Normal values and presumed normativity of the tibial H-reflex measured from the soleus muscle (surface electrodes near the border of the gastrocnemius muscle and the reference 2, 3 cm distally).
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6250",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Hippocampus - Plasticity and Functions",title:"The Hippocampus",subtitle:"Plasticity and Functions",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The hippocampus is an important brain region, a true central hub for memory of various kinds and other processes. Neuropsychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, drug addiction, and schizophrenia are characterized by hippocampal alterations. The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus is a site exhibiting adult neurogenesis. This book covers the topic of the hippocampus from various perspectives. It discusses adult neurogenesis, effect of enriched environments on hippocampal plasticity, and long-term potentiation-associated gene expression. The book also addresses multiscale representations of complex environments and strategies in the hippocampus-dependent spatial tasks. Finally, insight into the hippocampus as a link between negative affect and relapse to psychostimulants is provided. The book collects evidence of various hippocampal functions in healthy and disordered brain.",isbn:"978-1-78923-357-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-356-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-359-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68877",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-hippocampus-plasticity-and-functions",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"78f1e57726307f003f39510c175c3102",bookSignature:"Ales Stuchlik",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6250.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7517,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:35,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:60,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 20th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 30th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"207908",title:"Dr.",name:"Ales",middleName:null,surname:"Stuchlik",slug:"ales-stuchlik",fullName:"Ales Stuchlik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/207908/images/7574_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. RNDr. Ales Stuchlik, PhD, DSc (*1974), works as a head of the Department of Neurophysiology of Memory at the Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic. He conducted his PhD thesis under the supervision of Dr. Jan Bures, DSc (1926–2012). In 2007, he was awarded the 40th Anniversary European Brain and Behavior Society Award for outstanding achievements during his early scientific career. His scientific interests involve basic and oriented research of spatial learning and memory, neuropharmacology, and animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders. He contributed to Czech translation of a book From Neuron to Brain. He has been involved in supervising multiple students ranging from high school and college to graduate students.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1175",title:"Neuroplasticity",slug:"neuroplasticity"}],chapters:[{id:"57451",title:"How Does an Enriched Environment Impact Hippocampus Brain Plasticity?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71426",slug:"how-does-an-enriched-environment-impact-hippocampus-brain-plasticity-",totalDownloads:1137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Brain plasticity is profoundly impacted by one’s living environment. The hippocampus, involved in learning and memory, is highly susceptible to plasticity. Raising rodents in an “enriched environment” (EE) increases learning and memorization aptitudes and decreases the anxiety of the animals. EE consists of a combination of running wheels for voluntary physical exercise, complex inanimate toys, nests, mazes, etc. all of which favor sensory stimulations and social enrichment. EE housing concomitantly increases proliferation and survival of neurons and glia in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, induces changes in neuronal morphology, modifies synaptic plasticity, and favors angiogenesis. The mechanisms underlying the effects of EE on plasticity, which have recently been investigated are reviewed here, including the role of glia, the involvement of molecular factors including neurotransmitters (glutamate), neurotrophic factors (BDNF), adipokines (leptin and adiponectin), chemokines, cytokines, and hormones (corticosteroid and thyroid hormones), and at a higher level, the various systems involved (neural networks and hormonal systems). We emphasize recent findings that demonstrate the major role of the immune system in modulating EE-induced changes to hippocampal plasticity. This process involves a variety of immune cells (including macrophages, microglia, natural killer, B-cells, and T-cells), although the mechanisms are yet to be fully elucidated.",signatures:"Hadi Zarif, Sarah Nicolas, Agnès Petit-Paitel, Joëlle Chabry and Alice\nGuyon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57451",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57451",authors:[{id:"210941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",surname:"Guyon",slug:"alice-guyon",fullName:"Alice Guyon"},{id:"210943",title:"Dr.",name:"Hadi",surname:"Zarif",slug:"hadi-zarif",fullName:"Hadi Zarif"},{id:"210944",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarah",surname:"Nicolas",slug:"sarah-nicolas",fullName:"Sarah Nicolas"},{id:"210945",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnès",surname:"Petit-Paitel",slug:"agnes-petit-paitel",fullName:"Agnès Petit-Paitel"},{id:"210946",title:"Dr.",name:"Joelle",surname:"Chabry",slug:"joelle-chabry",fullName:"Joelle Chabry"}],corrections:null},{id:"60511",title:"Factors Regulating Neurogenesis in the Adult Dentate Gyrus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75631",slug:"factors-regulating-neurogenesis-in-the-adult-dentate-gyrus",totalDownloads:1028,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The dentate gyrus (DG), an important part of the hippocampus, plays a critical role in consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, and also in spatial navigation. Neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) exist throughout life in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the DG, where they develop into granular cells and establish synaptic connections with nearby cells. Granular cells of the DG sprout axons targeting neurons in the cornu ammonis 3 (CA3) area of the hippocampus, forming a neural trisynaptic circuit, an important part of the neural network in the hippocampus. Thus, the DG and the neurogenic cells it contains are of importance in controlling formation of memories, learned behaviors, and also in the maintenance and restoration of functions of the hippocampus. According to reports, both in vivo and in vitro neurogenesis in the DG are regulated by a variety of endogenous and exogenous factors at different stages. Therefore, a better understanding of the factors in NSPC niches and the intracellular molecules regulating/directing adult DG neurogenesis is needed to fully realize the potential of NSPCs in the treatment of hippocampal-related disorders. This chapter systematically summarizes the factors reported in regulating adult DG neurogenesis in mammals. Specifically, neurotransmitters, hormones, trophic factors, and others will be discussed.",signatures:"Lei Zhang and Xinhua Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60511",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60511",authors:[{id:"210183",title:"Prof.",name:"Xinhua",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xinhua-zhang",fullName:"Xinhua Zhang"},{id:"210820",title:"Dr.",name:"Lei",surname:"Zhang",slug:"lei-zhang",fullName:"Lei Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"58716",title:"Long-Term Potentiation-Associated Gene Expression: Involvement of the Tumour Protein p53",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73219",slug:"long-term-potentiation-associated-gene-expression-involvement-of-the-tumour-protein-p53",totalDownloads:977,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Long-term potentiation of synaptic transmission (LTP) is one of the most studied manifestations of neuroplasticity and hippocampus is a classic object for the study of LTP mechanisms. The early phase of LTP depends on modifications of pre-existing synaptic proteins and the late phase of LTP needs de novo protein synthesis and gene expression. LTP-associated dynamics of the transcriptome and mechanisms of coupling synaptic activity with gene expression are intensively studied, but due to the vast complexity of the issue, abundance of unresolved questions remains in this field. The diversity of brain cell types is one of the main challenges. Until relatively recently, the analysis of molecular and genetic aspects of neuroplasticity has usually been confined to neuronal populations. Meanwhile, glia substantially contributes to synaptic transmission regulation. Astrocytes release various gliotransmitters, which modulate synaptic transmission and plasticity. S100B is one of those glia-derived regulatory factors. Learning in rats is accompanied by an increase in S100B expression in various brain regions including the hippocampus. The present study is focused on the neuroplasticity-associated S100B expression upregulation using long-term post-tetanic potentiation in rat hippocampal slices. In this chapter, we present a short review of published articles devoted to the analysis of gene expression during LTP formation including studies of the mechanism of LTP-associated S100B upregulation in hippocampus.",signatures:"Pavel D. Lisachev and Mark B. Shtark",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58716",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58716",authors:[{id:"218287",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",surname:"Shtark",slug:"mark-shtark",fullName:"Mark Shtark"},{id:"218459",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Lisachev",slug:"pavel-lisachev",fullName:"Pavel Lisachev"}],corrections:null},{id:"57827",title:"A Role for the Longitudinal Axis of the Hippocampus in Multiscale Representations of Large and Complex Spatial Environments and Mnemonic Hierarchies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71165",slug:"a-role-for-the-longitudinal-axis-of-the-hippocampus-in-multiscale-representations-of-large-and-compl",totalDownloads:1398,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation and memory in rodents and humans. Anatomically, the hippocampus extends along a longitudinal axis that shows a combination of graded and specific interconnections with neocortical and subcortical brain areas. Functionally, place cells are found all along the longitudinal axis and exhibit gradients of properties including an increasing dorsal-to-ventral place field size. We propose a view of hippocampal function in which fine-dorsal to coarse-ventral overlapping representations collaborate to form a multi-level representation of spatial and episodic memory that is dominant during navigation in large and complex environments or when encoding complex memories. This view is supported by the fact that the effects of ventral hippocampal damage are generally only found in larger laboratory-scale environments, and by the finding that human virtual navigation studies associate ventral hippocampal involvement with increased environmental complexity. Other mechanisms such as the ability of place cells to exhibit multiple fields and their ability to scale their fields with changes in environment size may be utilized when forming large-scale cognitive maps. Coarse-grained ventral representations may overlap with and provide multi-modal global contexts to finer-grained intermediate and dorsal representations, a mechanism that may support mnemonic hierarchies of autobiographical memory in humans.",signatures:"Bruce Harland, Marcos Contreras and Jean-Marc Fellous",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57827",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57827",authors:[{id:"210681",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",surname:"Harland",slug:"bruce-harland",fullName:"Bruce Harland"},{id:"210682",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Contreras",slug:"marco-contreras",fullName:"Marco Contreras"},{id:"210683",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean-Marc",surname:"Fellous",slug:"jean-marc-fellous",fullName:"Jean-Marc Fellous"}],corrections:null},{id:"61465",title:"The Importance of Distinguishing Allocentric and Egocentric Search Strategies in Rodent Hippocampal-Dependent Spatial Memory Paradigms: Getting More Out of Your Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76603",slug:"the-importance-of-distinguishing-allocentric-and-egocentric-search-strategies-in-rodent-hippocampal-",totalDownloads:1423,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"While the brain works as a dynamic network, with no brain region solely responsible for any particular function, it is generally accepted that the hippocampus plays a major role in memory. Spatial memory operates through the hippocampus with communication with the prefrontal and parietal cortices. This chapter will focus on two separate reference frames involved in spatial memory, egocentric and allocentric, and outline the differences of these reference frames and associated search strategies with relevance to behavioural neuroscience. The importance of dissociating these search strategies is put forward, and steps researchers can take to do so are suggested. Neurophysiological and clinical differences between these spatial reference frames are outlined to further support the view that distinguishing them would be beneficial.",signatures:"Adrienne M. Grech, Jay Patrick Nakamura and Rachel Anne Hill",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61465",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61465",authors:[{id:"230389",title:"Dr.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Hill",slug:"rachel-hill",fullName:"Rachel Hill"},{id:"230394",title:"Ms.",name:"Adrienne",surname:"Grech",slug:"adrienne-grech",fullName:"Adrienne Grech"},{id:"230395",title:"Mr.",name:"Jay",surname:"Nakamura",slug:"jay-nakamura",fullName:"Jay Nakamura"}],corrections:null},{id:"57312",title:"The Hippocampus as a Neural Link between Negative Affect and Vulnerability for Psychostimulant Relapse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70854",slug:"the-hippocampus-as-a-neural-link-between-negative-affect-and-vulnerability-for-psychostimulant-relap",totalDownloads:1554,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Psychostimulant dependence (including cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine) is a chronic relapsing disorder with significant personal, health, and financial burdens. Attempts at abstinence produce a severe and protracted withdrawal syndrome characterized by stress hypersensitivity that can facilitate drug craving, anxiety, and dysphoria. These negative withdrawal symptoms can induce relapse, maintaining the addiction cycle. The hippocampus mediates cognitive, emotional, and endocrine responses to stressors. The ventral hippocampus is in a pivotal position to regulate the mesoaccumbal dopamine reward system, and interacts with serotonergic and glucocorticoid systems that mediate anxiety and stress responsiveness. Psychostimulant actions on the hippocampus induce long-term changes to these systems and impact the process of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus, which may facilitate drug dependence by altering drug-cue learning and emotional regulation. Multiple studies indicate that psychostimulant-induced hippocampal neuroadaptations heighten hippocampal-mesoaccumbal activity to amplify drug- and drug-cue responses while persistent dysregulation of hippocampal emotional systems potentiate negative affect. Understanding how psychostimulants modulate the hippocampus to alter hippocampal-mesoaccumbal activity—and how hippocampal neurogenesis influences drug-related memories and reward—is important for identifying novel treatment strategies that can ameliorate negative affect and relapse vulnerability in psychostimulant addiction.",signatures:"Jeffrey L. Barr, Brenna Bray and Gina L. Forster",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57312",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57312",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"219827",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeffrey",surname:"Barr",slug:"jeffrey-barr",fullName:"Jeffrey Barr"},{id:"219828",title:"BSc.",name:"Brenna",surname:"Bray",slug:"brenna-bray",fullName:"Brenna Bray"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6092",title:"Neuroplasticity",subtitle:"Insights of Neural Reorganization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1003fc63680b1c04e9135f3dea18a8c3",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",bookSignature:"Victor V. Chaban",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"83427",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Chaban",slug:"victor-chaban",fullName:"Victor Chaban"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5521",title:"Synaptic Plasticity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9eea3c7f926cd466ddd14ab777b663d8",slug:"synaptic-plasticity",bookSignature:"Thomas Heinbockel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70569",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas",surname:"Heinbockel",slug:"thomas-heinbockel",fullName:"Thomas Heinbockel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"76285",slug:"corrigendum-evidence-based-practice-and-trends-in-visual-rehabilitation-for-patients-with-age-related-macular-de",title:"Corrigendum: Evidence-Based Practice and Trends in Visual Rehabilitation for Patients with Age-Related Macular De",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76285.pdf\r\n",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76285",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76285",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76285",chapter:{id:"75711",slug:"evidence-based-practice-and-trends-in-visual-rehabilitation-for-patients-with-age-related-macular-de",signatures:"Luis Leal Vega, Irene Alcoceba Herrero, Adrián Martín Gutiérrez, Joaquín Herrera Medina, Natalia Martín Cruz, Juan F. Arenillas Lara and María Begoña Coco Martín",dateSubmitted:"October 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 23rd 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pinakin Gunvant Gunvant Davey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"48794",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinakin Gunvant",middleName:"Gunvant",surname:"Davey",slug:"pinakin-gunvant-davey",fullName:"Pinakin Gunvant Davey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"75711",slug:"evidence-based-practice-and-trends-in-visual-rehabilitation-for-patients-with-age-related-macular-de",signatures:"Luis Leal Vega, Irene Alcoceba Herrero, Adrián Martín Gutiérrez, Joaquín Herrera Medina, Natalia Martín Cruz, Juan F. Arenillas Lara and María Begoña Coco Martín",dateSubmitted:"October 19th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 24th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 23rd 2021",datePublished:null,book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pinakin Gunvant Gunvant Davey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"48794",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinakin Gunvant",middleName:"Gunvant",surname:"Davey",slug:"pinakin-gunvant-davey",fullName:"Pinakin Gunvant Davey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"10344",title:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in Managing Macular Degeneration",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pinakin Gunvant Gunvant Davey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10344.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"48794",title:"Prof.",name:"Pinakin Gunvant",middleName:"Gunvant",surname:"Davey",slug:"pinakin-gunvant-davey",fullName:"Pinakin Gunvant Davey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11985",leadTitle:null,title:"Autonomous Vehicles",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"c06614cccf990358e3759c9b8873bb27",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11985.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 28th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 7th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"22",title:"Robotics",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology-robotics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"74729",title:"Recording of Proprioceptive Muscle Reflexes in the Lower Extremity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95575",slug:"recording-of-proprioceptive-muscle-reflexes-in-the-lower-extremity",body:'
Root syndrome diagnostics of the lower extremity is based on the clinical picture, anamnesis, symptoms and signs of the disease. Diagnostic investigations should be considered in a few weeks if symptoms are not resolved, or even earlier if paraparesis or bowel or bladder symptoms develop. Current imaging studies are excellent, but there is the problem with non-symptomatic degenerative changes vs. relevant findings with respect to the acute symptoms, especially in middle-aged and old patients. ENMG has another problem: after acute onset of the disease the proprioceptive tendon- and H-reflexes change in a few days. However, the development of pathological spontaneous activity, fibrillations and positive sharp waves, indicating axonal injury in electromyography (EMG) may take 2-3 weeks and even longer in distal muscles of the leg and foot [1]. Loss of motor units during maximal voluntary contraction may be observed soon, but more distinct changes, such as increase of duration, complexity (polyphasic and jittering waveform), and amplitude of motor unit potentials after parallel reinnervation may take several weeks and even months to develop [2]. That is why ENMG studies are usually not performed until several weeks after the acute onset stage. The aim of this chapter in to describe some proprioceptive reflexes, which may be used in acute stage of the disease, when clear needle EMG findings are not yet discernible, and proprioceptive reflex measurements which may be further developed for the ENMG diagnostics of root syndromes of the lower extremity.
