyk, Oleksandr Makeyev,\nErnst Kussul and Marco Antonio Rodríguez Flores",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37963",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37963",authors:[{id:"128470",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatiana",surname:"Baidyk",slug:"tatiana-baidyk",fullName:"Tatiana Baidyk"},{id:"148891",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",surname:"Makeyev",slug:"oleksandr-makeyev",fullName:"Oleksandr Makeyev"},{id:"148892",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernst",surname:"Kussul",slug:"ernst-kussul",fullName:"Ernst Kussul"}],corrections:null},{id:"37959",title:"Evolution and Expectations of Enzymatic Biosensors for Pesticides",doi:"10.5772/46227",slug:"evolution-and-expectations-of-enzymatic-biosensors-for-pesticides",totalDownloads:3915,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,signatures:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal, Esmeralda Rodríguez-Miranda and Gabriel Herrera-Pérez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37959",authors:[{id:"119222",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Herrera-Pérez",slug:"gabriel-herrera-perez",fullName:"Gabriel Herrera-Pérez"},{id:"152335",title:"Dr.",name:"Esmeralda",surname:"Rodríguez-Miranda",slug:"esmeralda-rodriguez-miranda",fullName:"Esmeralda Rodríguez-Miranda"},{id:"182114",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Vargas-Bernal",slug:"rafael-vargas-bernal",fullName:"Rafael Vargas-Bernal"}],corrections:null},{id:"37966",title:"Relationship Between Biomarkers and Pesticide Exposure in Fishes: A Review",doi:"10.5772/48604",slug:"relationship-between-biomarkers-and-pesticide-exposure-in-fishes-a-review",totalDownloads:2252,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Nédia de Castilhos Ghisi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/37966",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/37966",authors:[{id:"146496",title:"Dr.",name:"Nédia",surname:"Ghisi",slug:"nedia-ghisi",fullName:"Nédia Ghisi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3006",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Recent Trends in Pesticide Residue Assay",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e40e118b31e44422f9f6a253d4d9b9b7",slug:"pesticides-recent-trends-in-pesticide-residue-assay",bookSignature:"R.P. Soundararajan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3006.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145081",title:"Dr.",name:"R.P.",surname:"Soundararajan",slug:"r.p.-soundararajan",fullName:"R.P. Soundararajan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8246",title:"Trends in Integrated Insect Pest Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af438c4e55f7313c78437813d1f9eff0",slug:"trends-in-integrated-insect-pest-management",bookSignature:"R. P. Soundararajan and Chitra Narayanasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8246.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145081",title:"Dr.",name:"R.P.",surname:"Soundararajan",slug:"r.p.-soundararajan",fullName:"R.P. Soundararajan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"874",title:"Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control",subtitle:"Current and Future Tactics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9bb193803d54978099900e0645e2637",slug:"integrated-pest-management-and-pest-control-current-and-future-tactics",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/874.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"493",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Formulations, Effects, Fate",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35f00fd282698d3ff83bd9759c5c7a9c",slug:"pesticides-formulations-effects-fate",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/493.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"432",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",subtitle:"Pesticides Use and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e62e9089d0ab78c0379f16d18494a6d",slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-pesticides-use-and-management",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3477",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Current Research and Case Studies in Use",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"793817029a616fa096c3ffb2d68d04ff",slug:"herbicides-current-research-and-case-studies-in-use",bookSignature:"Andrew J. Price and Jessica A. Kelton",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3477.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13747",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",surname:"Price",slug:"andrew-price",fullName:"Andrew Price"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"431",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",subtitle:"Risks and Benefits",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0244c500e5044b9fb7e20ba348845230",slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-risks-and-benefits",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/431.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"430",title:"Pesticides in the Modern World",subtitle:"Pests Control and Pesticides Exposure and Toxicity Assessment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9ac0f193fefb3556d429c90f3f467beb",slug:"pesticides-in-the-modern-world-pests-control-and-pesticides-exposure-and-toxicity-assessment",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/430.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2106",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Properties, Synthesis and Control of Weeds",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82ba2e3ac63cdbe36375b3b9d3215a1d",slug:"herbicides-properties-synthesis-and-control-of-weeds",bookSignature:"Mohammed Naguib Abd El-Ghany Hasaneen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2106.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"121899",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed Nagib",surname:"Hasaneen",slug:"mohammed-nagib-hasaneen",fullName:"Mohammed Nagib Hasaneen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"923",title:"Herbicides",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54a8eb808c05a5fe01c676e7047d4576",slug:"herbicides-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sonia Soloneski and Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/923.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"71744",slug:"corrigendum-to-technical-advances-in-chloroplast-biotechnology",title:"Corrigendum to: Technical Advances in Chloroplast Biotechnology",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71744.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71744",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71744",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71744",chapter:{id:"65358",slug:"technical-advances-in-chloroplast-biotechnology",signatures:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan, Ghulam Mustafa and Faiz Ahmad Joyia",dateSubmitted:"June 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"January 25th 2019",datePublished:"October 23rd 2019",book:{id:"6976",title:"Transgenic Crops",subtitle:"Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",fullTitle:"Transgenic Crops - Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",slug:"transgenic-crops-emerging-trends-and-future-perspectives",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan and Kauser Abdulla Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6976.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"211046",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",fullName:"Ghulam Mustafa",slug:"ghulam-mustafa",email:"drmustafa8@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"212508",title:"Dr.",name:"Faiz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Faiz Ahmad",slug:"faiz-ahmad",email:"faizahmad1980@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",email:"sarwarkhan_40@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"65358",slug:"technical-advances-in-chloroplast-biotechnology",signatures:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan, Ghulam Mustafa and Faiz Ahmad Joyia",dateSubmitted:"June 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"January 25th 2019",datePublished:"October 23rd 2019",book:{id:"6976",title:"Transgenic Crops",subtitle:"Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",fullTitle:"Transgenic Crops - Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",slug:"transgenic-crops-emerging-trends-and-future-perspectives",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan and Kauser Abdulla Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6976.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"211046",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",fullName:"Ghulam Mustafa",slug:"ghulam-mustafa",email:"drmustafa8@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"212508",title:"Dr.",name:"Faiz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Faiz Ahmad",slug:"faiz-ahmad",email:"faizahmad1980@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",email:"sarwarkhan_40@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]},book:{id:"6976",title:"Transgenic Crops",subtitle:"Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",fullTitle:"Transgenic Crops - Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",slug:"transgenic-crops-emerging-trends-and-future-perspectives",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan and Kauser Abdulla Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6976.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10203",leadTitle:null,title:"Dyes and Pigments",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe use of dyes and pigments is narrowly associated with everyday life. Since ancient times, people have been using various types of dyes and pigments for both aesthetic and practical applications. Typically, the coloration of various materials e.g. textiles, clay, plastics, etc. has been their main purpose. Yet, the scope of contemporary dyes and pigments has become significantly broader and there is constant interest in new products fulfilling numerous requirements parallel to their ability to act as colorants. This trend has led to the development of functional dyes.
