Herbicides for use in reduced-tillage wheat production.
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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The seven chapters of the book address some issues related to the latest acquisitions of neurobiology, in particular those aspects that are related to responses to treatment - both psychological and pharmacological. Some chapters are also dedicated to the comorbidities, a rule rather than an exception when it comes to anxiety. Each author summarized the clinical importance of his work, underlining the clinical pitfalls of this new book on anxiety.",isbn:"978-953-51-2792-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2791-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7326-7",doi:"10.5772/62656",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"new-developments-in-anxiety-disorders",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c355c8b1bce4b291f916878f12e0ab8a",bookSignature:"Federico Durbano and Barbara Marchesi",publishedDate:"December 7th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5384.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16966,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:30,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:70,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 21st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 11th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 16th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 13th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"157077",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Durbano",slug:"federico-durbano",fullName:"Federico Durbano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/157077/images/system/157077.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Federico Durbano received a degree in Medicine with a specialization in Psychiatry. He has worked at various hospitals, including Milan “Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico,” Treviglio, Melegnano, and Fatebenefratelli, where he achieved significant career milestones. He is currently the director of the Mental Health and Substance Abuse Department at ASST Melegnano e della Martesana. Dr. Durbano has had teaching assignments at the University of Milan (Nursing School) and the University of Castellanza (Master in Criminology). He has attended more than seventy local and national congresses and courses as an invited speaker and has published more than 180 papers. He is also a technical advisor to the court in the field of forensic psychiatry.",institutionString:"Mental Health and Substance Abuse Department in ASST Melegnano and Martesana",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"ASST Melegnano e della Martesana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"191704",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"barbara-marchesi",fullName:"Barbara Marchesi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191704/images/system/191704.png",biography:"Dr. Barbara Marchesi is a private practitioner in Milan, Italy. She received her degree in Psychology from the Cattolica University of Milan, after which she completed a specialty course in Adolescent and Adult Psychodynamic Psychotherapy. After working for almost ten years as a psychological consultant at Fatebenefratelli Hospital of Milan, where she completed a master’s degree in Psychodiagnostics, she worked for five years at Papa Giovanni XXIII Hospital in Bergamo, where she completed the formation for Neuropsychology. Currently, she works as a psychological consultant in the Mental Health and Substance Abuse Department at ASST Melegnano e della Martesana.",institutionString:"Mental Health and Substance Abuse Department in ASST Melegnano and Martesana",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1054",title:"Neurobiology",slug:"mental-and-behavioural-disorders-and-diseases-of-the-nervous-system-neurobiology"}],chapters:[{id:"52393",title:"Anxiety and its Regulation: Neural Mechanisms and Regulation Techniques According to the Experiential-Dynamic Approach",doi:"10.5772/65374",slug:"anxiety-and-its-regulation-neural-mechanisms-and-regulation-techniques-according-to-the-experiential",totalDownloads:1824,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Although anxiety is not necessarily a pathological phenomenon, it can become dysregulated, causing suffering. Indeed, emotion dysregulation lies at the core of many psychopathologies. Thus, anxiety regulation is central to all effective psychological treatment. The predominant perspective on emotion regulation and dysregulation is appraisal theory, which proposes that the cognitive appraisal of an event generates an emotional response. According to Gross’s process model, any emotion can become dysregulated when the patient lacks or fails to use an appropriate regulatory strategy. Therefore, the clinician must teach the patient better regulatory strategies. The perspective we put forward departs from Gross’s model based on appraisal theory. The experiential-dynamic emotion-regulation model, EDER, grounded in affective neuroscience and modern psychodynamic psychotherapy proposes that (1) emotions precede cognition (temporal and neuroanatomical primacy), (2) emotions are not inherently dysregulated (they have specific properties of time and strength proportional to the quality of the stimulus), and (3) dysregulation derives from the combination of emotions plus conditioned anxiety, or from secondary-defensive affects, both leading to dysregulated-affective states (DASs). To regulate DAS, the clinician must regulate the dysregulating anxiety or restructure the defenses, which create defensive affects, and then help the client to fully