Electroneuromyography of root syndromes of the lower extremity tends to concentrate on function of motor nerve fibres. Needle EMG observes axonal damage with fibrillation potentials, and loss and sprouting alterations of motor unit potentials. Signs of axonal damage may be searched in different myotomes of the lower extremity and paraspinal muscles [2]. F-responses and amplitudes of the motor responses may give supplementary information. The sensory responses are not affected, if the root lesion is proximal to the sensory paraspinal ganglion.
However, pain is usually more prominent symptom in root syndromes than motor weakness. Pain may express itself in the dermatomes of different root levels but often pain symptoms are obscure. The pain pathway uses the posterior roots, which may have a separate or more prominent injury than the anterior motor roots. ENMG study involving only motor nerve fibres may not be sufficient for the proper diagnosis of a root syndrome. Methods for studying the integrity of the posterior roots are needed. Posterior root compression may cause activation of pain C-fibres, but this may not invariably change proprioceptive reflexes using sensory afferent pathways with myelinated nerve fibres. Dermatomal evoked responses have been used, but they have not got any wide popularity. The method is awkward and time-consuming and the cerebral responses are small. This method is not recommended for clinical use [3].
Proprioceptive reflexes, especially H-reflexes, which use the posterior root pathway are too seldom used in ENMG diagnostics [4]. The only reflex we have routinely measured in patients with root syndrome is H-reflex of the soleus muscle. Its recording is easy, non-invasive and rapid, and very useful in S1 root syndrome diagnostics. It may also be used as a part of measurements to study polyneuropathy, an entity that should also be evaluated when root syndromes are investigated. Damage of the S1 posterior root often abolishes the H reflex response or causes slight prolongation or diminution of the reflex response [4]. Compression and injury of the anterior root is observed as a marked prolongation of the latency and diminution of the response amplitude (Figure 1). The clinical use of the soleus H-reflex requires a comprehensive normal material, which comprises corrections for height and age and sex of the patient (Table 1) [5].
H-reflex in the healthy (A) and symptomatic (B) side of a patient with S1 root syndrome. Note the diminution of amplitude and large latency value of the H-reflex response in the symptomatic side, compared to the healthy one. The relatively large reflex asymmetry and good persistence also in the symptomatic side is consistent with S1 anterior root compression. The” H-M lat” describes the deviation in Z score value (normal <2) of the measured H-reflex latency from normal control values with height, age and sex corrections (
Distal latency (ms) | SD | H-latency (ms) | SD | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
4.13 | 0.50 | 29,18 | 2.18 | ||
Calculation of the presumed normativity and the expectation percentage: (R2) x 100 of the tibial H-reflex. | |||||
(R2) x 100 | SD | Constant | Height coefficient (hc) | Age coefficient (ac) | sex |
48 | 1.562 | 2.110 | 0.160 | ||
64 | 1.325 | −6.239 | 0.193 | 0.085 | |
68 | 1.256 | −15.210 | 0.247 | 0.094 | −1.45 |
Calculation of the expectation value: constant + hc x height (cm) + ac x age + sex (male). |
We have not used systemically any H-reflexes of L5 and L4 levels. The H-reflex of the anterior tibial muscle may be recorded with slight tonic voluntary contraction of the given muscle [4], but we have found it too difficult for routine use. No H-reflex for the L5-level was described for clinical use in root syndromes. We have tried to measure H-reflexes of the peroneus longus and extensor hallucis longus muscles, but these measurements were hampered by volume conduction of reflexes of the triceps surae muscle. However, H-reflex of the peroneus longus muscle can be confirmed by recording it with EMG needle electrode (Figure 2). The peroneus longus H-reflex may disappear in the symptomatic side of a patient with unilateral L5 root syndrome (Figure 3). Problems with volume conduction are discussed at the end of this chapter.
H-reflex of peroneus longus, 32 years old male. Stimulation with 2 cm bipolar surface electrode to common peroneal nerve at the fibular head causing clear ankle dorsiflexion; ten concurrent stimulations with increasing stimulation current. Simultaneous recording of peroneus longus with both surface electrodes (interelectrode distance ca 3 cm), a 30 G concentric needle electrode, and soleus with surface electrodes (interelectrode distance ca 3 cm). Note the typical appearance of H-wave, latency 32 ms (vertical line), reaching its maximal amplitude before M-wave (contrary to the performance of F-responses) and appearance of H-wave solely on peroneus longus and not on soleus. 2 mV/div, 8 ms/div. A similar recording with surface electrodes on the lateral gastrocnemius muscle was also performed and no reflex response of this muscle was observed (not shown).
A. M-response of the right peroneus longus muscle in a patient aged 80 with a right L5 root syndrome: Right L5 compression in MRI, positive needle EMG finding in the right L5 paraspinal muscle, F-response latency asymmetrically prolonged in the right extensor digitorum brevis muscle but bilaterally normal in the abductor hallucis muscles. Stimulation of the common peroneal nerve at the fibular head. Latency of the M-response 3.9 ms. The H-reflex cannot be elicited in spite of changes of the stimulation intensity 3.0-11.7 mA (submaximal and supramaximal). Calibration: 8 ms/div and 5 mV/div. No medium latency reflexes (see
The L3-4 posterior roots can be studied with the patellar reflex (Figure 4a and b), and the adductor reflex [6]. The adductor tendon reflex can be evoked by ipsilateral tap to the medial epicondyle of the femur. Surprisingly, this reflex may also be elicited easily by tap to several sites of the lower extremity: for instance contralateral patellar tap, as well as ipsi- and contralateral anterior superior iliac spine tap. On the contrary, patellar tendon reflex was obtained only by ipsilateral tap to the patellar tendon. H-reflex of the adductor muscle (latency 16.4 ms, SD 1.6) is obtained by percutaneous stimulation of the obturator nerve at the level of pubic tubercle. Even a medium-latency reflex, “late polysynaptic reflex response” of more than 50 ms was described in the adductor muscle [6]. However, these methods are rarely used in routine ENMG studies. The H-reflex of the quadriceps femoris muscle is readily recorded by stimulation of the femoral nerve [4], but we have not gained any experience with this method. The Achilles tendon reflex may also be recorded with surface electrodes on the triceps surae muscle. This recording was not used in routine ENMG studies. We should also remember that the tendon reflex and H-reflex have distinct differences [7].
a. Electrical recording of the patellar reflex, 33 years old male. Stimulation with tendon hammer electrically connected to EMG-machine. Recording is triggered by a strike to prepatellar tendon. Recording in the rectus femoris muscle with both concentric needle electrode (30 G) and surface electrodes and an accelerometer connected to tibia. Three separate recordings of same stimulation protocol. 7-10 superimposed responses. Patellar reflex at ca 20 ms. 20 ms/div. b. Electrical recording of the patellar reflex, responses shown in a.
A medium latency reflex response (60-80 ms) of the soleus muscle can be recorded by supramaximal stimulus of the common peroneal nerve, which causes powerful twitch contraction of the peroneal muscles [8] (Figure 5a). Originally this reflex response was considered to use low-threshold muscle afferents and a transcranial loop, possibly involving the primary motor cortex and the supplementary motor area [9]. Later on it was demonstrated that the medium-latency reflex response of the soleus muscle to stretch does not involve a long reflex loop [10]. Soleus stretch resulting from unexpected perturbation during human walking elicits both short and medium latency reflex responses. It was concluded by cooling, ischaemia and tizanidine studies that the afferent receptors of the short latency component are Ia afferents and those of the medium latency component are II-afferents, respectively [11].
a. the tibial H-reflex of the soleus muscle elicited with submaximal stimuli, minimum latency 27.0 ms. The stimulation was changed to the common peroneal nerve at the knee joint and supramaximal stimuli elicited the medium latency reflexes of soleus, minimum latency 62.0 ms (vertical line). The” M-response” was reflected from the pretibial muscles. For calculations of the afferent and efferent conduction velocities of the reflex responses
By stimulation of the common peroneal nerve at the fibular neck, only the medium latency reflex response can be recorded in electroneurography of the human soleus muscle [8] (Figure 5a). It was observed that stimulation of the common peroneal nerve results in long lasting (up to 200 ms) soleus H-reflex depression [12]. On the contrary, by stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve at the popliteal space, no medium latency reflex response can be recorded from the anterior tibial muscle [8].
The distances between the stimulation and recording sites were measured when the responses depicted in Figure 5a were recorded. The afferent pathway for H-reflex latency 27.0 ms was 640 mm between the stimulation site at the popliteal space, and L1 spinal level. Respectively, the distance of the efferent pathway between L1 spinal level and the estimated motor point of the soleus muscle was 750 mm. Considering that the synaptic delay in the spinal cord is about 1 ms [7] we can conjecture that the afferent conduction time from the stimulation site to the spinal cord is 11 ms and the efferent conduction time is 15 ms. The respective conduction velocities are for Ia afferents 58 m/s and for α motor efferents 50 m/s. These values match well with the recordings of Ia afferent conduction velocity 64 m/s and α motor conduction velocity 56 m/s of the median nerve [13], assuming that the respective values are slightly slower in the lower than in the upper extremity. The more distally recorded Ia afferent conduction velocity between the popliteal fossa and ankle is 56 m/s [7]. Cutaneous afferents are slower than Ia afferents, 61 m/s in the upper extremity [13] and 48 m/s in the lower extremity [7].
A similar calculation may be performed for the medium latency reflex latency 62 ms. The distance from the proximal part of the soleus muscle (site of the most proximal muscle spindles) to the L1 spinal level was 670 mm, and the distance from L1 to the motor point of the soleus muscle was 750 mm. The estimated afferent conduction time is 30 ms and the efferent conduction time 31 ms, the spinal synaptic delay time was again estimated to be 1 ms. By these values we may calculate, that the afferent conduction velocity for II-afferent pathway is 22 m/s, and for the efferent conduction velocity is 24 m/s. This afferent conduction velocity matches well with the II-afferent conduction velocity 21 m/s observed in the lower extremity [14]. But the efferent conduction velocity 24 m/s is far too slow for the α motor efferent pathway, which was calculated to be 50 m/s in the H-reflex arch (see above). This fact justifies the hypothesis that the efferent pathway of the medium latency reflexes consists of skeletofusimotor β motor fibres, which are thinner and slower than α motor fibres. β motor efferents have been observed in man [15].