\r\n\r\n\tIn recent years, novel dyes and pigments with hi-tech applications have been developed and there is a continuous demand for new products with better properties and/or broader application scope. Of particular interest is the development of dyes and pigments with environment-responsive aptitudes i.e. products that can undergo some structural modification as a result of external stimuli e.g. light, heat, pressure, pH-changes, etc. These stimuli-responsive functional dyes have in turn found application in sensor technologies, optical data storage, molecular switches, etc. Acknowledging these facts, this book aims to cover current state-of-the-art research and development in the remarkably important area of environment-responsive (multi)functional dyes and pigments.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-615-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-614-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-616-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"624f533946a159bc8a03f109c2e1dc91",bookSignature:"Dr. Raffaello Papadakis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10203.jpg",keywords:"Fluorescent Dyes, PH-Sensitive Dyes, Solvatochromism, Solvent Polarity Indicators, Chromic Betaines, Viscosity, Charge-Transfer Complexes, Spectroscopy, Piezochromism, Optoelectronics, Photochromism, Molecular Switches",numberOfDownloads:62,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 25th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 13th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Chemical Engineer with working experience at the Institute of Molecular Sciences, CNRS/Aix-Marseille University in the research group of Dr. Thierry Tron, and at Uppsala University in the research group of Dr. Henrik Ottosson. Currently a Senior Research Scientist at Tdb Labs, Uppsala, Sweden.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"251885",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaello",middleName:null,surname:"Papadakis",slug:"raffaello-papadakis",fullName:"Raffaello Papadakis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251885/images/system/251885.jpg",biography:"Raffaello Papadakis is a Chemical Engineer (MEng 2005) majoring in organic chemical technology and polymer science and technology. He started his PhD in the field of physical organic chemistry in 2006 under the supervision of Prof. (Emer.) Dr. Athanase Tsolomitis (National Technical University of Athens, Greece) and graduated in 2010. During his PhD he concentrated on the synthesis of solvatochromic probes and molecular switches. He later on spent two years in Marseille, France (September 2010–January 2013) working as a postodoctoral researcher at the Institute of Molecular Sciences, CNRS/Aix-Marseille University, in the field of water oxidation catalysts in the research group of Dr. Thierry Tron before moving to to Uppsala, Sweden in 2014. There he joined the group of Dr. Henrik Ottosson (Uppsala University) and he worked as a postdoc researcher and later as a researcher (Forskare) focusing on excited state (anti)aromaticity and graphene photochemistry-related research. His current research interests revolve around physical organic and materials chemistry with an emphasis on the chemistry and photochemistry of graphene and novel covalent organic frameworks as well as polymer chemistry. He is the author and coauthor of 24 scientific research papers, two book chapters and he has more than 35 contributions in international conference proceedings. Furthermore, he is an active referee of scientific peer-reviewed papers of world-class chemistry journals and he has acted as a scientific expert evaluating international research-grant proposals. Currently he works as a Senior Research Scientist at TdB Labs AB (Sweden) and specializes in polysaccharide modifications and derivatization placing particular interest in fluorescent dye polysaccharide-functionalizations.",institutionString:"TdB Labs",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"74730",title:"Treatment of Textile Dyeing Waste Water Using TiO2/Zn Electrode by Spray Pyrolysis in Electrocoagulation Process",slug:"treatment-of-textile-dyeing-waste-water-using-tio2-zn-electrode-by-spray-pyrolysis-in-electrocoagula",totalDownloads:63,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59532",title:"Characterization of Carbon Fibers Recovered by Pyrolysis of Cured Prepregs and Their Reuse in New Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74281",slug:"characterization-of-carbon-fibers-recovered-by-pyrolysis-of-cured-prepregs-and-their-reuse-in-new-co",body:'Composites are made from at least two constituents that together produce material properties that are different from the properties of those materials on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (plastic matrix), and a reinforcement (typically fibers, i.e. carbon fibers), added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the material.
While they offer fantastic durability, high specific stiffness, and strength-to-weight ratio, their properties are essentially controlled by those of their constituents, including fiber/matrix interfaces, their volume fraction, and spatial distribution. The remarkable characteristics of fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs) led to rapid increase of their use. In the aeronautical sector, the use of composites reaches up to 50% of the total weight of a modern commercial aircraft [1]. But, FRPs are not only used in the aeronautic/aerospace sector. Other industries where weight-efficient performance is a key factor, such as the automotive, naval, and wind energy sectors, are likewise increasing the use of composite materials (annual growth rate of 12–14% Figure 1).
Global demand of carbon fibers over the years [3].
Naturally, the increment in demand and use of composites results in more and more waste being generated throughout the life cycle of these materials; in fact, it is estimated that 30–40% of pristine carbon fibers are wasted during the manufacturing process, and significant amounts of off-cuts, rejects, and put-of-date prepregs are generated, causing a significant negative impact on the environment. The excess of carbon fibers that is generated per year equals about 20–25% of the total amount consumed during 2015 [2]. Evidently, the recycling of composite materials is a high priority.
The recycling of carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRPs) not only makes sense from environmental and economic perspectives but also could be a key in increasing the penetration of these lightweight but expensive materials in high-volume markets such as automotive and aeronautical industry.
The principal waste management options that have been adopted for composites are burying, landfilling, or incinerating. Several European Directives and regulations were implemented in order to make better use of landfills (EU 1999/31/EC) [4]; to reduce waste management (EU 2000/53/EC on End-of-Life vehicles) [5]; to prevent or limit the emission levels produced by incineration plants (Directive 2000/76/EC) [6]; as well as to prevent and remedy the environmental damage (2004/35/EC on Environmental Liability) [7]. To reduce the consumption of natural resources and landfill allocations, recycling composite elements for reusing in different applications is postulated as a promising solution. Because of their high initial cost and energy consumption during manufacture, fibers are the most attractive constituent for recycling. In addition to these economic incentives and compared to the production of virgin materials, recycling will also reduce air, water, pollutant emissions (90–95% of CO2 emissions), as well as energy demand. Therefore, recycling results in a substantial improvement on the environmental impact of composite materials.
The economic costs can be reduced by about 70% (from €30–58/kg to €15–23/kg for carbon fibers) and the energy requirement by nearly 98% (from 55 to 166 kWh/kg to 3–10 kWh/kg), since the majority of energy consumption occurs during production of virgin carbon fibers [8]. Substituting virgin carbon fibers with recycled ones would save enough electricity to power 175,000 homes in a year [9]. However, the amount of composites currently recycled is less than 5% due to their complex composition; the nature of the resin (i.e., thermoset resins have a cross-linked matrix that cannot be simply reprocessed by remelting or remolding); their combination with other materials; and the high variability among waste products [9]. Furthermore, the use of the recycled carbon fibers in industrial applications is currently very limited due to the low quality control of the fibers, i.e., the length, surface quality, and origin of the fibers are difficult to control. In addition, the hierarchical structure of composites is destroyed during recycling; and the resultant laminates composed of recycled fibers present disorientation. Then, these composites do not meet the standards of high-value structural applications.
There are three main general technical approaches to the recovery of the fibers in thermoset-matrix composites: mechanical, thermal, and chemical. The mechanical recycling consists of reducing the size of the scrap composite components by shredding, crushing or milling. Nevertheless, in industry, this technology has not been extensively exploited to treat carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRCs) due to the poor bonding between the recycled fibers and the new resin.
Thermal recycling of composites involves the separation of the matrix from the fibers by applying heat. There are two main types of thermal recycling methods: pyrolysis and fluidized-bed recycling process. In both, the resin is volatilized into lower weight molecules to produce mainly oil and gases, while fibers are recovered, usually with char on their surfaces. These thermal processes have been widely implemented in industry. Among them, pyrolysis is the most widespread technology. Both glass and carbon fiber-reinforced composites can be recycled through pyrolysis. Because of the much higher market value of carbon fibers, pyrolysis of carbon fiber-reinforced composites has higher economic attractiveness. The first continuous pyrolysis recycling line, commercially producing recycled carbon fibers, has been introduced by the company Recycled Carbon Fiber Ltd. (RCF) in 2008 [10]. One of the most famous cases of recycling composites is BMW: up to 95% of the BMW, i3 is recyclable [11]. In Spain, the company Thermal Recycling of Composites (TRC, SL) has technology for the thermochemical recycling of composite materials reinforced with both glass and carbon fibers, with a special recycling line for wind turbine blades [12]. ELG Carbon Fiber (ELG-CF), Coseley, UK, develops a pyrolysis process in which they treat around 24,000 tons per year of carbon fiber waste. The process yields a tough and abrasive cotton-wool-like fuzz of carbon fiber, which maintains 90–95% of its original mechanical properties [13].