express the underlying emotions that elicit anxiety and defenses. In this chapter, we specifically focus on dysregulated anxiety, its neural bases, and how to regulate it according to the EDER model. First, we present hypotheses and data to show the neural bases of anxiety. Then, specific strategies and techniques to regulate anxiety are explained and clinical excerpts illustrate their application.",signatures:"Alessandro Grecucci, Daniele Chiffi, Ferdinando Di Marzio, Remo\nJob and Jon Frederickson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52393",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52393",authors:[{id:"188283",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Grecucci",slug:"alessandro-grecucci",fullName:"Alessandro Grecucci"},{id:"194809",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniele",surname:"Chiffi",slug:"daniele-chiffi",fullName:"Daniele Chiffi"},{id:"194810",title:"Mr.",name:"Ferdinando",surname:"Di Marzio",slug:"ferdinando-di-marzio",fullName:"Ferdinando Di Marzio"},{id:"194811",title:"Prof.",name:"Remo",surname:"Job",slug:"remo-job",fullName:"Remo Job"},{id:"194812",title:"Prof.",name:"Jon",surname:"Frederickson",slug:"jon-frederickson",fullName:"Jon Frederickson"}],corrections:null},{id:"52130",title:"Benzodiazepines and Anxiety Disorders: From Laboratory to Clinic",doi:"10.5772/64959",slug:"benzodiazepines-and-anxiety-disorders-from-laboratory-to-clinic",totalDownloads:2289,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Benzodiazepines (BDZs), which are among the most widely prescribed drugs in current psychiatric practice, act as positive modulators of GABAergic neurotransmission. They are used to treat a wide range of disorders, from anxiety, affective disorders and insomnia to epilepsy, alcohol withdrawal and muscle spasms. However, the development of tolerance and dependence after long‐term BDZ treatment, as well as the abuse potential, limit their use. Although some other classes of drugs are currently considered as a better choice for long‐term treatment, BDZs to date still remain indispensable drugs. They are widely prescribed for anxiety disorders, with high levels of evidence existing for the short‐term BDZ use in panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder, intermediate for social anxiety and poor in post‐traumatic stress disorder and obsessive‐compulsive disorder. Future studies are intending to develop the new selective drugs that act via BDZ receptors, but with novel, narrow profile of action. Furthermore, the research on alternative therapeutic approaches of psychiatric disorders has shifted the focus onto therapeutic potential of natural BDZ ligands.",signatures:"Janko Samardzic and Dubravka Svob Strac",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52130",authors:[{id:"188756",title:"Dr.",name:"Janko",surname:"Samardzic",slug:"janko-samardzic",fullName:"Janko Samardzic"},{id:"194277",title:"Dr.",name:"Dubravka",surname:"Svob Strac",slug:"dubravka-svob-strac",fullName:"Dubravka Svob Strac"}],corrections:null},{id:"52538",title:"The Integration of Psychodynamic Theories and Biological Aspects in the Development of Anxiety and Anxiety Disorders",doi:"10.5772/65669",slug:"the-integration-of-psychodynamic-theories-and-biological-aspects-in-the-development-of-anxiety-and-a",totalDownloads:2086,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anxiety is a normal human reaction to stressful and threatening events in their surroundings, but if it does not correlate with inducible stimulus with respect to intensity and duration and if it permanently impairs a person’s ability to function normally, then we are dealing with pathological anxiety, that is to say, a symptom of one of the anxiety disorders classified in 9th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), or in American Psychiatric Association, DSM-IV classification. We may consider the aetiology of anxiety from psychodynamic, biological and neuroscientific aspect. Finally, certain genes have been located, the variability of which in the expression of “visceral brain” neurons modulates remembrance of fear and somatic reactions to anxiety. These genes also represent the potential focal points for future pharmacotherapeutic solutions for the treatment of anxiety and anxiety-connected psychic disorders.",signatures:"Rudolf Gregurek and Rudolf Gregurek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52538",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52538",authors:[{id:"187991",title:"Prof.",name:"Rudolf",surname:"Gregurek",slug:"rudolf-gregurek",fullName:"Rudolf Gregurek"}],corrections:null},{id:"53104",title:"Comorbid Mental Disorders in Anxiety Disorders: Genetic Aspects of Bipolar Disorders and of Ethnicity",doi:"10.5772/66117",slug:"comorbid-mental-disorders-in-anxiety-disorders-genetic-aspects-of-bipolar-disorders-and-of-ethnicity",totalDownloads:1448,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Anxiety disorder (AD) is commonly comorbid with other mental illness. It could be a state or trait, controversially. Evidence for an association between alcoholism and anxiety has emerged from clinical studies of patients with alcoholism, and those of patients with anxiety disorders. Alcohol dependence (or abuse) as well as bipolar disorder (BP) is usually comorbid with anxiety disorder and/or depressive disorder, which often coexist and are difficult to distinguish from one another. However, in Han Chinese population, the comorbidity rate either with alcoholism or bipolar disorder was not reported as much high as reported in Caucasians, this finding of comorbidity between anxiety/depressive disorders and alcohol dependence (or abuse) or/and bipolar disorders, possibly at the genetic