Ib afferent nerve fibres from Golgi tendon organs are slightly smaller than those of Ia afferents [11]. The electrically evoked excitatory postsynaptic potential may be curtailed by the inhibitory postsynaptic potential of only slightly longer latency than the excitatory postsynaptic potential [7]. There is a Ib inhibitory volley from the Golgi tendon organs, which originate from the proximal tendon insertion of the anterior tibial muscle, elicited by the strong contraction of the muscle by stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve at the popliteal space. This inhibitory volley may reach the spinal cord and prevent the occurrence of the medium latency reflex response. The lack of medium latency reflex was pointed out in this muscle [8]. Unexpected perturbation during walking elicits short- and medium-latency soleus reflex responses [11]. However, soleus stretch, caused by electric stimulation of the common peroneal nerve and powerful contraction of the pretibial muscles, elicits only a medium-latency reflex response of the soleus muscle. It may be considered that the Ia reciprocal inhibitory influence [7] plays a role in inhibition of the soleus short-latency reflex response in this situation.
The forearm flexor muscles (for example m. flexor carpi radialis and m. flexor digitorum superficialis) show H-reflexes, when the median nerve is stimulated at the elbow [4]. When the stimulation is changed to the radial nerve at the spiral groove, a medium reflex response may be recorded at the same site than the median H-reflex (Figure 5B). Thus, the respective reflex responses seem to be elicited in the upper extremity than in the lower one as well. As in the lower extremities the proprioceptive reflexes are important in the process of walking and running, they might be related to grip and climbing functions in the upper extremities and thus may have served an important role in primate evolution.
When the common peroneal nerve is stimulated, the stimulus spreads readily to the motor branches of the posterior tibial nerve. Thus, volume conduction is a source of error especially when the reflexes of the pretibial muscles are recorded with surface electrodes. The stimulation spreading to branches of the posterior tibial nerve may elicit H-reflex of the triceps surae muscle, recorded with electrodes on the surface of the anterior tibial muscle. This reflex response may imitate the myotatic reflex of the anterior tibial muscle (Figure 6). A similar problem may be encountered by recording of responses of the peroneus longus and extensor hallucis longus muscles (Figure 7), as well as the foot muscles (Figure 8). However a medium latency reflex response of the abductor digiti minimi muscle may really occur (Figure 9). The medium latency reflex response may reveal the false” H-reflex” of the peroneus longus muscle (Figure 10).
The” reflex” response of the anterior tibial muscle (latency 27.4 ms), recorded by the stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve at the popliteal fossa. Superficially it may be reminiscent to a myotatic reflex of the anterior tibial muscle, but in reality it is the H-reflex of the triceps surae muscle, volume conducted to the recording site (compare with the H-reflex recording in
“H-reflexes” of the A) peroneus longus and B) extensor hallucis longus muscles by stimulation of the common peroneal nerve and recorded with surface electrodes. In reality” H-reflexes” may be H-reflexes of the triceps surae muscle caused by spreading of stimuli to a branch of the posterior tibial nerve. Calibration 10 ms/div, 3 mV/div.
F-responses of the tibial nerve in the abductor hallucis brevis muscle, latency 50 ms. stimulation at the ankle, upper 10 responses with surface electrodes. The lower 10 sweeps are recorded from the extensor digitorum brevis muscle: A) with a concentric needle electrode, no responses, and B) with surface electrodes, active electrode on the muscle and reference placed in the distal end of 5th metatarsal bone. Observe the “medium latency reflexes” of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle, which are volume conducted F-responses of the abductor hallucis brevis muscle. Calibration: 10 ms /div, 2 mV / div.
Stimulation of the common peroneal nerve at the fibular head. Uppermost: M-response of the anterior tibial muscle recorded with surface electrodes. Lowermost: Possible medium latency reflex responses of the abductor digiti minimi muscle, latency 85 ms (vertical line). But the volume conducted F-responses of the extensor digitorum brevis muscle might be another possibility (see
H-reflex of the soleus muscle, latency 29.8 ms, stimulation of
The H-reflex is a useful tool as a probe for clinical neurophysiologist, but the pathways and pitfalls should be considered [12]. The integrity of posterior roots of the S1 level is readily studied with the soleus H-reflex measurement, and we have used this method routinely for a long time. Unfortunately, there are difficulties with recording of H-reflex of the L5 level. Our trials with surface electrodes were often hampered by volume conducted reflex responses of the triceps surae muscle. With a simultaneous needle recording of the peroneus longus muscle we could prove that the H-reflex response of it is real, but it should be distinguished from F-responses. The medium latency reflex of the soleus muscle can be recorded with a powerful twitch contraction of the pretibial muscles elicited by supramaximal stimulation of the common peroneal nerve. We do not have any experience of its use in S1 root syndrome diagnostics. However, it is tempting to assume, that we may study the integrity of two completely different parallel proprioceptive reflex arches of the soleus muscle: the Ia-afferent – α efferent reflex arch (H-reflex), as well as the II-afferent – β efferent reflex arch (medium latency reflex), and compare the results of these measurements in investigation of the posterior root syndrome at S1 level. H-reflex of the peroneus longus muscle might be used in the diagnostics of posterior root lesion of the L5 level. We recommend the recording of this reflex with an EMG needle electrode. This recording can be performed accompanied with the needle EMG study for a possible axonal injury of the L5 motor nerve fibres of the peroneus longus muscle. L3 and L4 posterior roots might be investigated with the quadriceps femoris and adductor H-reflexes. Considering these many different methods and technical challenges related to them, a practitioner is advised to collect own normative data and always interpret the results rather conservatively in the context of full clinical picture.
In today’s world, where volatile interactions abound, a critical question that arises is how trust can and should be fostered. A fundamental underpinning of all social relationships is trust, and interpersonal communication is the mechanism through which trust is often accomplished. A multidisciplinary, multi-university, cross-cultural investigation was undertaken to address this question as well as to further explore how trust is established through implicit forms of communication. Employing a decision-making game with multiple rounds and 695 international participants, the University of Arizona, University of California Santa Barbara, Rutgers University, Stanford University, University of Maryland and Dartmouth University investigated the manner in which nonverbal relational messages, comprised of nonverbal and verbal communication, might secure trust [1]. Applying a spiral model of trust, we formulated predictions of how people utilize implicit, relational messages to define their interpersonal relationships and from those exchanges, ultimately arrive at a determination of who can be trusted and who, not. We examined how relational messages of affection, dominance and composure signal and elicit trust, either universally across cultures or not, and how those messages are moderated by deception.
An integral part of human communication is the exchange of what are called relational messages. These are implicit messages that enable people to assess how they relate to one another and how they regard their interpersonal relationship. For example, at the most basic level, people must determine who is friend and who is foe, who they like and who they dislike, and whether the relationship is superficial or one of depth. These messages more often than not are expressed through nonverbal behaviors, which are the focus of this report. Although they also can be expressed verbally, for example, telling another that you trust them and find the relationship to be a deep and abiding one, the preponderate share of relational communication is managed nonverbally. In this way, verbal and nonverbal communication accomplish a division of labor, with the verbal aspects of communication handling substantive matters and the nonverbal aspects of communication handling much of the relationship work.
For example, a discussion in a classroom devoted to the topic of the election may be transacted through words, while nonverbally the students and teacher signal what the power relationship is—whether the instructor is in charge and the students are acquiescent to her or his authority, or the instructor is intending to instill a communication environment of equality; whether the instructor and students like one another or harbor some hidden animosity; whether they are engaged in the topic or are disinterested and detached from it; and so on. These various messages combine to build a foundation of mutual trust and goodwill such that the instructor presents what he/she believes to be the most current and valid material and the students enter the exchange accepting that the instructor is knowledgeable and credible, or the students are distrustful of the instructor’s motivations, material and credibility and reject it.
The topoi of relational communication are generic continua of message exchange by which we can characterize all human interactions [2]. Burgoon and Hale [3, 4], after reviewing analyses of human relationships from such disciplines as anthropology, ethology, psychology, psychiatry, sociology and communication, identified up to 12 dimensions along which communication is transacted. To the extent that these are universal, these themes should arise in all cultures, though possibly to different degrees. How they are expressed, and in particular how the central ones relate to trust, are the major objective of this current research project.
Our theory of relational communication is that relational message themes are universal, interdependent, and together, through their dynamic exchange, become the cornerstones of trust. One avenue of our work examined self-reports of the communication behaviors people use and observe. This self-report work examined how relational themes are shown in various, disparate countries; the extent to which those countries are similar or different in the emergence of relational messages; and what behaviors contribute to perceptions of trust. A second avenue of work examined macro- and micro-level kinesic, vocalic and linguistic behaviors indicative of the major relational themes of dominance, liking, and composure and ultimately, how they contribute to trust. Three open-source software tools, OpenFace, OpenSmile, and SPLICE, were employed to investigate what nonverbal and verbal behaviors predict relational messages of dominance, composure and liking (see [5]) and whether the same behaviors could be used to develop a predictive model of trust. The nonverbal and verbal communication behaviors were also examined across six countries. A third avenue drilled deeper into the interpretive micro-level behavioral aspects of relational themes using computer vision techniques. Together the lines of investigation explored how trust spiraled dynamically over the course of group decision making and what relational message themes showed the most change.
In human relationships, an intrinsic theme of relational communication is dominance-submission, which reflects the vertical dimension of primate relationships in social settings. People must know what the power structure is, whether there is a discernible status hierarchy, and who sits atop the pecking order and who is at the bottom. One’s relative position in the hierarchy is typically negotiated through nonverbal kinesic, vocalic, proxemic, haptic, physical appearance, artifactual and chronemic signals. These signals are arrayed as continua. One can variously be highly, moderately or not at all dominant in relation to another. In dyads, groups, families, organizations and the like, people can be arrayed from most to least powerful, highest status to lowest status, most acquiescent to not at all. According to Burgoon and Dunbar [6], dominance is dynamic and situationally contingent. It is an actual action that recruits a submissive, acquiescent response from another. Whereas power may reflect a potential to act, dominance is the actual expression of that potentiality. If a dominant overture fails to elicit a submissive response, it is not dominance, but merely domineeringness. Thus, dominance requires both an action by Person A and a complementary, coupled response by Person B.
A second dimension is variously called affection-disaffection, love-hate, or liking-dislike. It reflects the valence dimension of relational communication that ranges from highly positive to highly negative. It is orthogonal to the vertical dimension. People may feel affection toward another and express it through a host of nonverbal signals. Conversely, they may dislike another and express that sentiment through nonverbal signals as well, although social mores inhibit sending highly visible or vocal expressions of dislike.
Along with dominance, affection is one of most prominent relational message themes. These two themes are central ones around which the other relational communication themes are arrayed. Three additional nonorthogonal topoi include composure-nervousness, involvement-detachment and similarity-dissimilarity. A person may express a sense of poise and composure in the presence of another or may appear nervous, anxious and uncomposed. In other words, one’s demeanor is altered in relation to the other person. It does not reflect a general demeanor around others but rather, a person-specific nervousness or composure. A person may also show high or low involvement with another, that engagement being behavioral, cognitive and emotional. Yet another of the topoi is similarity-dissimilarity. Ongoing interactions with unfamiliar others require trying to assess the degree of similarity that exists between them. Such similarity is a starting place for communication. When homophily between individuals is high, communication is likely to be the most successful [7].
All of these topoi are interrelated to the theme of trust. As explained in the spiral model of trust [7], trust is an interactive and iterative process that derives from multiple factors. It flows from, is sustained by, and modified through dynamic communication patterns. These patterns include the dominance relationships the parties bring to an interaction—such as the father being the head of a family and wife and children showing obedience to the father’s strictures in a traditional paternal family structure, or the members of egalitarian LGBTQ couples showing similar degrees of dominance while negotiating decisions. The degree of positive affection that members of a social unit feel toward one another is communicated through the kinds of kinesic, vocalic and haptic patterns measured in our study. In families, for example, how loving the siblings feel toward one another and their parents dictates how they express that affection dimension through nonverbal messages. A third dimension reflected here is composure or nervousness—how at ease or tense members of the relationship feel in the presence of one another. If a person feels uneasy in the presence of others in a group, they may display that uneasiness through nonverbal messages of discomfort.
These dimensions combine to spiral into greater or lesser trust, and that spiral can change over time, becoming more intensely trustful or more suspicious and less trusting. Trust is a moving target. It is modified by the situation in which people find themselves and the relational messages they receive from others. In a group setting, for instance, members who wish to promote others’ trust in themselves may attempt to temper their demeanor initially by being nondominant, but over time to bolster their persuasiveness by increasing signals of dominance. To promote liking and composure, they may send to others positively toned messages of liking and being at ease in hopes that those sentiments will be reciprocated. The important points to draw from the spiral model are that trust is the product of many different relational messages, as illustrated in Figure 1, and are in a state of flux, depending on the current context. The relational messages are comprised of various nonverbal and verbal signals in various strengths and combinations, the net result of which is the expression of trust and receipt of messages of trust. These messages may be communicated in similar ways across cultures, but to the extent they are communicated dissimilarly, culture must be taken into account.