The recycling of CFRP waste through pyrolysis poses the additional problem of managing the liquids that are produced in the process, as a consequence of the thermochemical degradation of the resins (usually epoxy) [14]. Therefore, other less expensive alternatives are being studied. In this regard, many researchers have investigated the decomposition of resin matrix and CFRP carbon fiber recovery using chemical treatment to break and degrade the resin. The solvent can be water (hydrolysis) or organic (solvolysis). Solvolysis offers a large number of possibilities, thanks to a wide range of solvents, temperatures, pressures, and catalysts. Depending on the amount of solvent and on the temperature, the fluid can be vapor, liquid, biphasic, or supercritical. The latest have gained much attention since 2000 because characteristics between liquid and gas phases can be achieved through combinations of temperature and pressure, allowing the enhancement of the diffusion effect [15]. The results of recent research on the use of supercritical or subcritical fluids including water and alcohol are very promising [16, 17, 18].
In this chapter, we propose a two-step carbon-fiber recycling process: pyrolysis followed by oxidation. An optimization of the method in terms of sustainability of the technique and the characteristics of the fibers will be carried by performing surface, microstructure, and mechanical testing of the recovered fibers. With respect to mechanical performance, fiber strength distribution and fracture toughness were the properties analyzed. In addition, the remanufacture of laminates by means resin film infusion using the recycled fibers is proposed. The mechanical performance of the resulting laminates will be evaluated and compared to that of pristine ones.
A common scrap material from the aeronautic sector was selected for recycling. The recycling steps and process optimization parameters are detailed below.
The composite material used as the basis for the optimization of the experimental parameters was a scrap (HexPly® F593, supplied by AIRBUS OPERATIONS S.L., Getafe, Spain) composed of a plain woven prepreg made of epoxy resin reinforced with Toray T300/3 k carbon fibers [19] (55–60% carbon fibers [by mass] and 40–45% resin; fiber area weight = 193 g/m2) [20]. The carbon fibers were made of PAN. This process is as follows. First, there is a pre-oxidation treatment under 200–300°C; second, a carbonization in high purity inert gas under 1000–1500°C takes place; third, there is a graphitization under 2500–3000°C; and finally, a sizing.
The process used to recover the fibers was pyrolysis. It is a thermochemical decomposition of the organic part of the composite materials at temperatures between 450°C and 700°C in the nearly absence of oxygen. It is widely performed in the industry due to its easy and cheap implementation.
The recycling process was done in a thermolysis installation (Figure 2). It consists of a heating system and a gas condensation device [21]. The muffle furnace (1) contains a 9.6 L steel reactor, sealed by a screw-on lid. The flue gases circulate across four condensers (3–6) connected to each other by six cooling pipes. Each condenser allows the collection of distilled oils as cool gases and has four collection holes for the withdrawal of the distilled liquids and a thermometer to measure their temperature. The noncondensable gases are led to a water-cooling tower (7), where the last fraction of the distilled liquids is collected. These gases pass through a set of three filters (8 and 9) to eliminate pollutant gases and solid particles. The gases can then be mixed with air and burned off or collected for analysis. When the thermolysis is complete (the rotameter (10) inside the tubing no longer detects any distillation gas), the reactors are cooled and the thermolytic solid residues removed, which are mainly composed of pieces of dimensions equal to those of the input material but completely black.
Installation used for the pyrolysis of the carbon fibers [15].
The complete process consists of two steps: a thermolysis or pyrolysis (heat rate of 20°C/min) and a gasification or oxidation (air flow of 5 L/min). In the first one, the separation fiber/resin takes place; on the second stage, there is the removal of the char deposited on the surface of the fibers. However, this second step, if not properly designed, is likely to reduce the mechanical properties of the fibers.
With the purpose of designing the experimental procedure toward achieving the best recyclability and keeping the original fiber properties as intact as possible, the pyrolysis and oxidation steps were studied and optimized.
The design of the pyrolysis temperature for the degradation of the resin was performed by conducting tests runs at 500, 600, and 700°C for 6 h. Values below 500°C did not effectively remove all the resin; and values higher than 700°C caused a high degradation of the recovered fibers. The temperature of the pyrolysis (P) stage was then set to 500°C, because for 550°C and above, the preliminary thermogravimetric analysis and surface element concentration tests showed the fibers to be damaged.
The optimum oxidation (O) step was determined by varying the oxidation times between 30 and 90 min. This was done with the following objectives: efficiently removing the char on the fiber surface, while maintaining fiber microstructure intact and retaining fiber mechanical properties as much as possible. Section 3 details the results of this optimization study.
To determine the optimum oxidation time, analyses of fiber surface quality, fiber composition and mechanical properties of the recovered fibers were performed, as described in this section.
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to evaluate the presence of char on the surface of the recycled fibers and compare with pristine ones. The images of the morphology change of the virgin and the recycled carbon reveal that pristine fibers exhibit a rough and irregular surface, while the recycled fibers are free of resin char, with a much more regular and smooth surface (Figure 3(a)–(d)). Only a few traces of micron-sized resin residues can be seen in few regions on the fiber surface. It can be concluded that, independently the oxidation time, the surface of recycled fibers presented a low amount of residual char and was otherwise clean and showed no evidence of fiber damage. This means that the removal of char from the fiber surface was efficient, and that this process requires only short oxidation times, e.g., 30 min.
SEM images of the virgin (a) recovered carbon fibers after thermolysis at 500°C and gasification times of 30 min (b), 60 min (c), and 90 min (d).
The surface chemistry of virgin and recycled carbon fibers was examined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy by López et al. [20]. As shown in Table 1, the surface of all the examined fibers was composed of carbon (C), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). While the C content remains practically constant, the O content increases with gasification time and the N content decreases. The increase in the O/C ratio with gasification time is indicative of the degree of fiber oxidation, which can lead to undesirable alterations. The smaller ratio obtained, i.e., the less oxidized recovered fiber (compared to 0.082% of the virgin ones) indicates that the optimum gasification time is 30 min.
Fiber sample | C (at.%) | N (at.%) | O (at.%) | Si (at.%) | O/C (at.%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virgin | 90.1 | 1.0 | 8.9 | — | 0.082 |
Recycled: P-500°C | 89.3 | 4.5 | 6.0 | 0.1 | 0.067 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min | 81.2 | 7.1 | 10.0 | 1.7 | 0.123 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min | 83.3 | 4.6 | 11.7 | 0.4 | 0.140 |
Surface atomic concentration (at.%) of the recovered fibers obtained at the different gasification times, plus concentrations for pristine fibers.
Virgin: virgin TORAY T300/3 k fibers; values provided by manufacturer TORAY JAPAN [22].
Moreover, according to the thermolytically derived solid residue, 500°C is the condition in which the best atomic surface composition was obtained, due to the smallest quantity of C═O and COOH groups, which suggests the formation of oxygenated compounds on the surface of the solid residue, potentially caused by secondary repolymerization reactions in the gaseous phase.
Raman spectra of the surface and transversal section of the carbon fibers (Figure 4) were obtained at room temperature to detect the changes in crystallite structure of the recycled carbon fibers at a penetration depth of the order of 60 nm. Independently of the zone evaluated, all first-order Raman spectra for the recycled carbon fibers exhibited two broad peaks at about 1350 and 1580 cm−1 corresponding to the D and G bands, respectively.
Raman spectra for the recycled carbon fibers.
The G band is associated with a single crystal of graphite, whereas the D peak is from the structural imperfections created by the attachment of hydroxyl and epoxide groups on the carbon basal plane. The ratio of the intensity of the D and G bands (ID/IG) indicates the measurement of the graphitic plane size, so the lateral crystallite size (La) of the recycled fibers had become smaller [23]. The recycling process generated surface defects caused by the reduced La values through the oxidation effect, as is indicated in Table 2. The general expression that gives the crystallite size form the integrated intensity ratio is given by Ref [24].
where λ1 is the laser line wavelength in nanometer units.
Fiber sample | D band position (cm−1) | G band position (cm−1) | ID/IG | La (nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
P-500°C/O-30 min | 1357 | 1588 | 0.93 | 21 |
P-500°C/O-60 min | 1364 | 1582 | 0.98 | 20 |
P-500°C/O-90 min | 1364 | 1580 | 0.98 | 20 |
Microstructure parameters of the recycled T300 carbon fibers at different gasification times using Raman spectrometer.