level, makes the differentiation of their categorical diagnoses in the association study vitally important.",signatures:"Yun-Hsuan Chang, Sheng-Yu Lee and Ru-Band Lu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53104",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53104",authors:[{id:"156527",title:"Dr",name:"Ru - Band",surname:"Lu",slug:"ru-band-lu",fullName:"Ru - Band Lu"}],corrections:null},{id:"52968",title:"Complex Comorbidity of Substance Use Disorders with Anxiety Disorders: Diagnosis and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/66247",slug:"complex-comorbidity-of-substance-use-disorders-with-anxiety-disorders-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1768,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Substance use disorders is a worldwide public health problem that commonly ocur together with our psychiatric and medical disorders. Along with etiologic origins, prognosis of anxiety disorders intercepts with substance use disorders. Due to overlapping symptoms and complaints, it is always difficult for clinicians to recognise these disorders separately. In addition, selecting the best treatment approach is challenging because of the relative risk for developing anxiety disorders in substance use patients or vice versa. In this chapter, authors are focused on adding new aspects to the clinicians for evaluating, treating and following patients with comorbid substance use disorder and anxiety disorder.",signatures:"Onat Yilmaz and Nesrin Dilbaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52968",authors:[{id:"159433",title:"Prof.",name:"Nesrin",surname:"Dilbaz",slug:"nesrin-dilbaz",fullName:"Nesrin Dilbaz"},{id:"190207",title:"M.D.",name:"Onat",surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"onat-yilmaz",fullName:"Onat Yilmaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"52364",title:"Parental Involvement in Remotely Delivered CBT Interventions for Anxiety Problems in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review",doi:"10.5772/65120",slug:"parental-involvement-in-remotely-delivered-cbt-interventions-for-anxiety-problems-in-children-and-ad",totalDownloads:1789,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Introduction: Remotely delivered interventions for childhood anxiety disorders (e.g., delivered via telephone, Internet, computer, serious games, or apps) are efficient in mental health problems, surpassing concerns in the dissemination of evidence-based treatment. The present study aims to conduct a systematic review of parental involvement in remote cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions for child anxiety disorders. The main objectives are (1) to present the state of the art of existent knowledge on parental involvement in remotely delivered CBT interventions for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents and (2) to propose a conceptual model which could be considered in designing effective remotely delivered interventions for anxious youth.",signatures:"Costina-Ruxandra Păsărelu and Anca Dobrean",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52364",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52364",authors:[{id:"188612",title:"M.A.",name:"Costina",surname:"Păsărelu",slug:"costina-pasarelu",fullName:"Costina Păsărelu"},{id:"188659",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Dobrean",slug:"anca-dobrean",fullName:"Anca Dobrean"}],corrections:null},{id:"52275",title:"Impact of Social Media on Social Anxiety: A Systematic Review",doi:"10.5772/65188",slug:"impact-of-social-media-on-social-anxiety-a-systematic-review",totalDownloads:5768,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Introduction: Online social networking sites are being used all around the world. However, only recently researchers have started to investigate their relationship with mental health. Evidence coming from literature suggests that they have both advantages and disadvantages for individuals. The aim of this study is to critically review the existent research conducted on the relationship between online social networking and social anxiety.",signatures:"Anca Dobrean and Costina-Ruxandra Păsărelu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52275",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52275",authors:[{id:"188659",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",surname:"Dobrean",slug:"anca-dobrean",fullName:"Anca Dobrean"},{id:"188660",title:"Mrs.",name:"Costina",surname:"Păsărelu",slug:"costina-pasarelu",fullName:"Costina Păsărelu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3295",title:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"013c40f1052a8d6b3ab2d6bb6f797921",slug:"new-insights-into-anxiety-disorders",bookSignature:"Federico Durbano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3295.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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The watermark should be secure, i.e. hard to remove or tamper. The last part concerns fingerprinting, used for copy tracking, transaction tracking, etc. Each copy of multimedia content has its distinct watermark, so the main problem is to assure the required capacity of the fingerprinting system. Resistance to collusion attacks is also a very important issue. The fingerprint may be embedded at a buyer’s side if a joint fingerprinting and encryption technique is used.