The relationship of relational messages to trust.
The context for this study of relational communication and trust is situated within a multi-national study of cultural differences in conducting and detecting deception. In potentially adversarial situations, messages may be moderated by deception, which adds a toxic element to the exchanges. Thus, deception is also a centrally important moderator.
Trust places people in a state of vulnerability to deception by others. Trust is often equated with a truth-bias, in other words, expecting that others are truthful, not deceptive. Defined formally, truth-bias is an overestimate of another’s truthfulness independent of their actual honesty [8]. Thus, to understand trust is to understand deception and vice-versa. Trust and deception are intricately interrelated. Eliciting another’s trust is accomplished by showing that one is not deceptive, by conveying authentic or apparent honesty. Likewise, assessing another’s trustworthiness may be based on spontaneous impressions from another’s nonverbal demeanor, which can lead to dangerous decisions when that demeanor is false [10].
Unfortunately, most deception research pertaining to trust has been done in a “cultural vacuum” [11]. Moreover, the vast majority of studies on verbal and nonverbal cues to deception or deception detection skill have been done in English-speaking, western cultures. The work involving culture has focused largely on whether people who are from the same culture can detect deception within an interaction episode better or worse than people who are from two different cultures (see [12] for a review). Very few studies have analyzed cultural differences in displays associated with deception or in the detection of deception (i.e., comparing norms and behaviors of people who are situated in different cultures, such as cues used during deception by people in Japan versus by people in the U.S.). This leaves questions about cultural-level variations in decision-making concerning trust of an interaction partner unanswered.
There are two main theoretical perspectives on how to detect deception across cultures and hence, whether to trust an interaction partner. The first is the universal cues hypothesis [13]. The central premise of this perspective is that due to the evolutionary benefits of successful deception and deception detection being similar for all humans, the cues emitted by deceivers are unlikely to vary from one culture or society to the next. Moreover, for the same reason, the universal cues hypothesis says detectors of deception will experience and interpret those cues similarly in all cultures. In other words, the universal cues hypothesis expects deceivers should act similarly and deception detectors should have evolved similarly to spot deceptive behavior across cultures. Supporting this view, the Global Deception Research Team’s study [14] found that deception has vast similarities across 75 countries. Another investigation across 5 countries [15] proposed and supported a pan-cultural typology of 10 motives for deceiving. In sum, the universal cues hypothesis predicts minimal cultural differences in deception detection, and thus by extension, how trust decisions are formed between interaction partners.
The second view is the specific discrimination perspective [12, 16]. This perspective takes the position that people rely on learned, culturally-determined norms and expectations to guide both their behavior and sensemaking during an interaction. As such, lying is conditioned by culture because cultures differ in their nonverbal behavior norms and displays, the value attached to honesty, frequency of lying, conditions for interpersonal trust, and responses to others’ lies. Consequently, the specific discrimination perspective posits that deception and its detection are specific to communication patterns that vary across cultures. This helps to explain findings that people can better identify a liar from their own culture than a liar from a different culture by noticing deviations from their own learned cultural code (e.g., [12]). Applying this perspective to the decision-making process regarding trust of an interaction partner, the same forces lead to the prediction that trust and trust decision-making should vary in different cultures.
A few studies have tested these competing hypotheses about the influence of culture in deception detection. For example, George and colleagues [17] studied deception and its detection in three countries: America, India, and Spain. Participants evaluated 32 snippets of recorded interviews involving the three cultural groups across two languages. Within each stimulus set, half of the snippets were honest and the other half were dishonest. The researchers measured the cues that judges in each country cited as important to their decision about a person’s honesty. Twenty-three cues were identified (e.g., nervousness, logical structure, talk time, voice pitch, etc.). The authors found that judges across the three cultural/language groups relied on similar cues. For example, nine cues including lack of eye contact, fidgeting, tone or pitch, pauses, stuttering, vague reply, repetitive answers, contradicting oneself, and bragging accounted for a large majority of the deception cues used by judges in all three countries. The cues included kinesic, vocalic and verbal indicators. George and colleagues concluded that their results tend to support the universal cues hypothesis (see also [12, 13, 16]). Also supporting the universal cues hypothesis, others find that the frequency, motives for lying, and skill in deception detection are also similar across cultures (see [18] for a review). One of the few investigations of actual behavior and trust, and a model for the current experiments described in this chapter, is [19].
The consistency in findings helps to offset the paucity of culture-based experiments. Nevertheless, more controlled investigations rather than anecdotal reports are needed to confirm a universal cues hypothesis. Our investigation begins to fill the void by conducting the study in multiple countries ranging across four different continents and observing actual behavior rather than relying on self-reports of behavior, thereby allowing for the potential for variability that supports the specific discrimination perspective.
Much research looks at people’s perceptions rather than actual behavior. We were interested in going beyond perceptions to look at actual behaviors people display that foster trust and that signal they trust another person. We looked at nonverbal signals from the voice (known as vocalics), the face and body (known as kinesics) and linguistic (verbal) indicators. We hypothesized that trust would be communicated by those signals associated with messages of liking, moderately high dominance and moderate composure, and that it would be a combination of these signals that would evince and elicit trust. In other words, the more a person showed that they liked another individual and felt reasonably relaxed and composed around that individual, the more they were likely to trust that person. Similarly, people would be trusted the more they showed they liked others, exhibited many of the signals associated with moderate dominance and conveyed that they were moderately relaxed, not nervous.
Participants were recruited from nine universities in six countries: Zambia, Israel, Singapore, Fiji, Hong Kong, and the U.S. (which included three of the universities, all with a diversity of international students). Country selection was a function of finding universities with a willing local host and a federal government that would consent to the 60-page Institutional Review Board requirements. All participants were current students (mean age = 22 years). In total, 695 people participated in the experiments and 95 games were played.
We devised a method for analyzing trust using an interactive social game created by Don Eskridge called The Resistance (variations of the game are sometimes known as Mafia or Werewolf) played in groups comprised of five to eight strangers. A detailed description of the game is found in [24]. It began with an ice-breaker activity designed to establish a baseline for perceptions of dominance, liking, nervousness and trust. During the ice-breaker, players introduced themselves to the group, told an interesting fact about themselves, and then another player probed with a question to elicit more information. We measured their perceptions of the other players on self-report scales immediately following the ice-breaker.
Following the ice-breaker, Resistance players were randomly and secretly assigned to play one of two roles: deceivers (called “Spies”), or truth-tellers (called “Villagers”). There were two to three Spies per game, depending on the size of the group, but Villagers always outnumbered the Spies. The Spies were aware of who the other Spies were, but the Villagers did not know anyone else’s role. Villagers attempted to deduce the other players’ identities within the game. The players engaged in a practice round before the game play actually began to ensure they understood their goals in the game. Spies’ purpose was to win the game by remaining hidden and infiltrating the Villagers’ groups while the Villagers’ goal was to uncover who the Spies were to avoid infiltration. So, finding out who to trust and who not to trust was especially crucial for the Villagers but important to the Spies as well.
Players completed a series of hypothetical “missions” by forming teams of five to eight members. At the beginning of each round, players elected a leader, who then chose other players for these missions based on who they thought would help them win the game. All players voted to approve or reject the team leader and then voted on the leader’s proposed team. Again, trust played an important role because players from both sides needed to trust that the leader was picking the team that would ensure they won the round. Players took both a public and private vote, thus introducing the potential for distrust when the two votes did not match. Those who were chosen by the leader to go on the mission team secretly voted for the mission to succeed or fail. Villagers won rounds by figuring out who the spies were and excluding them from the mission teams to ensure mission success. Spies won rounds by causing mission failures. The ultimate winners of the game (Spies or Villagers) were determined by which team won the most rounds (up to a maximum of 8 rounds). Additionally, players won monetary rewards by being voted as a leader or winning the game. (See [24] for more details).
Following Cho and colleagues’ recommendation [20], culture was measured both at the macro level in terms of each player’s country of residence and also at the individual level in terms of self-construals on the cultural orientations of vertical and horizontal individualism and collectivism, as well as positive and negative face [20, 21, 22]. Before the game began, participants completed a set of self-report measures used by [19] to gauge individuals’ cultural orientations along dimensions of individualism–collectivism, horizontal-vertical status, and positive–negative face [22, 23]. In total, six measures were taken: vertical collectivism, vertical individualism, horizontal collectivism, horizontal individualism, positive face, and negative face.
Vertical individualists place value on independent individual achievement and tend to be competitive with others, while vertical collectivists accept inequality in the social structure, value self-sacrifice for group goals and collaborate with others. Horizontal collectivists value cooperation and caring among group members and strive for group harmony. Horizontal individualists value both equality and uniqueness in a way that respects individual decision-making. People high in positive face have a desire to protect their self-esteem by making positive impressions on others, as positive face reflects a felt need for social approval. In contrast, people high in negative face feel a need for interpersonal distance to protect their autonomy and value privacy for both self and others.
During the game and at its close, participants completed self-report measures to gauge their perceptions of liking, dominance, composure and trust of each other player in their game after an ice-breaker activity and then again after rounds 2, 4, 6, and 8, if the game lasted that many rounds. Because participants responded to these items three to five times about each of the other players, we used single items to avoid fatigue.
Many of the same behaviors were featured in the various relational messages because they were expected to be highly correlated. In [5], the verbal, kinesic, and vocalic indicators were summarized. Among those that were tested, the significant predictors of trust are noted below with an *.
Behaviorally, we looked for the following indicators of liking:
proximity, direct body orientation
Backchannel cues (nods, uh-huhs)
Postural mirroring
Relaxed laughter
Vocal pitch variety
Rapid turn-switches
First-person plurals
Positive affect language
Dislike was expected to be signaled primarily by the opposites of these, such as indirect body orientation, lack of backchanneling and mirroring, and absence of relaxed laughter.
For dominance, we looked for these signals:
High immediacy or nonimmediacy (combination of proximity, gaze, body orientation, forward lean, touch)
More head movement, pitch, roll and yaw*
More facial expressiveness*
Verbal nonimmediacy
Frequent initiation of conversation
High visual dominance ratio (more looking while talking than looking while listening)
Deeper and more variable pitch*
More interruptions
More and longer turns at talk*
More first-person pronouns
Louder amplitude*
Nondominance or deference would be conveyed by the opposites, such as physical rigidity, passive facial expressions, and low visual dominance ratio, higher pitch, few interruptions, shorter turns at talk, and more first-person plural pronouns or third-person pronouns. More of these indicators were vocalic or verbal.
For nervousness, we looked for the following:
Softer amplitude*
Higher pitch
More nonfluencies
Shorter and fewer turns at talk*
More gaze aversion
More indirect body orientation or facing
More facial rigidity (FAU02)*
More postural, head, and vocal rigidity*
We hypothesized that trust would be communicated by those signals associated with messages of liking, moderately high dominance and moderately low nervousness, and that it would be a combination of these signals that would evince and elicit trust.
The number of participants and games played in each country was uneven but contributed to acquiring a diverse sample: U.S. (30 games, 209 players), Singapore (12 games, 84 players), Fiji (14 games, 106 players), Israel (9 games, 64 players), Zambia (15 games, 117 players), and Hong Kong (15 games, 115 players). Player cultural background was quite diverse. Players reported being from 42 different nationalities and over 60 different ethnicities. Participants self-classified as either Asian (38%), white/European (18%), black/African (17%), Fijian/Pacific Islander (15%), Latinx (3%), Middle Eastern (1%), mixed (3%), or other (5%).
Despite this diversity, and interestingly, mean scores across participants on the cultural orientations were more similar than expected. Figure 2 shows the means for each of the cultural orientations measured, in each of the six countries. Scores in the US, Israel (IL), Hong Kong (HK), and Singapore (SP) were very similar across all of the orientations. Participants in Zambia (ZM) and Fiji (FJ) reported the highest scores on horizontal and vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism, and positive face, but the lowest scores on vertical individualism compared to participants in the other countries. We did not find individualism and collectivism to align with expectations about participants from eastern versus western cultures, nor did we find those two cultural orientations to be orthogonal as originally conceived by Hofstede [21]. Instead, most participants in all six locations reported roughly equal levels of individualism and collectivism. Others have found similar results, sparking debates about whether Hofstede’s original conceptualization of the cultural differences needs updating, especially in light of greater cross-cultural communication and globalization in recent decades (e.g., [25, 26].
Mean scores for each cultural orientation by country.
Games were played in English. 39% of the sample were native English speakers. Among those who were not native speakers, their average self-reported English-speaking fluency was quite high (5.82 on a 7-point scale, with higher scores indicating greater fluency.) The average age at which the non-native speakers began to speak English was 6 years. This is not surprising because in all of the countries except Israel where data for this study were collected, English is an official language, and in Israel, English is required as a second language in schools. Thus, individuals in the sample possessed a high level of English language proficiency. Based on this, we feel confident that the results would be very similar as if all players had played the game in their primary language. Future research, however, is needed to understand if differences in the language used for communication influences both the expression and perception of trust.
Experience with similar deception-detection games varied across the locations: 50% or more of the players in Singapore, the U.S., and Hong Kong reported playing a similar game in the past. The number of rounds played within the allotted one-hour period also differed significantly by country, with the most rounds played on average in the U.S. (6.6) and the fewest in Israel (3.6) and Zambia (3.6).
Our first analysis was whether culture makes a difference. If results differ by culture, culture must be included as a variable in other analyses or each culture should be measured separately.