The variation of La is generally indicative of a change in material strength. It can be inferred that the larger the reduction in La, the lower the tensile strength of the recycled fibers. Therefore, these results indicate that the lowest reduction in fiber tensile strength is likely to be achieved for an oxidation step of 30 min.
To achieve an objective determination of the optimum oxidation time based on mechanical properties, evaluations of the tensile strength and of the fracture toughness of the recovered fibers were performed.
The tensile properties of the carbon fibers were determined through tensile tests at a gage length of 20 mm in the fiber tensile tester at room temperature. Each single fiber was directly connected to the mechanical grips and then submitted to uniaxial straining up to failure under stroke control at 1 mm min−1. Then, the natural frequencies were extracted to determine the linear density (using the frequency method according to the ASTM D1577 standard [25]), and subsequently, the cross-section area was calculated with the known fiber density, in order to finally determine the average fiber diameter at 20 mm gage length [26].
During the test, the force-strain curve was recorded. These curves indicate linear and elastic behavior up to failure (Figure 5). The maximum load attained was used to calculate the strength of each individual fiber, and the elastic modulus in the fiber direction was determined from the slope of the stress-strain curve.
Strain vs. strain relationship for a pristine and recovered carbon fiber at different oxidation times.
The large reductions in tensile strength with increases of the gasification time are attributed to the large number of micropits on the fiber surfaces generated due to the severity of the oxidation. The higher void content also contributes to strength degradation. Overall, the oxidative effect results in a higher amount of surface defects, which leads to a reduction in the tensile strength and lateral crystallite size, as demonstrated above.
The average fiber diameter (D), elastic moduli (E), and tensile strength (σu) of fibers recycled with different gasification times are given in Table 3. It is shown that the decrease in strength is more significant compared to that of the modulus. This is caused by the presence of large number of defects on the thermally oxidized surface of fibers. At 30 min of oxidation time, the modulus seems to be slightly higher than the one of the virgin fibers (+2%). This can be due the presence of a layer of residual matrix or char on the surface of some recycled fibers. The modulus for the recovered fibers drops by about 10% with respect to virgin fibers after 90 min of gasification. With longer oxidation times, the modulus further reduces, which can be attributed to the removal of the amorphous carbon layer resulting from the oxidizing thermal treatment (corroborated with the decrease of the fiber diameter). This is consistent with the finding that heat treatment affects the diameter of the fibers. Consequently, gasification times of 60 min already lead to severe reductions in elastic modulus and tensile strength.
Fiber sample | Diameter D (μm) | Elastic modulus E (GPa) | Tensile strength σu (GPa) |
---|---|---|---|
Virgin | 7.5 ± 0.2 | 197 ± 18 | 3.4 ± 0.4 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min | 7.2 ± 0.1 (−4%) | 200 ± 4 (+2%) | 3.0 ± 0.3 (−10%) |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min | 7.1 ± 0.2 (−5%) | 189 ± 9 (−4%) | 2.7 ± 0.3 (−20%) |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-90 min | 6.6 ± 0.6 (−12%) | 178 ± 5 (−10%) | 2.4 ± 0.4 (−30%) |
Average diameter and mechanical properties of the fibers analyzed as function of the oxidation time.
In spite of the remarkable specific properties mentioned above, fracture of fiber-reinforced composite materials tends to occur in a brittle way due to their low capacity for plastic deformation and relatively low fracture toughness. In combination with the fiber/matrix interface, fiber fracture plays a role on the ultimate failure stress and energy dissipation mechanisms in brittle unidirectional composites. However, this property is less widely reported owing to the experimental difficulties associated with evaluation fracture in small-diameter fibers.
The methodology used consists on the introduction of artificial notches in the fibers by removing material using a focused ion beam (FIB) (Figure 6) [26, 27, 28]. A fine tungsten pin covered with liquid gallium (Ga) is used as an ion source from which Ga atoms are extracted and ionized via high voltage. This methodology allows precise monitoring of the notch geometry in terms of length, depth, and tip radius.
Fiber-milling system by focused ion beam (FIB).
Straight and sharp notches perpendicular to the fiber axis were introduced, as shown in Figure 7. The fiber diameter and the notch length of each test specimen were measured with a SEM associated to the FIB apparatus. Once the notch was milled into the fiber, the fibers were submitted to uniaxial loading up to failure in similar form as for the plain tensile strength tests described previously.
SEM micrographs the milling procedure; (a) original fiber; (b) gallium ions focusing and (c) notched fiber.
The fracture process started from the crack tip induced by FIB milling, and the response was also linear and elastic up to failure. The residual strength of the notched fiber was determined from the failure load and the corresponding area of the cross section of the fiber. The mode-I apparent fracture toughness, KIC, was evaluated from the residual strength based on Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) postulates. It is assumed that neither the small crack tip radius (≈50 nm) nor the possible material modification induced during the milling will excessively affect the fracture behavior of the fiber, and thus, the result can be considered a good approximation of the real material property. Hence, the failure of the fiber is dictated by
where KI depends on the specimen geometry, the crack depth, and the far-field stress applied. The parameter Y is a dimensionless stress intensity factor calculated according to the literature that assumes the geometric effects and the elastic anisotropy of the material [29].
The critical energy release rate, or fracture energy, GIc, is computed through Irwin’s equation, assuming the validity of LEFM, as
where E* is the effective modulus which is taken as E* = E, assuming plane strain conditions. The calculation of the plastic region length ahead of the crack tip, lp, is based on
where σ0 is the average tensile strength of the Weibull statistics given by
The function F above is the cumulative fracture probability function, wherein L is the fiber length, L0 is an arbitrary reference length, and σ0 and m are the characteristic strength and the Weibull modulus of the fiber [26].
The average fracture toughness and fracture energies obtained for virgin and recycled fibers, at different oxidation times, are given in Table 4. The small value of the plastic radius compared to the fiber diameter demonstrates the validity and applicability of LEFM postulates. Very large reductions in fracture toughness and fracture energy (in the order of 50% for KIc and 70% for GIc) result of the recycling process, independently of the oxidation time, and they are presumably affected mostly during the thermolysis step. The operated material modifications that lead to these property reductions are also unclear. Hence, these aspects are under investigation. However, it should be noted that the reduction in fiber fracture toughness is bound to have a limited influence on the fracture of the fiber-reinforced composite ply, as this property (GIcply ≈ 100 kJ/m2) is mostly determined by the fiber/matrix interface behavior.
Fiber sample | a0/D | Apparent fracture toughness KIc (MPa m1/2) | Apparent fracture energy GIc (J m−2) | Irwin plastic radius lp (μm) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Virgin | 0.15 ± 0.01 | 2.4 ± 0.5 | 24 ± 8 | 0.19 ± 0.01 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-30 min | 0.10 ± 0.03 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 8 ± 3 | 0.15 ± 0.06 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-60 min | 0.15 ± 0.02 | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 7 ± 4 | 0.20 ± 0.03 |
Recycled: P-500°C/O-90 min | 0.12 ± 0.02 | 0.9 ± 0.1 | 4 ± 1 | 0.15 ± 0.03 |
Geometry and mechanical properties of the pristine and the recovered fibers for different gasification times.
Given the results achieved in terms of tensile strength and fracture toughness, it can be concluded that the optimal recycling process conditions consist on a thermolysis step at 500°C, for 6 h followed by gasification step for another 30 min. These conditions result in retentions of 100% of fiber elastic modulus and 90% of fiber tensile strength, although the brittleness of the fibers is seriously increased.
Remanufacturing of unidirectional composites was pursued with the optimal fibers resulting from the optimization of the recycling process (thermolysis at 500°C for 6 h and oxidation at 500°C for 30 min). This section describes the adopted fabrication route and the preliminary evaluation of the mechanical performance of the resulting laminates.
A tow-spreading technique was used to compact the nearly unidirectional fiber tows in order to obtain a high fiber volume fraction in plies of thin thickness. The fibers passed through a spreading machine, which is equipped with an air duct and rolls (Figure 8). The air pressure can be regulated and flows between two guide rolls, making the tows sag downward toward the air direction. This creates a momentary free tension stage that allows the tow to be spread.