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"cda8ba6256461c833e03f4335fc9cc3d",bookSignature:"Dr. Przemyslaw Dymarski",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7367.jpg",keywords:"Audio Watermarking, Image Watermarking, Human Auditory System, Annotation Watermarking, Covert Communication, Informed Embedding, Copyright Protection, Authentication, Logo Watermarking, Fingerprinting, Copy Tracking, Collusion Attacks",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 20th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 3rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 20th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"18657",title:"Dr.",name:"Przemyslaw",middleName:null,surname:"Dymarski",slug:"przemyslaw-dymarski",fullName:"Przemyslaw Dymarski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/18657/images/system/18657.jpg",biography:"Przemyslaw Dymarski received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the Wroclaw University of Technology, Poland, in 1974 and 1983, respectively, both in electrical engineering. In 2004 he received the D.Sc. degree in Telecommunications from the Faculty of Electronics and Information Technology of the Warsaw University of Technology. Now he is employed as a professor in the Institute of Telecommunications, Warsaw University of Technology. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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A number of cultural, mechanical, and chemical weed control options can be utilized in a production system to reduce weed interference and safeguard crop yield. The dependence on one single weed control strategy may result in short-term success; however, long-term use can lead to multiple setbacks including poor soil health, reduced crop production, and increasing herbicide resistance. In turn, employing multiple weed control tactics simultaneously may prove difficult without previous knowledge as to how best to implement an integrated weed management system. To that end, this chapter is dedicated to illustrating successful herbicide use in conjunction with cover crops and their residues, practices proven not only to suppress weed germination and growth, but also to reduce soil erosion and water runoff and build soil organic matter and thus subseqent productivity.
Use of cover crops, particularly those producing high amounts of biomass (greater than 4,500 kg ha-1), can provide numerous benefits for a cropping system [1]. However, care must be taken when choosing herbicides to apply to these cover crops both prior to and after primary crop planting. This chapter provides an overview of effective herbicide choices for use prior to and within cover crop as well as efficient application methods for use after planting the primary crop(s). We also discuss herbicide interception by cover crop residue and means to control reduced efficacy due to interception. It is hoped that this summary will aid in the adoption of sustainable farming practices to ensure successful agricultural productivity for future generations.
As demands are placed on agriculture to produce increasing yields for a growing global population, the need to implement systems with high productivity and sound environmental standards is key to ensuring agricultural sustainability for future generations. To this end, conservation agriculture is a systems-based approach for food, feed, and fiber production that utilizes a number of practices aimed at maintaining yields while limiting energy and chemical inputs, minimizing soil degradation and erosion, and reducing long-term, detrimental impacts to the environment [2]. Conservation agriculture is comprised of many different management practices, particularly cultural techniques such as crop rotation, planting date, and seeding rate, that can reduce dependence on chemical inputs for successful yield production. Moreover, limited tillage practices, or conservation-tillage, is essential to conservation agriculture systems to ensure soil quality, reduce runoff, and lessen energy consumption on agricultural lands.
Conservation-tillage, or reduced-tillage, has been proven to provide multiple benefits in agricultural settings. In addition to erosion and runoff control, soil health improvement, and reduced energy demands, reduced-tillage practices can produce crops yields similar to that of conventional systems [3-5]. The use of reduced-tillage, however, can alter weed communities. Seed production by annual weed species remains, in most part, on the soil surface where it is subject to increased decomposition and predation. With reduced competition and minimized soil disruption, perennial weed species can become established and dominate the weed community in conservation-tillage [6]. To aid in the control of both annual and perennial weeds, the use of cover crops for ground cover can reduce herbicide requirements in conservation-tillage settings.
A number of cereal and legume cover crops are utilized in various crop productions for several purposes. Currently, a large portion of cover crops are planted as a green manure which are turned under prior to sowing the primary crop [7,8]. In reduced-tillage, however, cover crops are grown as a ground cover and remain on the soil surface after cover crop termination. In addition to further reducing soil erosion, increasing soil organic matter, and improving water infiltration, cover crops can provide a level of weed suppression both prior to and during the primary growing season [9]. When compared to fallow conservation-tillage systems, cover crops offer increased weed control through direct resource competition while actively growing as well as through shading and/or allelopathy after termination. Covers grown to produce high levels of biomass, in particular, can increase shading of germinating weed species and provide greater ground cover for an extended period during the growing season. When employing cover crops, however, knowledge concerning herbicide use both during cover crop production and primary crop growth is essential.