Villagers in the six countries varied in their trust of other players. Zambian Villagers reported the lowest trust of all other players in their games with no differentiation between deceivers (Spies) and fellow truth-tellers; whereas Villagers in Singapore reported significantly lower trust of Spies than fellow truth-tellers. Only a little evidence was found to support a relationship between trust and the cultural orientations. Deception detectors higher on vertical individualism (i.e., who are competitive and prefer to work alone to defeat an enemy) reported less trust of the deceivers in their games (r = −.11, p < .05), indicating that vertical individualism sensitizes people to deception cues perhaps via the competitiveness aspect of this cultural orientation. That said, the correlation is weak and none of the other cultural orientations were significantly correlated with trust.
We also looked at trust dynamically over the course of the game. The same pattern was found in all countries such that villagers’ trust decreased for both truth-tellers (other Villagers) and deceivers (Spies) in the early rounds of game play, but then rebounded for trust of truth-tellers (see Figure 3a) while continuing to decline for deceivers (see Figure 3b).
Trust of (a) truth-tellers and (b) deceivers over the course of the game by location.
Despite some variability, the results in the aggregate show limited cultural differences across judgments and behavioral patterns relating to trust. The similarities better warrant a conclusion in favor of the universal cue hypothesis than the specific discrimination perspective when it comes to trust. That said, cultural differences remain a persistent point of interest that warrant continued examination in the future.
For subjective judgments of relational messages, we hypothesized that Spies who display more signals of liking, dominance and composure are trusted more by Villagers.
First, the rating of liking at the end of the game was highly correlated with the post-game ratings of dominance and composure. The more players expressed dominance and composure, the more they were liked. In turn, as predicted by the spiral model, such players were trusted more.
A regression model showed that the Villagers’ judgment of Spies’ dominance was a significant predictor of trust (R2 = .059). This was true for all the countries sampled, especially Singapore and the U.S. The exception was Israel, where more dominance was associated with less trust, possibly because Israelis already scored high on dominance and might have found extreme dominance to be excessive and suspect.
As another indicator of trust, Villagers identified who they thought were Spies among all the players in their game, and the actual spies were less often judged to be one (R2 = .078).
In detailed results reported by Dunbar et al. [27], Villagers’ ratings of Spies on dominance decreased over time, whereas it increased for Villagers as they came to their final game round. Dominance was correlated with trustworthiness. Dominant players may have been more confident in their abilities or perhaps had more charisma and extroverted styles that led them to appear more trustworthy. Despite their increased dominance, Villagers were not more likely to win (the win ratio was nearly 50/50 for Villagers and Spies). Thus, the link between dominance and trustworthiness did not seem to result in outcomes that are beneficial to the players. Ratings of apparent nervousness were only mildly affected by the players’ game role: Villagers were less nervous over time than Spies but only slightly so. Villagers became more relaxed, while Spies remained somewhat nervous.
Figure 4a and b show the pattern of relational messages predicting trust by role, in this case illustrated with the dominance relational message. Although ratings declined initially, ratings of Villagers remained higher than Spies and showed an upswing over time. In other words, the more Villagers communicated moderately high dominance, the more others saw them as trustworthy; Spies expressing dominance were also seen as more trustworthy. The correlation between dominance and trust ranged from .23 in the baseline to .37 at game’s end, indicating that moderately high dominance contributed to more trust.
Relationship of dominance to trust, by veracity.
Facial expressions can convey a lot of information about one’s physical and emotional state. People rely on facial expressions to “collect” both intentional and unintentional meaning during interactions. The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) [28] was developed as a systematic way to code facial motion by segmenting the face into separate regions (forehead and eyebrows, eyes and cheeks, mouth and chin). Each of the motions, such as an eyebrow raise or an open-mouth smile, is a Facial Action Unit (FAU).
Results from a dissertation showed that dominance was predicted from nonverbal kinesic signals, head movement and vocal signals. As illustration, Table 1 shows all the facial action units, both means and standard deviations, with significant relationships with dominance [29]. There are several facial muscles involved with various emotional expressions, but the most noticeable effect is high standard deviations, meaning there is a lot of variability or expressiveness. Composure had several relationships, although fewer than dominance, but trust had only two FAUs that emerged as significant. AU23 appeared most frequently. (Liking was not examined.)
Dependent Variable: Dominance (Low/Medium/High) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Control Variables: Gender, Game Experience, English Proficiency | |||
FAU | Description | Significant Means | Significant Standard Deviation Coefficients |
AU1 | inner brow raiser | * | |
AU2 | outer brow raiser | * | |
AU5 | upper lid raiser | * | * |
AU6 | cheek raiser | * | |
AU9 | nose wrinkler | * | * |
AU10 | upper lip raiser | * | |
AU12 | lip corner puller | * | |
AU14 | dimpler | * | * |
AU15 | lip corner depressor | * | * |
AU17 | chin raiser | * | * |
AU20 | lip stretcher | * | |
AU23 | lip tightener | * | |
AU25 | lips part | * | * |
AU26 | jaw drop | * | * |
AU45 | blink | * |
Linear mixed-model analysis of facial action units related to dominance.
Among the most important behavioral vocalic signals in these models were utterance length, harmonic noise ratio (a quality measure), pitch, loudness and shimmer. Longer utterances, more voice quality, deeper pitch, louder, more variability in loudness and more shimmer were more indicative of dominance. These signals were most evident around critical decision points in the game, such as choosing team members and voting on leaders for the mission team.
Liking was most predicted linguistically by the number of sentences. Liking was higher, the more a person spoke multiple sentences. Vocally, it was most predicted by measures of voice quality (harmonic noise ratio standard deviation, jitter standard deviation, and shimmer). These measures of voice quality indicate liking was higher the less the voice HNR and jitter varied and the lower the presence of shimmer. These are indicative of a consistent, unvarying voice.
Nervousness was associated with softer amplitude, more jitter, less dominant language but surprisingly, longer turns at talk. Composure would be the opposites of these, i.e., louder, less jitter, more dominant language, and shorter speaking turns.
Linguistically, trust was most predicted by more turns at talk, more words, and a higher readability score (i.e., more articulate speech). More talk, with a more educated voice, elicited trust.
Does the smallish number of predictors of trust mean there are few nonverbal and verbal signals of it? No. The reason is the interdependence of these variables. They are correlated with one another, so the statistical models using multiple regression identify the signals that account for the most shared and unique variance (have the biggest impact). Although included as possible predictors are all the variables identified above in the 2.4 Behavioral Indicators section, because so many of these variables are highly correlated with another, the statistical models will only retain the most significant variables (i.e., the ones accounting for the most variance). These are the best predictors, but doubtless several other indicators combine with them, or substitute for one another to convey a given meaning. For example, affection can be expressed by smiles, or frequent eye gaze, or touch, or direct facing, or a combination of these, as well as plural first-person pronouns and more intimate language.
What is apparent is that all the communication channels—verbal, kinesic, vocalic, and linguistic--play a role in the trust process and together can convey trust in a very substantial manner. Classification analysis for specificity (i.e., identifying truth-tellers) showed 74 - 79% accuracy in spotting truth tellers, a significant level of discrimination.
One of the unique contributions of the current investigation was the development and application of a computer vision method for retrospectively finding the most meaningful segments in a video. Here we describe the framework and its application to dominance, liking and trust in videos using robust facial features. We create a mechanism to compute the attention of the detection model in the time domain, identifying key frames. We use those key frames to draw conclusions about the kind of micro-expressions that emerge as important during the attentional periods of the model.
The Facial Action Coding System (FACS) [9] was developed as a systematic way to code facial motion with respect to non-overlapping facial muscle actions called Facial Action Units (FAUs).
With so much communicated by the facial expressions, we opted to incorporate facial cues into a system to investigate whether the presence and intensity of some specific facial expressions correlate with how dominant, likable, and trusted a person is perceived by others. For the technically minded, our approach has the following pipeline. A morphable model is superimposed to a subject’s face and, with the help of a feature extractor, for each frame of the input video the intensities of 17 Facial Action Units (FAUs) are computed. These are normalized with the parameters of the morphable model, resulting in 17 identity-agnostic FAU intensities. Also, gaze angles of the subject are tracked for each frame of the input video.
The 19 1-dimensional signals (17 FAUs and 2 gaze signals) were concatenated, channel-wise, and this signal was fed as input to a model for video classification. The model used was the Temporal Convolutional Network (or TCN) [30, 31]. We used 250 videos and trained our model to regress dominance, liking and trust using an MSE loss function. Given a trained model, we predicted dominance, liking and trust on a test set and retained 25 subjects with the lowest error for further analysis. By using the gradients of the model, we identified the key frames in the input video and performed retrospective analysis on the facial features that are most prevalent in the model’s prediction. The overall framework can be seen in Figure 5. In Figure 6, we can see the attention visualization of the model.
Illustration of the proposed framework. FAU intensities and gaze angles are extracted from video sequences which are considered as 1D normalized channel-wise concatenated signals to train a predictor model. Model attention is computed to enable retrospective analysis of dominance, liking and trust.
(left) screenshot of frames from original videos; (right) FAU waveforms and attention visualizations of the predictor model. We can see that the model trained for liking identifies as key timesteps, the frames that the subject smiles; lip corner puller (FAU 12) and upper lip raiser are maximally activated at those frames.
Analysis of the players’ facial behaviors revealed that some facial action units including lip stretching, blinking, and fake smiling occurred more frequently during deceptive acts. These might be expected with inauthentic trust. Further analysis of the players’ facial muscles suggests that subjects who were more dominant, likable and trusted had more intense facial expressions. Speculatively, it seems that those subjects were more involved in the game and as a result gained the trust of their peers. Furthermore, specific facial expressions, such as smiling and eyebrow raising, emerged more than others.
There were no noticeable differences when examining the FAUs across subjects from different countries, further supporting our intuition that expressions of trust are culture-invariant.
As part of a cross-cultural, multi-purpose investigation, this project investigated whether trust is signaled by kinesic and vocalic (nonverbal) features and linguistic (verbal) features. Results show that all these features convey relational messages of dominance, liking and composure, which in turn combine to signal trust or distrust. Although the relational messages are moderately correlated with one another, different types of signals are present in each relational message. Whereas both kinesic and vocalic signals play a role in conveying dominance or nondominance, vocalic signals are more prominently featured in composure or nervousness, and facial expressions are especially salient in signaling liking and disliking.
The various indicators, or their perceptual representation, spiral together to form an amalgam of trust. The verbal and nonverbal signals are dynamic, so that their meaning is in flux. Rather than judgments being made anew during each round, it appears that trust is forged from an accretion of meaning built up by the interaction context. For example, in the current task, over the course of several rounds of decision-making, players had the benefit of results from prior rounds to inform their current judgments and build up impressions of other players’ trustworthiness. In other words, judgments were cumulative rather than transitory. First impressions may also have set an interpretation frame that colored all that followed. If, for instance, someone had a reputation for dishonesty, nonverbal and verbal signals by that individual might be attached to that initial expectation and help build an impression of someone who should not be trusted. This is often the case when members of law enforcement quickly narrow an investigation to a single suspect and in a hypothesis-confirming manner, interpreting all relational messages to fit their first impression. Scam artists hoping to swindle elders out of their social security checks rely on this principle to create a favorable first impression and continue to build upon it.
Other relational messages may fill out skeletal first impressions, adding, for instance, messages related to involvement, emotional arousal, formality or informality, similarity of dissimilarity, inclusion or exclusion, task or social orientation and so on. The context may dictate which messages may be salient and have a potential connection to trust. The key is to understand that these implicit messages that are exchanged are part of the interaction spiral that forms trust or distrust. It is the communication exchanges and the resultant relational message interpretations that become the psychological template of trust.
Future research could explore expressivity from other kinesic indicators in the trunk, limbs and hands. Which behaviors generate a sense of energy and engagement that promotes trust? In contrast, the behavioral opposites of inexpressiveness and rigidity may generate suspicion. The suspicion and distrust aspect of developing trust is understudied yet quite important to probing relationships in adversarial relationships and relationships in which trust is eroding. Facial impassivity and wooden postures can be a potent clue that someone is being deceptive. Onlookers may develop early suspicions from such behavior apart from anything that is said. People in intimate personal relationships may begin to develop distrust of their partner from such nonverbal behaviors before other actions begin to undermine trust.
An interesting result of our work is that culture did not appear to be a major driver of trust. While we found a few differences in trust patterns across the six countries, and that the cultural orientation of vertical individualism negatively correlated with trust, on balance the results generally support the universal cues hypothesis more than the specific discrimination perspective. These results are in line with some other recent studies of culture and deception (e.g., [17]).
The current investigation, beyond contributing to an understanding of the psychology of trust, presents a number of methodological advances that have, or could be made. Many insights come from the dissertation of Walls [29] in using artificial intelligence to transform behavior into actionable insights. Walls observes that before significant accuracy can be achieved in creating a set of classifiers for predicting trust, measurement decisions must be made about the length and duration of units of observation to be used. Whether analysis is at the level of individual turns at talk, interact exchanges between pairs or clique groups, phases of decision-making, or entire rounds of a game can alter estimates of accuracy. Also, eliminating periods of silence in videotaped recordings and narrowing judgments to meaningful segments such as voting periods can also alter and improve predictive accuracy. The parameters of the classification models can be learned in a data-driven approach using machine learning techniques.