Tow-spreading equipment.
Afterward, the resin film infusion technique (RFI) was used for manufacturing new laminates. In this way, the recycled fiber tows were laid down next to each other to complete a thin fiber bed layer. The fiber layers were interleaved with layers of semi-solid epoxy resin film Letoxit® LFX 060 [30] for subsequent consolidation. The fibers/resin consolidation is characterized by three major steps: intimate contact, adhesion, and fiber impregnation. The configurations carried out were [2x rCF layer/2x LFX 060 film/ …], with three LFX 060 film epoxy sheets placed on the top and bottom layer (the number of repetitions depends on the desired thickness). The final kit was introduced in a close-mold and cured in a hot-plate press, applying pressure (0.7 MPa) and heat (125°C for 25 min) simultaneously. The steps followed to make a laminate are depicted in Figure 9. It was then confirmed that the degree of resin curing was optimal by means of Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC) tests.
Staking sequence: (a) recycled carbon fiber layer; (b) LFX 060 film; (c) laminate after 2 h in the thermal plate; and (d) laminate in the close-molding.
The quality of the composites recycled according to the methodology described above was evaluated by means of ultrasonic C-scan laminates. It was confirmed that the laminates were free of major porous, voids, or delaminations.
Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) were carried to evaluate the composition of the laminates. It was determined that the nominal fiber volume fraction, Vf, was approximately 50%, a value not far from the typical Vf ≈ 60–65% of high-performance unidirectional composites.
As means of rapidly assessing the mechanical performance of the remanufactured laminates, their interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) was evaluated by means of Short Beam Shear tests. This consists on flexural testing method using a very short beam relative to its thickness in order to promote interlaminar shear failure [31]. According to the test standard ASTM D2344 [32], all specimens (27 × 9 × 4.5 mm3) were loaded in a three-point bending configuration. The interlaminar shear strength was calculated using the equation:
where P is the maximum applied load, b is the measured specimen width, and h is the measured specimen thickness. The measured average ILSS of the remanufactured laminate was 64.3 ± 1.8 MPa, a value close to the lower bound of typical carbon fiber composite laminates (60–120 MPa). This might be a result of the lower Vf and flexural stiffness but also of the degradation of fiber/matrix interface properties. In fact, this aspect was previously reported in other researcher works [33] and will be investigated by the authors in the future. The interlaminar shear mode of failure confirms that this test is valid in terms of fracture mechanism.
This chapter dealt with the study of recycling technologies, of properties of the recovered fibers, and of the composites formed from these fibers. Regarding the recycling methodology, a thermolysis process at 500°C, for 6 h, followed by an oxidation/gasification step in air atmosphere at the same temperature, for 30 min, has been found to constitute the optimum recycling process. The combination of pyrolysis and gasification provides high process reliability, repeatability, product quality, and cost reduction. Moreover, remanufacture of composites was successfully achieved. As a whole, this constitutes a complete process of recycling carbon fibers that significantly reduces the environmental footprint and improves the life cycle of lightweight CFRP structures.
Regarding the properties of the recovered fibers, an oxidation time of 30 min leads to a full retention of elastic modulus and a 90% retention of tensile strength, relatively to pristine fibers. Longer gasification times lead to more significant decreases in these properties and undesirable alterations in the atomic composition of the surface of the fiber (increase of the O/C ratio). Moreover, the fracture toughness of the recycled fibers was found to decrease significantly, independently of the oxidation time. These results still have to be investigated but are judged not to impact the properties of the remanufacture composites.
With respect to the composites remanufacturing process, tow-spreading of the unidirectionally aligned recycled fibers followed by means of resin film infusion is postulated to be an appropriate method in terms of resulting ply thickness, disposition of the fiber, fiber/resin ratio, and porosity control. It provides a potential solution to prepreg production scraps with enhanced quality assurance, resulting in the reduction of toxic emissions. The resulted laminates presented similar fiber content and interlaminar shear properties as compared to the brand new composites.
The authors are grateful to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for support via the projects HYDTCOMP (MAT2015-69491) and R3FIBER (CTM2013-48887). A.F. gratefully acknowledges the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports for financial funding through the FPU Fellowship. C.S.L. acknowledges the support of the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness through the Ramón y Cajal fellowship (grant RYC-2013-14271). The help of Miguel Herráez and Dr. Miguel Castillo in the experimental work is also acknowledged.
Mycobacterium leprae (M. leprae) is an acid fast bacilli that is the causative agent of leprosy disease which mainly effects the skin and peripheral nerves. In olden times leprosy was common in temperate climates (e.g. Europe), today it is mainly confined to tropical and subtropical regions. Mode of transmission in leprosy is mainly through inhalation of droplets containing the bacteria. But skin contact is also claimed by many leprologists. The disabilities and deformities associated with leprosy due to neuropathy leads to long-term consequences, including. This in turn is associated with stigma.
The immunity of the host plays an important role in disease progress and control. Thus, fortunately 95% of patients exposed to M. leprae will not develop this disease. The variation in incubation period ranges from 2 to 20 years, or even longer.
Leprosy has been successfully eliminated as a public health problem in 2000 globally and at the national level in 113 countries out of 122 by 2005 [1]. Elimination of leprosy is defined by World Health Organization as a point prevalence below 1 per 10,000 population [2]. However, the number of new patients diagnosed with leprosy is still significant, at more than 200,000 in 2016 globally. The new case detection rate of the disease (NCDR) is only slowly declining (Figure 1) [3].
Trend in case detection and case detection rate, by WHO region, 2006–2016 [3].
The long incubation period, silent symptoms, long duration MDT and unavailability of effective vaccine makes this disease difficult to identify, treat and eradicate. To add to the misery the stigma associated with the disease is another challenge. In such circumstances, prevention and control of disease gains utmost importance.
In 2017, 192,713 patients were on treatment globally which makes the prevalence rate of 0.25 per 10,000 population [4]. Total of 210,671 new cases were reported in same year from 150 countries making NCDR of 2.77 per 100,000 population. Figure 2 below shows the trends over the past decade (2008–2017) in new case detection of leprosy cases globally in the reporting countries of World Health Organization (WHO) [4].
Country-wise trends of detection of new leprosy cases from 2008 to 2017 [4].
The three main goals of control of leprosy are
To detect the pathology early and treat the patient completely.
To prevent the transmission to the others.
To prevent the disabilities and other complications.
Thus the following modalities are adopted to control leprosy:
Medical measures
Social support
Program management
Evaluation
The control of leprosy starts with the estimation of size and magnitude of the problem. Most common epidemiological survey method of collection of data is “Quick random sample survey.” Information about the prevalence of leprosy, age and sex-wise distribution, various forms of leprosy and the health facilities available should be gathered. Roughly the total prevalence of leprosy in an area would be about 4 times that of the cases found among school children [5, 6]. These estimates are essential to plan, implement and to evaluate the results of the control program.
The objective is to detect all the cases as early as possible and to register them. Active case finding is important as the disease is symptomless in the early stages. Cases can be detected by the Contact surveys, Group surveys and Mass surveys. Contact surveys consists of examination of all household contacts with a lepromatous case, particularly children, in areas with prevalence less than 1 per 1000. Contact surveillance of households is recommended for a minimum period of 10 years after case is declared bacteriologically negative, and for 5 years in households with a non-lepromatous case from the time of diagnosis of the index case. Group surveys are done in areas where prevalence of leprosy is more than 1 in 1000 population. This consists of screening certain groups such as school children, slum dwellers, military recruits, industrial workers, etc. through “Skin camps.” Lastly, mass surveys consists of examination of each and every individual by house-to-house visits in hyperendemic areas (prevalence – 10 or more per 1000 population). These are generally carried out by repeated annual examinations of school children which yield better results at relatively low cost [5, 6]. The data of each case is entered in the standardized proforma developed by WHO.
Since an effective vaccine is unavailable for leprosy the secondary prevention (early treatment) becomes more important. Until 1981, Dapsone (Diamino Diphenyl Sulphone—DDS) was used to treat leprosy which resulted in the development of resistance and relapse, making leprosy control difficult.