This research successfully demonstrates that automatic action unit extractions and feature creation for facial analysis, combined with the latest in computer vision techniques, represent an unbiased analysis of videos that brings an understanding of trust. Model building is accomplished using feature creation algorithms, machine learning techniques, and analysis. This project has demonstrated the utility of this approach by using the same analysis to predict team selection, leader elections and game wins. That is, the design has replications built into it. Such within-subject designs have the benefit of controlling other sources of “noise” such as personality or gender because those sources of variance remain constant across the replications. Thus, the system design is general in that it can discover connections to any set of cues.
Another innovation of the research reported here is the use of the attention mechanism to locate sparsely exhibited behaviors and identify the key frames in the video that may be especially consequential in understanding trust. Just as interpersonal relationships have trajectories that change at turning points, key frames may signal those important turning points that signpost the positive or negative development of trust. For example, disclosure of highly intimate details about one’s past may encourage reciprocal disclosure from the partner and escalate the relationship’s mutual trust to the next level. In videos consisting of thousands of frames, the ability to locate the points at which turning points occur can be very useful.
The use of the attention mechanism can alleviate the need to label every timestep of importance in the video. We store only meta-data for each video, such as the subject’s role, and use the attention mechanism to identify the important time-steps in the video. Those vary depending on the task that the model is trained for. In that way, we can perform retrospective analysis of those frames, while keeping the data collection protocol simple.
A further next step in research would be to use the key frames identified by the attention mechanism to re-train the model. Re-training the model can be useful for large input videos, since the models can ignore the majority of the input frames, which are irrelevant for the modeling task.
Future collaborations with others investigating behavioral networks of linguistics, vocalics, and kinesics is sure to bring new discriminating features to the machine learning techniques. This is easy to do with the current developed methods since they can be used with different modalities. Only one step to transform every modality to a canonical input form is required. Obtaining new features can be accomplished by having new experimental participants watch the game videos and record their perceptions of trust.
The psychology of trust is a rich construct for investigation. Examination of how it develops through implicit relational messages promises to bring greater understanding of the construct. New software and automated computer vision tools can accelerate and amplify the progress of those investigations.
This research was sponsored by the Army Research Office and was accomplished under Grant Number W911NF-16-1-0342. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the Army Research Office or the U.S. Government. The U.S. Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Government purposes notwithstanding any copyright notation herein.
Judee Burgoon and Jay Nunamaker are principals in Discern Science International, a for-profit entity conducting research and systems development for credibility assessment. The remaining authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors wish to thank Bradley Dorn, Rebecca (Xinran) Wang, Xunyu Chen, Steven Pentland, Lee Spitzley, Tina Ge, Matt Giles, Mohammed Hansia, Chris Otmar, Yibei Chen, Becky Ford, Ligong Han, and Lezi Wang for their contributions to conducting this research.
",metaTitle:"Open Access Statement",metaDescription:"Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0)",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-statement/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
License
\\n\\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) and journal articles are distributed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence.
\\n\\n\\n\\nFormats
\\n\\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCosts
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\\n\\n\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'License
\n\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) and journal articles are distributed under a Creative Commons 4.0 International Licence.
\n\n\n\nFormats
\n\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\n\n\n\nCosts
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\n\n\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{regionId:"4",sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",middleName:null,surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58592/images/1664_n.jpg",biography:"Arun K. Shanker is serving as a Principal Scientist (Plant Physiology) with the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture in Hyderabad, India. He is working with the ICAR as a full time researcher since 1993 and has since earned his Advanced degree in Crop Physiology while in service. He has been awarded the prestigious Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC), by the Royal Society of Chemistry, London in 2015. Presently he is working on systems biology approach to study the mechanism of abiotic stress tolerance in crops. His main focus now is to unravel the mechanism of drought and heat stress response in plants to tackle climate change related threats in agriculture.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4782/images/system/4782.jpg",biography:"Bishnu P. Pal is Professor of Physics at Mahindra École\nCentrale Hyderabad India since July 1st 2014 after retirement\nas Professor of Physics from IIT Delhi; Ph.D.’1975 from IIT\nDelhi; Fellow of OSA and SPIE; Senior Member IEEE;\nHonorary Foreign Member Royal Norwegian Society for\nScience and Arts; Member OSA Board of Directors (2009-\n11); Distinguished Lecturer IEEE Photonics Society (2005-\n07).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"69653",title:"Dr.",name:"Chusak",middleName:null,surname:"Limsakul",slug:"chusak-limsakul",fullName:"Chusak Limsakul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Prince of Songkla University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"23804",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Arof",slug:"hamzah-arof",fullName:"Hamzah Arof",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/23804/images/5492_n.jpg",biography:"Hamzah Arof received his BSc from Michigan State University, and PhD from the University of Wales. Both degrees were in electrical engineering. His current research interests include signal processing and photonics. Currently he is affiliated with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"41989",title:"Prof.",name:"He",middleName:null,surname:"Tian",slug:"he-tian",fullName:"He Tian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"East China University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"33351",title:null,name:"Hendra",middleName:null,surname:"Hermawan",slug:"hendra-hermawan",fullName:"Hendra Hermawan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33351/images/168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institut Teknologi Bandung",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRglaQAC/Profile_Picture_1626411846553",biography:"Hiroshi Ishiguro is an award-winning roboticist and innovator. As the Director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, which is part of the Department of Systems Innovation in the Graduate School of Engineering Science at Osaka University, Japan, Ishiguro concentrates on making robots that are similar as possible to humans to understand the human species. A notable project of his laboratory is the Actroid, a humanoid robot with a lifelike appearance and observable behavior such as facial movements. (Sources: http://www.geminoid.jp/en/index.html, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshi_Ishiguro)",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Osaka University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Chiayi University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"61581",title:"Dr.",name:"Joy Rizki Pangestu",middleName:null,surname:"Djuansjah",slug:"joy-rizki-pangestu-djuansjah",fullName:"Joy Rizki Pangestu Djuansjah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61581/images/237_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"94249",title:"Prof.",name:"Junji",middleName:null,surname:"Kido",slug:"junji-kido",fullName:"Junji Kido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Yamagata University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"12009",title:"Dr.",name:"Ki Young",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"ki-young-kim",fullName:"Ki Young Kim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12009/images/system/12009.jpg",biography:"Http://m80.knu.ac.kr/~doors",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Cheng Kung University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"132595",title:"Prof.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"long-wang",fullName:"Long Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Peking University",country:{name:"China"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6583},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5888},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2381},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1006},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17529}],offset:12,limit:12,total:12511},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"5,6,12,13,18"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11807",title:"Advances in Diptera - Insight, Challenges and Management Tools",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"530031c8ad9b3661090e69f0561e31f0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sarita Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11807.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"177117",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarita",surname:"Kumar",slug:"sarita-kumar",fullName:"Sarita Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11609",title:"Fungicides - Application, Technologies, and Materials for the Future of Plant Disease Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3a8c9d55c21ce8d69d2edc94f9e592f3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mizuho Nita",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11609.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"98153",title:"Dr.",name:"Mizuho",surname:"Nita",slug:"mizuho-nita",fullName:"Mizuho Nita"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11648",title:"Current Status and Ecological Aspects of Seabirds",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7754b354f7deebdb8576189aefbdbc5c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Nawaz Rajpar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11648.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"183095",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nawaz",surname:"Rajpar",slug:"muhammad-nawaz-rajpar",fullName:"Muhammad Nawaz Rajpar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11620",title:"Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cdc23b5aad5d52bc0f0327c453ac7a1b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Pranas Viskelis, Dr. Dalia Urbonaviciene and Dr. Jonas Viskelis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11620.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"83785",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranas",surname:"Viskelis",slug:"pranas-viskelis",fullName:"Pranas Viskelis"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11020",title:"Dietary Supplements - Challenges and Future Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2283ae2d0816c17ad46cbedbe4ce5e78",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Venketeshwer Rao and Dr. Leticia Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11020.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11627",title:"Oilseed Crops - Biology, Production and Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"010cdbbb6a716d433e632b350d4dcafe",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mirza Hasanuzzaman and MSc. Kamrun Nahar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11627.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11615",title:"Humus and Humic Substances - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a9b75be6b30278fca930c4dd560a8b2b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Abdelhadi Makan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11615.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"247727",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelhadi",surname:"Makan",slug:"abdelhadi-makan",fullName:"Abdelhadi Makan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11802",title:"Honey - Composition and Properties",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"60482dae5e08f5b22b0c7a2749cdfc02",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Imran, Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad and Dr. Rabia Shabir Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11802.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"208646",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Imran",slug:"muhammad-imran",fullName:"Muhammad Imran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10744",title:"Astrocytes in Brain Communication and Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8b6a8e2bb5f070305768945fdef8eed2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11667",title:"Marine Pollution - Recent Developments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e524cd97843b075a724e151256773631",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Monique Mancuso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11667.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"318562",title:"Dr.",name:"Monique",surname:"Mancuso",slug:"monique-mancuso",fullName:"Monique Mancuso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11619",title:"Root Vegetables",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c5535e66fed5abd8f80ee521b51b2d3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Prashant Kaushik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11619.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311935",title:"Dr.",name:"Prashant",surname:"Kaushik",slug:"prashant-kaushik",fullName:"Prashant Kaushik"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11644",title:"Structural and Molecular Aspects of DNA Repair",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"83dfefc2400d2d037281f1e25bbc544b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Subrata Kumar Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11644.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:42},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:122},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:72},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10222",title:"Demyelination Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6c26ceccacdde70c41c587361bd5558",slug:"demyelination-disorders",bookSignature:"Stavros J. Baloyannis, Fabian H. Rossi and Welwin Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10222.jpg",editors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros J.",middleName:"J.",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-j.-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros J. Baloyannis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9544",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb8cb09b9599246add78d508a98273d5",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Jingbin Wang , Md. Samim Al Azad and Selim Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9544.jpg",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10979",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f345ebcf4fd61e73643c69063a12c7b",slug:"parenting-challenges-of-child-rearing-in-a-changing-society",bookSignature:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10979.jpg",editors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10764",title:"Antenna Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2fbf1c7a5d92723f08198fc9b526a8ad",slug:"antenna-systems",bookSignature:"Hussain Al-Rizzo and Said Abushamleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10764.jpg",editors:[{id:"153384",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Rizzo",slug:"hussain-al-rizzo",fullName:"Hussain Al-Rizzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55856c6a8bc3a5b21dae5a1af09a56b6",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10351",title:"Enhanced Liposuction",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f08ed6de16da357614586c5b58ed4dfa",slug:"enhanced-liposuction-new-perspectives-and-techniques",bookSignature:"Diane Irvine Duncan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10351.jpg",editors:[{id:"279869",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane Irvine",middleName:null,surname:"Duncan",slug:"diane-irvine-duncan",fullName:"Diane Irvine Duncan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10779",title:"21st Century Nanostructured Materials",subtitle:"Physics, Chemistry, Classification, and Emerging Applications in Industry, Biomedicine, and Agriculture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"72c67f97f9bef68200df115b5fd79884",slug:"21st-century-nanostructured-materials-physics-chemistry-classification-and-emerging-applications-in-industry-biomedicine-and-agriculture",bookSignature:"Phuong V. Pham",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10779.jpg",editors:[{id:"236073",title:"Dr.",name:"Phuong",middleName:"Viet",surname:"Pham",slug:"phuong-pham",fullName:"Phuong Pham"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4386},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10584",title:"Engineered Wood Products for Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"421757c56a3735986055250821275a51",slug:"engineered-wood-products-for-construction",bookSignature:"Meng Gong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10584.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3665,editors:[{id:"274242",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng",middleName:null,surname:"Gong",slug:"meng-gong",fullName:"Meng Gong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10222",title:"Demyelination Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6c26ceccacdde70c41c587361bd5558",slug:"demyelination-disorders",bookSignature:"Stavros J. Baloyannis, Fabian H. Rossi and Welwin Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10222.jpg",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1713,editors:[{id:"156098",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Stavros J.",middleName:"J.",surname:"Baloyannis",slug:"stavros-j.-baloyannis",fullName:"Stavros J. Baloyannis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9544",title:"Global Trade in the Emerging Business Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb8cb09b9599246add78d508a98273d5",slug:"global-trade-in-the-emerging-business-environment",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Jingbin Wang , Md. Samim Al Azad and Selim Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9544.