Multidrug Therapy: In 1982, WHO recommended Multidrug Therapy (MDT) for all leprosy patients. Introduction of MDT has opened a new avenue in the control of leprosy in the world. Aim of MDT is to convert the infectious case into noninfectious as soon as possible, so as to reduce the reservoir of infection in the community.
The main objectives of MDT are:
To ensure early detection of the cases.
To interrupt the transmission of infection.
To prevent drug resistance, relapse and reaction.
The advantages of MDT over dapsone monotherapy are:
Shorter duration of treatment,
Better patient compliance,
High cure rate,
Cost-effectiveness and
Ease in health delivery system.
There are two types of MDT regimens used depending on the symptoms and signs shown by the patients - Paucibacillary (PB) and Multibacillary (MB). Recommended Regimens are discussed below [3, 5, 6, 7]:
i. Multibacillary leprosy:
MDT is recommended for following groups of patients:
All smear positive cases.
Skin lesions more than five in number.
More than one nerve trunk thickening.
All cases of relapse/reactivation and all cases who have been treated with Dapsone monotherapy earlier.
The drugs used in Multibacillary MDT and dosages are:
Rifampicin: 600 mg once monthly, supervised.
Dapsone: 100 mg daily, self administered.
Clofazimine: 300 mg once monthly, supervised and 50 mg daily, self administered.
Duration of treatment for Multibacillary leprosy is 12 months, can be extended to 18 months and continued where possible up to smear negativity. Sometimes LL/BL patients with high bacilli may need 2–3 years or more of MDT for achieving bacteriological negativity.
ii. Paucibacillary leprosy:
The drugs and dose schedule is:
Rifampicin 600 mg once a month for 6 months supervised.
Dapsone 100 mg daily for 6 months self administered.
Paucibacillary leprosy is treated for 6 months.
MDT is not contraindicated in patients with HIV infection.
Each MDT blister pack contains tablets for 4 weeks treatment. For easy identification color coding of the blister pack is done, that is, with different colors for multibacillary and paucibacillary cases both in adults and children.
The treatment in both PB and MB cases varies depending on the age of the patient. The patients between 10 to 14 years are treated as paediatric cases, while >14 years are considered adult. The standard treatment regimen for MB leprosy in adults is given for 12 months. The drugs in each blister pack are (Figure 3):
Two capsules of Rifampicin of 300 mg (600 mg once a month) to be taken as single dose under supervision.
Clofazimine 3 capsules of 100 mg each to be consumed once a month as single dose under supervision and 50 mg daily for next 28 days.
Dapsone 100 mg as single dose and then daily once for 1 month.
MDT for adult MB type of leprosy [2, 7].
The standard adult treatment regimen for PB leprosy is (Figure 4):
Rifampicin: 600 mg once a month.
Dapsone: 100 mg daily.
Duration: 6 months (6 blister packs of 28 days each).
MDT for adult PB type of leprosy [2, 7].
Treatment regimen for MB leprosy in children (ages 10–14 years) is (Figure 5):
Rifampicin: 450 mg once a month.
Clofazimine: 150 mg once a month, and 50 mg every other day.
Dapsone: 50 mg daily.
Duration: 12 months (12 blister packs of 28 days each).
MDT for pediatric MB type of leprosy [2, 7].
Treatment regimen for PB leprosy in children (ages 10–14 years) is (Figure 6):
Rifampicin: 450 mg once a month.
Dapsone: 50 mg daily.
Duration: 6 months (6 blister packs of 28 days each).
MDT for pediatric PB type of leprosy [2, 7].
MDT is provided free-of-charge globally through an agreement between a pharmaceutical company and WHO. WHO manages distribution of MDT to countries in coordination with national leprosy programs.
Clinical surveillance of the patients after completion of treatment is an important part of MDT to ensure complete cure. For paucibacillary cases follow up for at least once a year for 2 years after completion of treatment and for multibacillary cases at least once a year for 5 years [3, 4, 5].
Early diagnosis of cases, aggressive treatment and proactive measures to avoid complications and disabilities is the backbone for the success of any comprehensive program. In addition to accurate reporting and control measures, effective preventions will be needed to achieve elimination. Search for an effective vaccine either to be used alone or in combination with a drug has been going for a long time.
Presently BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin) is the only vaccine that has shown some protection against M. leprae bacillus. A single dose of BCG gives 50 percent or higher protection against the disease. It is the most widely used vaccine in the world, yet the degree of protection it confers is not yet confirmed. The meta-analysis of many experimental studies concludes that the vaccine gives approximately 26% protection against leprosy. But the protection level decreases with time. To overcome this problem more than one dose of vaccine is advised.
Other variants of vaccination are also suggested.
Adding killed M. leprae to BCG: Various modifications have been suggested, such as the addition of killed M. leprae to BCG. This method almost doubles the vaccine efficacy in some populations as concluded by few studies. But the same cannot be said for patients below 15 years.
Vaccination with M. indicus pranii (Mycobacterium W): This strain discovered in India. Testing of the MIP vaccine took place in 2005 and showed that it was effective for seven to 8 years, after which a booster dose would be needed to maintain the immunity. Recently the vaccine was approved by the Drug Controller General of India to be rolled out in a project involving five districts in the states of Bihar and Gujarat, where there are high rates of leprosy. Leprosy patients and their close contacts will benefit from this project, making India the first country in the world to have a large-scale leprosy vaccination initiative [8].
Another milestone in prevention of leprosy is the discovery of the vaccine candidate, called LepVax. Scientists at Infectious Disease Research Institute (IDRI), along with national and international collaborators including the National Hansen’s Disease Program and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of the National Institutes of Health, with financial support from American Leprosy Missions, have developed this leprosy vaccine. Based on the preclinical studies, the LepVax, has progressed to Phase I clinical testing in the United States, the first stage of safety testing in human volunteers. The clinical trial is focused not only on safety but also evaluates the immune response of the individual to the vaccine.
Indian cancer research center (ICRC) bacilli: Another variant belonging to the M. avium intracellulare group, the ICRC bacilli are thought to induce lepromin conversion in lepromatous leprosy patients and in lepromin-negative leprosy-free individuals. Its efficacy was reported to be 65.5 percent [8].
M. vaccae: The studies with this soil-dwelling mycobacterial species combined with BCG showed to provide greater protection against leprosy, but a Vietnamese trial contradicted the results [8].
M. Habana: This bacilli has been reported to induce lepromin conversion when used as a live vaccine in monkeys, and protected mice against the development of leprosy [8].
Chemoprophylaxis alone provides two-year protective window while effective immunization will provide a much broader protective window. Thus many studies and research is going on to provide both chemoprophylaxis and immunization for immediate and short-term protection and longer-term protection respectively. This strategy could have better impact and distinct appeal in controlling and preventing leprosy. Such trials could also provide a gateway for the assessment and implementation of new emerging vaccines (Figure 7).
Locations of leprosy vaccine testing.
Chemoprohylaxis using effective antibiotics focuses on providing protection to people at risk such as close contacts – family members, neighbors, co-workers, health care providers for lepers etc. Due to the stigma of disease the leprosy cases are found in clusters in all endemic regions, rather than being evenly dispersed over the whole area. Thus these high risk people can be identified and prophylaxis provided along with secondary prevention strategies. The process includes focused surveillance, contact tracing, early diagnosis and treatment. This helps in reducing the incidence and breaking the chain of transmission.
Chemoprophylaxis, as recommended by WHO Guideline Development Group (GDG), is done using single dose rifampicin (SDR) for contacts of leprosy patients both in adults and children of 2 years of age and above. Before starting the drug leprosy and TB disease are to be excluded. There should be no contraindications also for the use of rifampicin.
Other important considerations for the implementation of this chemoprophylaxis by programs are:
Adequate management of contacts.
Consent of the index case to disclose his/her disease.
An RCT found that SDR reduces risk of leprosy over 5–6 years in leprosy contacts. For every 1000 contacts treated with SDR, there were four leprosy cases prevented after 1–2 years and three cases prevented after 5–6 years.
Recommended dosage schedules for SDR are given in Table 1.
Age/weight | Rifampicin single dose |
---|---|
Adults (≥15 years) | 600 mg |
10–14 years | 450 mg |
Children 6–9 years (weight ≥ 20 kg) | 300 mg |
Children <20 kg (≥2 years) | 10–15 mg/kg |
Rifampicin dose for chemoprophylaxis [3].
The limitations of this approach are:
The protection is approximately for only 2 years.
High bacillary load cannot be eliminated using single dose.
Specific screening test needed to distinguish between contacts with high and low bacillary load.
Among communicable diseases, leprosy remains a leading cause of peripheral neuropathy and disability in the world, despite extensive efforts to reduce the disease burden. It is an important aspect of leprosy control. It means the medical, surgical, social, educational, and vocational restoration as far as possible of treated patients to normal activity so that they resume their place in the home, in society and industry [5, 6, 7]. Early treatment helps in disability limitation.
Rehabilitation: WHO has defined rehabilitation as “the combined and coordinated use of medical, social, educational and vocational measures for training and retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional ability.”
Preventive rehabilitation consists of prevention of development of disabilities in a leprosy patient by early diagnosis and prompt treatment. But once the patient becomes handicapped and suffers from the damage caused, should be trained and retrained to the maximum functional ability so that the patient becomes useful to self, to the family and to community at large by various measures such as medical (physical), surgical, psychological, vocational and social rehabilitation (Flow chart 20.10).
Health education is given to the patient, to the family and to the community at large about leprosy. The education should be directed to ensure general public and patients help them develop their own actions and efforts to change the perception about the disease and seeking professional help whenever required. Early recognition of symptoms, prompt diagnosis, health seeking behavior, personal care, treatment adherence and rehabilitation are important aspects of health education. The key messages included are about the cause of disease and the complete cure available to encourage people for early diagnosis and treatment. It also aims at helping people to change their attitude and behavior by removing the misunderstandings and misconceptions. Mass Health education also helps to eradicate social stigma, social ostracism and social prejudice associated with leprosy which is the biggest hindrance for the eradication of disease.
The complications of the disease cause disfigurement and disabilities which in turn gives way to the stigma and strong discrimination of these patients. This results not only in physical and social isolation also financial dependency, ultimately forcing the leprosy patients to beg on streets for their survival. To address this issue WHO introduced the strategy of community-based rehabilitation (CBR). This intended to enhance the quality of life for lepers with disabilities through community initiatives. Community participation and using local resources to support the rehabilitation of people with disabilities within their own communities is the foundation of this concept [9, 10].
“Enhanced Global Strategy for Further Reducing the Disease Burden due to Leprosy for 2011–2015” was launched in 2009 by the World Health Organization. The target of the program was to reduce Grade 2 Disability rate (G2DR) in leprosy patients by at least 35% by the end of 2015 (G2DR is the number of new cases with grade 2 disability per 100,000 population). Since the elimination of leprosy in 2005, the prevalence is very less and thus G2DR has been proposed as an indicator. The advantage of G2DR as indicator is that, it is less susceptible to operational factors such as detection delay and is a more robust marker for mapping cases of leprosy in any country. This will also help the program implementers to focus on interventions that reduce visible deformities by enhancing early detection and treatment of leprosy patients and ultimately reduce the number of new leprosy cases in the population. However by the end of 2015, only Thailand was able to achieve this target [11].
In 2016, WHO launched the “Global Leprosy Strategy 2016–2020: Accelerating towards a leprosy-free world” [9].
The program aims to reinvigorate efforts to control leprosy and avert disabilities, especially among children still affected by the disease in endemic countries.
The strategy is built around three major pillars:
Strengthen government ownership and partnerships;
Stop leprosy and its complications; and
Stop discrimination and promote inclusion.
The strategy of this program is:
To sustain expertise and increase the number of skilled leprosy staff;
To improve the participation of affected persons in leprosy services;
To reduce visible deformities and stigma associated with the disease;
To call for renewed political commitment and enhanced coordination among partners;
To highlight the importance of research and improved data collection and analysis.
The key interventions needed to achieve these targets include:
Early case detection especially in children before visible disabilities occur thus reduce transmission;
In highly endemic areas or communities detection of disease among higher risk groups through campaigns;
Improving health care coverage and access for marginalized populations such as poor patients, patients in the difficult to reach areas and the areas of conflicts.
Customization of the strategic interventions in endemic countries is permitted to suit the national plans to meet the new targets. E.g. Screening all close contacts of persons affected by leprosy; initiating a shorter and uniform treatment regimen; and incorporating specific interventions against stigmatization and discrimination.
Its ultimate goal of this program is to further reduce the global and local leprosy burden, that is, (a) zero disabilities in children with leprosy-affected, (b) G2DR less than one per million population and (c) repeal of laws that discriminate leprosy patients of their rights.
Author declares no conflict of interest.
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links.
",metaTitle:"List of Institutions by Country",metaDescription:"If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. However, if your research is financed through any of the below-mentioned funders, please consult their Open Access policies or grant ‘terms and conditions’ to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"open-access-funding-institutions-list",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Book Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\\n\\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\\n\\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\\n\\nMonographs Only
\\n\\n\\n\\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Book Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCSIC affiliated authors can also take advantage of a central Open Access fund (amounting to 10,000 EUR) to cover up to 50% of the rest of the OAPF until it expires. Effective for chapters accepted from January 1, 2020.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\n\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 25% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters. A 20% discount for publishing a long-form monographs, 25% for compacts and 23% for short-form monographs.
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\n\n\nBook Chapters and Monographs
\n\nThe Claremont Colleges are pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 15% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Massachusetts, Amherst is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nThe University of Surrey is pledging funds via the Knowledge Unlatched program to ensure academics can publish Open Access content more easily.
\n\nCorresponding authors will receive a 10% discount on their Open Access Publication Fees (OAPF) for Open Access book chapters or monograph publications. To use the discount you will need to verify your institutional email address. These discounts are valid from 2020 to 2022.