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2481,editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10979",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f345ebcf4fd61e73643c69063a12c7b",slug:"parenting-challenges-of-child-rearing-in-a-changing-society",bookSignature:"Sayyed Ali Samadi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10979.jpg",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1107,editors:[{id:"52145",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayyed Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Samadi",slug:"sayyed-ali-samadi",fullName:"Sayyed Ali Samadi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9808",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb6371607c2c6c02c6a2af8892765aba",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki and Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9808.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3307,editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10681",title:"Biodegradation Technology of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a6e10e02788092872fd249436898e97",slug:"biodegradation-technology-of-organic-and-inorganic-pollutants",bookSignature:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes, Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa and Kamila Cabral Mielke",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10681.jpg",publishedDate:"April 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3266,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10764",title:"Antenna Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2fbf1c7a5d92723f08198fc9b526a8ad",slug:"antenna-systems",bookSignature:"Hussain Al-Rizzo and Said Abushamleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10764.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1868,editors:[{id:"153384",title:"Prof.",name:"Hussain",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Rizzo",slug:"hussain-al-rizzo",fullName:"Hussain Al-Rizzo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10668",title:"Sustainability of Concrete With Synthetic and Recycled Aggregates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55856c6a8bc3a5b21dae5a1af09a56b6",slug:"sustainability-of-concrete-with-synthetic-and-recycled-aggregates",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",publishedDate:"May 4th 2022",numberOfDownloads:856,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1704,editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9032",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f609bf3251d7cc7bae0099a4374adfc3",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7489,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10861",title:"Furan Derivatives",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fdfc39cecd82f91b0effac994f75c877",slug:"furan-derivatives-recent-advances-and-applications",bookSignature:"Anish Khan, Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, M. Ramesh, Salman Ahmad Khan and Abdullah Mohammed Ahmed Asiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10861.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"293058",title:"Dr.",name:"Anish",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"anish-khan",fullName:"Anish Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10870",title:"Ultrasound Imaging",subtitle:"Current Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f0bc3733ab226d67fa73759ef0e12ad",slug:"ultrasound-imaging-current-topics",bookSignature:"Felix Okechukwu Erondu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10870.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"68312",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Okechukwu Erondu",slug:"felix-okechukwu-erondu",fullName:"Felix Okechukwu Erondu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10400",title:"The Application of Ant Colony Optimization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4fdfd07ee1ab99fb7c740d6d0c144c6",slug:"the-application-of-ant-colony-optimization",bookSignature:"Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10400.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10915",title:"Leadership",subtitle:"New Insights",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0d72e79892f2a020cee66a52d09de5a4",slug:"leadership-new-insights",bookSignature:"Mário Franco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10915.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"105529",title:"Dr.",name:"Mário",middleName:null,surname:"Franco",slug:"mario-franco",fullName:"Mário Franco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10683",title:"Technological Innovations and Advances in Hydropower Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ce7ad8768bd2cad155470fe1fd883f4",slug:"technological-innovations-and-advances-in-hydropower-engineering",bookSignature:"Yizi Shang, Ling Shang and Xiaofei Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",slug:"pneumonia",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"961",title:"Fluid Dynamics",slug:"surface-science-fluid-dynamics",parent:{id:"160",title:"Surface Science",slug:"surface-science"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:104,numberOfWosCitations:222,numberOfCrossrefCitations:123,numberOfDimensionsCitations:294,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"961",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7385",title:"Cavitation",subtitle:"Selected Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075ee4bb432760777ffcba092d0cffae",slug:"cavitation-selected-issues",bookSignature:"Wojciech Borek, Tomasz Tański and Mariusz Król",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7385.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186373",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",middleName:null,surname:"Borek",slug:"wojciech-borek",fullName:"Wojciech Borek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7352",title:"Granularity in Materials Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a451ff13b9bc3b08989979518577594a",slug:"granularity-in-materials-science",bookSignature:"George Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7352.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6512",title:"Superfluids and Superconductors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24385ec1d5de9c6597896900c80ee279",slug:"superfluids-and-superconductors",bookSignature:"Roberto Zivieri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6512.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181334",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Zivieri",slug:"roberto-zivieri",fullName:"Roberto Zivieri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5319",title:"Wetting and Wettability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49767cc09f266bd5bdf55f4a5c57792b",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",bookSignature:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5319.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"155413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Aliofkhazraei",slug:"mahmood-aliofkhazraei",fullName:"Mahmood Aliofkhazraei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2854",title:"Viscoelasticity",subtitle:"From Theory to Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63c4a0eddb48f02ebe48d80aa70972de",slug:"viscoelasticity-from-theory-to-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Juan de Vicente",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2854.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99801",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"De Vicente",slug:"juan-de-vicente",fullName:"Juan De Vicente"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"48816",doi:"10.5772/60824",title:"Wettability and Other Surface Properties of Modified Polymers",slug:"wettability-and-other-surface-properties-of-modified-polymers",totalDownloads:3698,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Surface wettability is one of the crucial characteristics for determining of a material’s use in specific application. Determination of wettability is based on the measurement of the material surface contact angle. Contact angle is the main parameter that characterizes the drop shape on the solid surface and is also one of the directly measurable properties of the phase interface. In this chapter, the wettability and its related properties of pristine and modified polymer foils will be described. The wettability depends on surface roughness and chemical composition. Changes of these parameters can adjust the values of contact angle and, therefore, wettability. In the case of pristine polymer materials, their wettability is unsuitable for a wide range of applications (such as tissue engineering, printing, and coating). Polymer surfaces can easily be modified by, e.g., plasma discharge, whereas the bulk properties remain unchanged. This modification leads to oxidation of the treated layer and creation of new chemical groups that mainly contain oxygen. Immediately after plasma treatment, the values of the contact angles of the modified polymer significantly decrease. In the case of a specific polymer, the strongly hydrophilic surface is created and leads to total spreading of the water drop. Wettability is strongly dependent on time from modification.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Nikola Slepickova Kasalkova, Petr Slepicka, Zdenka Kolska and\nVaclav Svorcik",authors:[{id:"144929",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",middleName:null,surname:"Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik"},{id:"146297",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Slepicka",slug:"petr-slepicka",fullName:"Petr Slepicka"},{id:"147600",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nikola",middleName:null,surname:"Slepičková Kasálková",slug:"nikola-slepickova-kasalkova",fullName:"Nikola Slepičková Kasálková"},{id:"153983",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeňka",middleName:null,surname:"Kolská",slug:"zdenka-kolska",fullName:"Zdeňka Kolská"}]},{id:"48822",doi:"10.5772/60808",title:"Wettability of Nanostructured Surfaces",slug:"wettability-of-nanostructured-surfaces",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"There are many studies in literature concerning contact angle measurements on different materials/substrates. It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. Mihailescu"},{id:"23532",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",slug:"andrei-popescu",fullName:"Andrei Popescu"},{id:"174343",title:"Dr.",name:"Liviu",middleName:null,surname:"Duta",slug:"liviu-duta",fullName:"Liviu Duta"},{id:"174344",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Zgura",slug:"irina-zgura",fullName:"Irina Zgura"},{id:"174345",title:"Dr.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Frunza",slug:"ligia-frunza",fullName:"Ligia Frunza"}]},{id:"49090",doi:"10.5772/61205",title:"The Wetting of Leaf Surfaces and Its Ecological Significances",slug:"the-wetting-of-leaf-surfaces-and-its-ecological-significances",totalDownloads:3519,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Leaf wettability, indicating the affinity for water on leaf surfaces, is a common phenomenon for plants in a wide variety of habitats. The contact angle (θ) of water on leaves measured at the gas, solid and liquid interface is an index of surface wettability. Leaves are termed as “super-hydrophilic” if θ < 40°, “highly wettable” if θ < 90°, and “wettable” if θ < 110°. If θ > 110°, the leaves are classified as being non-wettable, while θ > 130° for highly non-wettable and θ > 150° for super-hydrophobic. Both internal and external factors can influence leaf wettability. The chemical composition and structure of leaf surfaces are internal causes, but the external environment can also influence wettability by affecting the structure and composition of the surface. The main internal factors that affecting leaf wettability include the content and microstructure of the epidermal wax, the number, size and pattern of trichomes, stomatal density, the shape of epidermal cells, and leaf water status. The leaf contact angles increased with the increasing of leaf wax content. However, studies have shown that the contact angles were more dependent on the complexity of wax structure than on the absolute amount. For trichomes, there are three types of interaction between trichomes and water droplets, including (1) low trichomes density: no apparent influence of trichomes on the location of surface moisture, droplet formation and retention ; (2) medium trichomes density: trichomes appear to circle surface moisture into patches; (3) high trichomes density: trichomes appear to hold water droplets above the trichomes. In some cases, a higher stomatal density was accompanied with a higher contact angles. While, it was also observed that there was no significant correlation between contact angle and stomatal density for some species. For the effects of epidermal cells on leaf wettability, it was generally considered that the combination of a dense layer of surface wax and the convex epidermal cells was what created a hydrophobic leaf surface. However, the influence of leaf water content on contact angle of water droplets on different leaf surfaces was complex, e.g., contact angles increased with decreasing of leaf water content, contact angle remained to be constant with different leaf water content.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Huixia Wang, Hui Shi and Yanhui Wang",authors:[{id:"173921",title:"Dr.",name:"Huixia",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"huixia-wang",fullName:"Huixia Wang"}]},{id:"40738",doi:"10.5772/49979",title:"Viscoelastic Properties of Biological Materials",slug:"viscoelastic-properties-of-biological-materials",totalDownloads:5567,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"2854",slug:"viscoelasticity-from-theory-to-biological-applications",title:"Viscoelasticity",fullTitle:"Viscoelasticity - From Theory to Biological Applications"},signatures:"Naoki Sasaki",authors:[{id:"140935",title:"Prof.",name:"Naoki",middleName:null,surname:"Sasaki",slug:"naoki-sasaki",fullName:"Naoki Sasaki"}]},{id:"40741",doi:"10.5772/50137",title:"Die Swell of Complex Polymeric Systems",slug:"die-swell-of-complex-polymeric-systems",totalDownloads:6066,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"2854",slug:"viscoelasticity-from-theory-to-biological-applications",title:"Viscoelasticity",fullTitle:"Viscoelasticity - From Theory to Biological Applications"},signatures:"Kejian Wang",authors:[{id:"141238",title:"Prof.",name:"Kejian",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"kejian-wang",fullName:"Kejian Wang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"48768",title:"TiO2 -Based Surfaces with Special Wettability – From Nature to Biomimetic Application",slug:"tio2-based-surfaces-with-special-wettability-from-nature-to-biomimetic-application",totalDownloads:5008,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with extremely high contrast of surface energy and liquid adhesion have attracted a lot of interest in both fundamental research and industry. Various types of special wetting surfaces can be constructed by adjusting the topographical structure and chemical composition. In this chapter, recent advance of the super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with special solid/liquid adhesion has been reviewed, with a focus on the biomimetic fabrication and applications of TiO2-based surfaces. Special super-wettability examples include lotus-leaf-inspired surfaces with low adhesion, rose-petal-inspired surfaces with high adhesion, spider silk bio-inspired surfaces with directional adhesion, fish-scale-inspired underwater superoleophobic surface, and artificial surfaces with controllable or stimuli-responsive liquid adhesion. In addition, we will review some potential applications related to artificial antiwetting surface with controllable adhesion, e.g., self-cleaning, antifogging/anti-icing, micro-droplet manipulation, fog/water collection, water/oil separation, anti-bioadhesion, micro-template for patterning, and friction reduction. Finally, the difficulty and prospects of this renascent and rapidly developing field are also briefly proposed and discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Jian-Ying Huang and Yue-Kun Lai",authors:[{id:"175512",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuekun",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"yuekun-lai",fullName:"Yuekun Lai"}]},{id:"62882",title:"Inside the Phenomenological Aspects of Wet Granulation: Role of Process Parameters",slug:"inside-the-phenomenological-aspects-of-wet-granulation-role-of-process-parameters",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Granulation is a size-enlargement process by which small particles are bonded, by means of various techniques, in coherent and stable masses (granules), in which the original particles are still identifiable. In wet granulation processes, the powder particles are aggregated through the use of a liquid phase called binder. The main purposes of size-enlargement process of a powder or mixture of powders are to improve technological properties and/or to realize suitable forms of commercial products. A modern and rational approach in the production of granular structures with tailored features (in terms of size and size distribution, flowability, mechanical and release properties, etc.) requires a deep understanding of phenomena involved during granules formation. By this knowledge, suitable predictive tools can be developed with the aim to choose right process conditions to be used in developing new formulations by avoiding or reducing costs for new tests. In this chapter, after introductive notes on granulation process, the phenomenological aspects involved in the formation of the granules with respect to the main process parameters are presented by experimental demonstration. Possible mathematical approaches in the granulation process description are also presented and the one involving the population mass balances equations is detailed.",book:{id:"7352",slug:"granularity-in-materials-science",title:"Granularity in Materials Science",fullTitle:"Granularity in Materials Science"},signatures:"Veronica De Simone, Diego Caccavo, Annalisa Dalmoro, Gaetano\nLamberti, Matteo d’Amore and Anna Angela Barba",authors:[{id:"140173",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Barba",slug:"anna-angela-barba",fullName:"Anna Angela Barba"},{id:"143947",title:"Prof.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"D'Amore",slug:"matteo-d'amore",fullName:"Matteo D'Amore"},{id:"176104",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaetano",middleName:null,surname:"Lamberti",slug:"gaetano-lamberti",fullName:"Gaetano Lamberti"},{id:"176239",title:"MSc.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Caccavo",slug:"diego-caccavo",fullName:"Diego Caccavo"},{id:"181500",title:"Dr.",name:"Annalisa",middleName:null,surname:"Dalmoro",slug:"annalisa-dalmoro",fullName:"Annalisa Dalmoro"},{id:"260822",title:"MSc.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"De Simone",slug:"veronica-de-simone",fullName:"Veronica De Simone"}]},{id:"49177",title:"Influence of Wettability and Reactivity on Refractory Degradation – Interactions of Molten Iron and Slags with Steelmaking Refractories at 1550°C",slug:"influence-of-wettability-and-reactivity-on-refractory-degradation-interactions-of-molten-iron-and-sl",totalDownloads:2067,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Refractories, materials that can withstand high temperatures, play an important role in the iron and steel sector which alone accounts for ~70% of total refractories produced. In this chapter, detailed wettability and interfacial phenomena investigations on alumina-carbon and zirconia-carbon refractories at steelmaking temperatures. The wettability between refractory substrates and molten iron/slags was investigated at 1550°C using the sessile drop approach in a horizontal tube furnace equipped with a CCD camera. Detailed experimental results were obtained on alumina-carbon/molten iron system at high temperatures. Alumina is known to be non-wetting to molten iron while carbon can be easily wetted. Observed contact angles were found to depend strongly on the substrate composition and contact time. While the refractory substrates containing 50 and 60% carbon were found to be non-wetting to molten iron, the substrates containing higher amounts of C (≥ 70%) were found to become increasingly wetting. Molten iron droplets were seen to spread on these substrates.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"R. Khanna, M. Ikram-ul-Haq and V. Sahajwalla",authors:[{id:"19010",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Khanna",slug:"rita-khanna",fullName:"Rita Khanna"}]},{id:"48822",title:"Wettability of Nanostructured Surfaces",slug:"wettability-of-nanostructured-surfaces",totalDownloads:3122,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:"There are many studies in literature concerning contact angle measurements on different materials/substrates. It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. Mihailescu"},{id:"23532",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu",slug:"andrei-popescu",fullName:"Andrei Popescu"},{id:"174343",title:"Dr.",name:"Liviu",middleName:null,surname:"Duta",slug:"liviu-duta",fullName:"Liviu Duta"},{id:"174344",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Zgura",slug:"irina-zgura",fullName:"Irina Zgura"},{id:"174345",title:"Dr.",name:"Ligia",middleName:null,surname:"Frunza",slug:"ligia-frunza",fullName:"Ligia Frunza"}]},{id:"62615",title:"Nanolevel Surface Processing of Fine Particles by Waterjet Cavitation and Multifunction Cavitation to Improve the Photocatalytic Properties of Titanium Oxide",slug:"nanolevel-surface-processing-of-fine-particles-by-waterjet-cavitation-and-multifunction-cavitation-t",totalDownloads:1161,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Titanium oxide particles were treated by water jet cavitation (WJC) generated and multifunction cavitation (MFC) using an ejector nozzle. Generation, growth, and collapse of cavitation are repeated with the particles of titanium oxide and platinum. Because the cavitation has an extremely high collapse pressure, the surface of the titanium oxide particles is processed by the microjets of cavitation in a reactor comprising the ejector nozzle. In the multifunction cavitation, ultrasonic irradiation of a waterjet during floating cavitation was used to generate microjets with hot spots. Hot working can be performed at the nanoscale on a material surface using this MFC process, resulting in morphological changes and variations in the surface electrochemical characteristics. The fundamental characteristics of multifunction cavitation were investigated theoretically and experimentally. Furthermore, the additional nozzle was put on the ejector nozzle in order to increase the temperature and pressure of bubble and the mechanism was clarified. The quantities of hydrogen and oxygen generated from titanium dioxide particles treated by multifunction cavitation in response to UV and visible light irradiation were remarkably increased compared to the amounts produced by particles treated by WJC processing. In this chapter, the methods and their results of processing particles by cavitation are introduced.",book:{id:"7385",slug:"cavitation-selected-issues",title:"Cavitation",fullTitle:"Cavitation - Selected Issues"},signatures:"Toshihiko Yoshimura, Kumiko Tanaka and Masataka Ijiri",authors:[{id:"246052",title:"Dr.",name:"Masataka",middleName:null,surname:"Ijiri",slug:"masataka-ijiri",fullName:"Masataka Ijiri"},{id:"246359",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshihiko",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshimura",slug:"toshihiko-yoshimura",fullName:"Toshihiko Yoshimura"},{id:"246433",title:"Dr.",name:"Kumiko",middleName:null,surname:"Tanaka",slug:"kumiko-tanaka",fullName:"Kumiko Tanaka"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"961",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81235",title:"Global Food System Transformation for Resilience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102749",signatures:"Jasper Okoro Godwin Elechi, Ikechukwu U. Nwiyi and Cornelius Smah Adamu",slug:"global-food-system-transformation-for-resilience",totalDownloads:30,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"80749",title:"Analysis of the Nexus Between Coping Strategies and Resilience to Food Insecurity Shocks: The Case of Rural Households in Boricha Woreda, Sidama National Regional State, Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102613",signatures:"Adane Atara Debessa, Degefa Tolossa and Berhanu Denu",slug:"analysis-of-the-nexus-between-coping-strategies-and-resilience-to-food-insecurity-shocks-the-case-of",totalDownloads:45,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"11671",title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",hash:"2bd98244cd9eda2107f01824584c1eb4",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,submissionDeadline:"March 17th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"270856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suna",surname:"Sabuncuoglu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11669",title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",hash:"9117bd12dc904ced43404e3383b6591a",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"415310",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Erik",surname:"Froyen",slug:"erik-froyen",fullName:"Erik Froyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",hash:"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"14794",title:"Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Şentürk",slug:"murat-senturk",fullName:"Murat Şentürk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 6th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11670",title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg",hash:"69f009be08998711eecfb200adc7deca",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"May 26th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 8th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"80187",title:"Potential Utilization of Insect Meal as Livestock Feed",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101766",signatures:"Sipho Moyo and Busani Moyo",slug:"potential-utilization-of-insect-meal-as-livestock-feed",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:160,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79866",title:"Ruminal Microbiome Manipulation to Improve Fermentation Efficiency in Ruminants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101582",signatures:"Yosra Ahmed Soltan and Amlan Kumar Patra",slug:"ruminal-microbiome-manipulation-to-improve-fermentation-efficiency-in-ruminants",totalDownloads:216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Kingsley O.",surname:"Idahor"}],book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"78802",title:"Intraovarian Gestation in Viviparous Teleosts: Unique Type of Gestation among Vertebrates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100267",signatures:"Mari-Carmen Uribe, Gabino De la Rosa-Cruz, Adriana García-Alarcón and Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"intraovarian-gestation-in-viviparous-teleosts-unique-type-of-gestation-among-vertebrates",totalDownloads:183,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:136,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78849",title:"Application of Vermicompost Fertilizer in Aquaculture Nutrition: Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100326",signatures:"Sonnia Nzilani Musyoka and Rita Nairuti",slug:"application-of-vermicompost-fertilizer-in-aquaculture-nutrition-review",totalDownloads:67,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Nutrition - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11416.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"78998",title:"Effect of Various Feed Additives on the Methane Emissions from Beef Cattle Based on an Ammoniated Palm Frond Feeds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100142",signatures:"Mardiati Zain, Rusmana Wijaya Setia Ningrat, Heni Suryani and Novirman Jamarun",slug:"effect-of-various-feed-additives-on-the-methane-emissions-from-beef-cattle-based-on-an-ammoniated-pa",totalDownloads:143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:7,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:7,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:11,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",slug:"advanced-studies-in-the-21st-century-animal-nutrition",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"László Babinszky, Juliana Oliveira and Edson Mauro Santos",hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10497",title:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10497.jpg",slug:"canine-genetics-health-and-medicine",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland",hash:"b91512e31ce34032e560362e6cbccc1c",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25600/images/system/25600.jpg",institutionString:"Independent Researcher",institution:{name:"Harran University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9081",title:"Equine Science",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9081.jpg",slug:"equine-science",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland and Albert Rizvanov",hash:"ac415ef2f5450fa80fdb9cf6cf32cd2d",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Equine Science",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. Neiva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/213786/images/system/213786.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Beira Interior",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"39275",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Ryan",middleName:null,surname:"Marini",slug:"herbert-ryan-marini",fullName:"Herbert Ryan Marini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39275/images/9459_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Messina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"196218",title:"Dr.",name:"Pasquale",middleName:null,surname:"Cianci",slug:"pasquale-cianci",fullName:"Pasquale Cianci",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196218/images/system/196218.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81067",title:"Encapsulation of Essential Oils and Their Use in Food Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103147",signatures:"Hamdy A. Shaaban and Amr Farouk",slug:"encapsulation-of-essential-oils-and-their-use-in-food-applications",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80959",title:"Biological Application of Essential Oils and Essential Oils Components in Terms of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Cholinesterase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102874",signatures:"Mejra Bektašević and Olivera Politeo",slug:"biological-application-of-essential-oils-and-essential-oils-components-in-terms-of-antioxidant-activ",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80859",title:"Antioxidant Effect and Medicinal Properties of Allspice Essential Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103001",signatures:"Yasvet Yareni Andrade Avila, Julián Cruz-Olivares and César Pérez-Alonso",slug:"antioxidant-effect-and-medicinal-properties-of-allspice-essential-oil",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80777",title:"Starch: A Veritable Natural Polymer for Economic Revolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102941",signatures:"Obi P. Adigwe, Henry O. Egharevba and Martins O. Emeje",slug:"starch-a-veritable-natural-polymer-for-economic-revolution",totalDownloads:43,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80673",title:"Teucrium ramosissimum Derived-Natural Products and Its Potent Effect in Alleviating the Pathological Kidney Damage in LPS-Induced Mice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102788",signatures:"Fatma Guesmi and Ahmed Landoulsi",slug:"teucrium-ramosissimum-derived-natural-products-and-its-potent-effect-in-alleviating-the-pathological",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80600",title:"Essential Oil as Green Preservative Obtained by Ecofriendly Extraction Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103035",signatures:"Nashwa Fathy Sayed Morsy",slug:"essential-oil-as-green-preservative-obtained-by-ecofriendly-extraction-techniques",totalDownloads:57,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Nashwa",surname:"Morsy"}],book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79875",title:"Comparative Study of the Physiochemical Composition and Techno-Functional Properties of Two Extracted Acorn Starches",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101562",signatures:"Youkabed Zarroug, Mouna Boulares, Dorra Sfayhi and Bechir Slimi",slug:"comparative-study-of-the-physiochemical-composition-and-techno-functional-properties-of-two-extracte",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80395",title:"History, Evolution and Future of Starch Industry in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102712",signatures:"Obi Peter Adigwe, Judith Eloyi John and Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"history-evolution-and-future-of-starch-industry-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:51,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80168",title:"Benzimidazole: Pharmacological Profile",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102091",signatures:"Mahender Thatikayala, Anil Kumar Garige and Hemalatha Gadegoni",slug:"benzimidazole-pharmacological-profile",totalDownloads:73,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80122",title:"Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Potentials of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102037",signatures:"Ishrat Nazir and Sajad Ahmad Gangoo",slug:"pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-potentials-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:123,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80130",title:"Exploring the Versatility of Benzimidazole Scaffolds as Medicinal Agents: A Brief Update",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101942",signatures:"Gopakumar Kavya and Akhil Sivan",slug:"exploring-the-versatility-of-benzimidazole-scaffolds-as-medicinal-agents-a-brief-update",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80018",title:"Potato Starch as Affected by Varieties, Storage Treatments and Conditions of Tubers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101831",signatures:"Saleem Siddiqui, Naseer Ahmed and Neeraj Phogat",slug:"potato-starch-as-affected-by-varieties-storage-treatments-and-conditions-of-tubers",totalDownloads:90,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80023",title:"Binary Interactions and Starch Bioavailability: Critical in Limiting Glycemic Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101833",signatures:"Veda Krishnan, Monika Awana, Debarati Mondal, Piyush Verma, Archana Singh and Shelly Praveen",slug:"binary-interactions-and-starch-bioavailability-critical-in-limiting-glycemic-response",totalDownloads:73,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79964",title:"The Anticancer Profile of Benzimidazolium Salts and their Metal Complexes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101729",signatures:"Imran Ahmad Khan, Noor ul Amin Mohsin, Sana Aslam and Matloob Ahmad",slug:"the-anticancer-profile-of-benzimidazolium-salts-and-their-metal-complexes",totalDownloads:90,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79835",title:"Advances of Benzimidazole Derivatives as Anticancer Agents: Bench to Bedside",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101702",signatures:"Kashif Haider and Mohammad Shahar Yar",slug:"advances-of-benzimidazole-derivatives-as-anticancer-agents-bench-to-bedside",totalDownloads:105,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Benzimidazole",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"79856",title:"Starch-Based Hybrid Nanomaterials for Environmental Remediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101697",signatures:"Ashoka Gamage, Thiviya Punniamoorthy and Terrence Madhujith",slug:"starch-based-hybrid-nanomaterials-for-environmental-remediation",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259308/images/system/259308.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Southern California",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9973",title:"Data Acquisition",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9973.jpg",slug:"data-acquisition-recent-advances-and-applications-in-biomedical-engineering",publishedDate:"March 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",hash:"75ea6cdd241216c9db28aa734ab34446",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Data Acquisition - Recent Advances and Applications in Biomedical Engineering",editors:[{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9905",title:"Biometric Systems",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9905.jpg",slug:"biometric-systems",publishedDate:"February 10th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",hash:"c730560dd2e3837a03407b3a86b0ef2a",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Biometric Systems",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kuwait"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8622",title:"Peptide Synthesis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8622.jpg",slug:"peptide-synthesis",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaya T. Varkey",hash:"de9fa48c5248dbfb581825b8c74f5623",volumeInSeries:0,fullTitle:"Peptide Synthesis",editors:[{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7497",title:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7497.jpg",slug:"computer-vision-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"September 18th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Monika Elzbieta Machoy",hash:"1e9812cebd46ef9e28257f3e96547f6a",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Computer Vision in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",hash:"da2c90e8db647ead30504defce3fb5d3",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261466/images/system/261466.jpeg",institutionString:"Medical University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.jpg",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 7th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:96,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/86996",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"86996"},fullPath:"/profiles/86996",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()