\n\nMonographs Only
\n\n\n\nImportant: You must be a member or grantee of the above listed institutions in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10366},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118187},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10656",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"135df9b403b125a6458eba971faab3f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Dr. Suriyaprakash TNK",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6bf171e05831c00f8687891ab1b10b5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xiaoming Jiang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10658.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10913",title:"Indigenous Populations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c5e8cd4e3ec004d0479494ca190db4cb",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10913.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10914",title:"Racism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0737383fcc202641f59e4a5df02eb509",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10914.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5227},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"158",title:"Metals and Nonmetals",slug:"metals-and-nonmetals",parent:{title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"},numberOfBooks:113,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:2715,numberOfWosCitations:2995,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2014,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4557,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"metals-and-nonmetals",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8787",title:"Bismuth",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Optoelectronic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7751170d0b538f61d14a27a56e6567a5",slug:"bismuth-fundamentals-and-optoelectronic-applications",bookSignature:"Yanhua Luo, Jianxiang Wen and Jianzhong Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8787.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226148",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanhua",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"yanhua-luo",fullName:"Yanhua Luo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9949",title:"Lead Chemistry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2f999b9583c748f957f612227976570",slug:"lead-chemistry",bookSignature:"Pipat Chooto",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9949.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Pipat",middleName:null,surname:"Chooto",slug:"pipat-chooto",fullName:"Pipat Chooto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9190",title:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3f07c532e478beb8fcd2fe53b8c9bcfd",slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",bookSignature:"Abhay Nanda Srivastva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9190.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"293623",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay Nanda",middleName:"Nanda",surname:"Srivastva",slug:"abhay-nanda-srivastva",fullName:"Abhay Nanda Srivastva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7787",title:"Rare Earth Elements and Their Minerals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ba4060b0830f7a68f00557da8ed8a39",slug:"rare-earth-elements-and-their-minerals",bookSignature:"Michael Aide and Takahito Nakajima",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7787.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185895",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Aide",slug:"michael-aide",fullName:"Michael Aide"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7722",title:"Recent Advancements in the Metallurgical Engineering and Electrodeposition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d7ff67bd6f4c13830658bc6f9a75851",slug:"recent-advancements-in-the-metallurgical-engineering-and-electrodeposition",bookSignature:"Uday Basheer Al-Naib, Dhanasekaran Vikraman and K. Karuppasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7722.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",middleName:"M.",surname:"Basheer Al-Naib",slug:"uday-basheer-al-naib",fullName:"Uday Basheer Al-Naib"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7775",title:"Metallic Glasses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"665fb007e1e410d119fc09d709c41cc3",slug:"metallic-glasses",bookSignature:"Dragica Minić and Milica Vasić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7775.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30470",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragica",middleName:"M",surname:"Minić",slug:"dragica-minic",fullName:"Dragica Minić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8653",title:"Electromagnetic Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cc0489a203ae888b1105719a4e70ecd",slug:"electromagnetic-materials-and-devices",bookSignature:"Man-Gui Han",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8653.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"250649",title:"Prof.",name:"Man-Gui",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"man-gui-han",fullName:"Man-Gui Han"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8886",title:"Cobalt Compounds and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0241f740fc6e17cd9dc69362ef388d04",slug:"cobalt-compounds-and-applications",bookSignature:"Yasemin Yıldız and Aynur Manzak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8886.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"208129",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"yasemin-yildiz",fullName:"Yasemin Yıldız"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8416",title:"Non-Equilibrium Particle Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c3add7639dcd1cb442cb4313ea64e3a",slug:"non-equilibrium-particle-dynamics",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8416.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8408",title:"Titanium Alloys",subtitle:"Novel Aspects of Their Manufacturing and Processing",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e5533136b732dc4ada818553023d4d55",slug:"titanium-alloys-novel-aspects-of-their-manufacturing-and-processing",bookSignature:"Maciej Motyka, Waldemar Ziaja and Jan Sieniawsk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8408.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101690",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maciej",middleName:null,surname:"Motyka",slug:"maciej-motyka",fullName:"Maciej Motyka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:113,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"37067",doi:"10.5772/35482",title:"Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Natural Fibres",slug:"fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-for-natural-fibres",totalDownloads:8290,totalCrossrefCites:119,totalDimensionsCites:285,book:{slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",title:"Fourier Transform",fullTitle:"Fourier Transform - Materials Analysis"},signatures:"Mizi Fan, Dasong Dai and Biao Huang",authors:[{id:"104647",title:"Prof.",name:"Mizi",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",slug:"mizi-fan",fullName:"Mizi Fan"}]},{id:"60680",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76082",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:12266,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:115,book:{slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"46243",doi:"10.5772/57255",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors – Principles, Mechanisms and Applications",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-mechanisms-and-applications",totalDownloads:13e3,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:104,book:{slug:"developments-in-corrosion-protection",title:"Developments in Corrosion Protection",fullTitle:"Developments in Corrosion Protection"},signatures:"Camila G. Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:12290,totalCrossrefCites:66,totalDimensionsCites:115,book:{slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]},{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:5054,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal"}]},{id:"59857",title:"Introductory Chapter: Introducing Heavy Metals",slug:"introductory-chapter-introducing-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:4331,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Martin Koller and Hosam M. Saleh",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}]},{id:"60518",title:"Synthetic Methods for Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: A Review",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-a-review",totalDownloads:3286,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",title:"Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment"},signatures:"Pardon Nyamukamba, Omobola Okoh, Henry Mungondori,\nRaymond Taziwa and Simcelile Zinya",authors:[{id:"196100",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Taziwa",slug:"raymond-taziwa",fullName:"Raymond Taziwa"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"226567",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamukamba",slug:"pardon-nyamukamba",fullName:"Pardon Nyamukamba"},{id:"239758",title:"Mr.",name:"Simcelile",middleName:null,surname:"Zinya",slug:"simcelile-zinya",fullName:"Simcelile Zinya"}]},{id:"58868",title:"Iron Ore Pelletizing Process: An Overview",slug:"iron-ore-pelletizing-process-an-overview",totalDownloads:3186,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"iron-ores-and-iron-oxide-materials",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials",fullTitle:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials"},signatures:"Sandra Lúcia de Moraes, José Renato Baptista de Lima and Tiago\nRamos Ribeiro",authors:[{id:"216788",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:"Lúcia",surname:"De Moraes",slug:"sandra-de-moraes",fullName:"Sandra De Moraes"},{id:"233466",title:"Prof.",name:"José Renato Baptista",middleName:null,surname:"De Lima",slug:"jose-renato-baptista-de-lima",fullName:"José Renato Baptista De Lima"},{id:"233467",title:"MSc.",name:"Tiago Ramos",middleName:null,surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"tiago-ramos-ribeiro",fullName:"Tiago Ramos Ribeiro"}]},{id:"58797",title:"Green Corrosion Inhibitors, Past, Present, and Future",slug:"green-corrosion-inhibitors-past-present-and-future",totalDownloads:2788,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Omnia S. Shehata, Lobna A. Korshed and Adel Attia",authors:[{id:"220734",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Omnia",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"omnia-shehata",fullName:"Omnia Shehata"},{id:"227918",title:"Prof.",name:"Adel",middleName:null,surname:"Attia",slug:"adel-attia",fullName:"Adel Attia"},{id:"227919",title:"Dr.",name:"Lobna",middleName:null,surname:"Korshed",slug:"lobna-korshed",fullName:"Lobna Korshed"}]},{id:"51497",title:"The Review of Some Commonly Used Methods and Techniques to Measure the Thermal Conductivity of Insulation Materials",slug:"the-review-of-some-commonly-used-methods-and-techniques-to-measure-the-thermal-conductivity-of-insul",totalDownloads:4196,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:28,book:{slug:"insulation-materials-in-context-of-sustainability",title:"Insulation Materials in Context of Sustainability",fullTitle:"Insulation Materials in Context of Sustainability"},signatures:"Numan Yüksel",authors:[{id:"178245",title:"Dr.",name:"Numan",middleName:null,surname:"Yüksel",slug:"numan-yuksel",fullName:"Numan Yüksel"}]},{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:195,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"47427",title:"Corrosion and Surface Treatment of Magnesium Alloys",slug:"corrosion-and-surface-treatment-of-magnesium-alloys",totalDownloads:3470,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:24,book:{slug:"magnesium-alloys-properties-in-solid-and-liquid-states",title:"Magnesium Alloys",fullTitle:"Magnesium Alloys - Properties in Solid and Liquid States"},signatures:"Henry Hu, Xueyuan Nie and Yueyu Ma",authors:[{id:"170745",title:"Prof.",name:"Henry",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"henry-hu",fullName:"Henry Hu"}]},{id:"58695",title:"Organic Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"organic-corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:3133,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"corrosion-inhibitors-principles-and-recent-applications",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors, Principles and Recent Applications"},signatures:"Bogumił Eugeniusz Brycki, Iwona H. Kowalczyk, Adrianna Szulc,\nOlga Kaczerewska and Marta Pakiet",authors:[{id:"197271",title:"Prof.",name:"Bogumil E.",middleName:null,surname:"Brycki",slug:"bogumil-e.-brycki",fullName:"Bogumil E. Brycki"},{id:"207547",title:"Dr.",name:"Iwona",middleName:null,surname:"Kowalczyk",slug:"iwona-kowalczyk",fullName:"Iwona Kowalczyk"},{id:"207548",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrianna",middleName:null,surname:"Szulc",slug:"adrianna-szulc",fullName:"Adrianna Szulc"},{id:"207549",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Kaczerewska",slug:"olga-kaczerewska",fullName:"Olga Kaczerewska"},{id:"220728",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Pakiet",slug:"marta-pakiet",fullName:"Marta Pakiet"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"metals-and-nonmetals",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/89471/tiago-vasconcelos",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"89471",slug:"tiago-vasconcelos"},fullPath:"/profiles/89471/tiago-vasconcelos",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()