To produce substantial cover crop biomass, it is imperative to adequately manage cover crop production. Besides using correct seeding rates, early planting dates, and sufficient fertilizer applications, it is important to be aware of herbicide applications made prior to cover crop establishment. Often times, postemergent (POST) herbicides applied late season or post-harvest can have residual carryover than may be detrimental to cover crops. Rotation restrictions listed on herbicide labels should be referred to when planning POST applications and cover crop species.
To manage cover crops before cash crop planting, herbicides are typically utilized for cover crop termination. Most often, these herbicides, such as glyphosate and glufosinate, are non-selective with little to no carryover risk. However, consideration should be given to in-season chemical weed control regimes in order to limit repeated applications of a single herbicide mode of action. Moreover, care should be taken to avoid reduced herbicide rates applied for cover termination to reduce the risk of herbicide resistance [10]. Recent research has focused on mechanical termination with a roller or crimper which may reduce or eliminate the need of these herbicides for cover crop termination [11].
Although use of in-season herbicides can be substantially reduced when using high-residue cover crops, some chemical applications are generally required to achieve the most effective weed suppression and minimize crop loss due to weed competition. While an ideal agricultural system would require no chemical inputs for sufficient weed control, practicality dictates the use of herbicides to guarantee crop yield since no system, as of yet, exists that can successfully suppress weed populations without intensive labor or mechanical requirements. To this end, cover crops are a means to minimize, rather than eliminate, herbicide inputs in crop systems. In recognizing the fact that the majority of agricultural systems will require chemical weed control measures for optimum crop production even when utilizing cover crops, it is essential to understand how cover crops affect herbicide selection and efficacy for each crop.
Primarily, the use of reduced-tillage and cover crops eliminates the ability to utilize preplant incorporated herbicides which offer residual soil activity [11]. Furthermore, cover crop residue can impede preemergent (PRE) herbicide applications from reaching the soil surface, reducing herbicide efficacy [12]. While postemergent chemical weed control can be effective alternatives in these settings, many weed species can prove to be difficult to control if not killed early in the season. Moreover, resistance concerns essentially necessitate the use of preemergent herbicides with differing mechanisms of action to avoid selection pressure for resistant weed biotypes [13].
Along with many cultural pracitces, production of crops under reduced-tillage with cover crops requires development of specific herbicide regimes to ensure minimal chemical inputs while achieving sufficient weed control to allow for successful crop production. The following sections review major crops produced globally, describe research conducted in respect to reduced-tillage production, as well as list available herbicides for use when using reduced-tillage and cover crops. These reviews are designed to provide information that can be beneficial for producers implementing conservation-tillage.
Global production of wheat (
Much research has been conducted to evaluate wheat productivity in conservation-tillage practices. Reports reveal similar or increased grain yield for reduced-tillage compared to conventional tillage systems [17-19]. With little or no tillage operations, some chemical applications are required to achieve successful levels of weed control; however, with herbicide applications, weed species have been effectively controlled below levels that could reduce yield [20]. To offset the herbicide needs in conservation-tillage, evaluations of cover crops as ground cover have been conducted. Crops such as mustard (
Like most crops produced in conservation-tillage, herbicide options may be limited to a degree whether utilizing a cover crop or not. With reduced-tillage, preplant incorporation of residual herbicides cannot be utilized. Moreover, when planting into cover crops, soil-applied preemergent herbicides may be less effective due to interception by crop residue. When planting wheat, preplant burndown herbicides may be necessary to control early weeds. POST herbicides are also necessary to control weeds that germinate after planting. Table 1 lists many of the herbicide options for use in conservation-tillage systems for wheat production.
Maize, or corn (
Conservation-tillage practices have been researched and utilized for several decades in some regions such as the Midwest in the United States. As with many other crops, some variability has been noted for corn yield in no-tillage systems compared to conventional tillage methods. However, many reports show at least equal corn yields can be achieved when tillage practices are reduced [3]. Adequate yield potential, coupled with the reduction of on-farm expenses, have made conservation-tillage systems a good fit for corn production.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Carfentrazone | \n\t\t\tAim® [23] | \n\t\t\tPreplant Burndown | \n\t\t\tNon-selective control of emerged broadleaves and grasses | \n\t\t|
Glufosinate | \n\t\t\tLiberty® [24] | \n\t\t|||
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup WeatherMax®[25] | \n\t\t|||
Paraquat | \n\t\t\tGramoxone® [26] | \n\t\t|||
Chlorsulfuron + Metsulfuron | \n\t\t\tFinesse® [27] | \n\t\t\tPRE or POSTb\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Pyrasulfotole + Bromoxynil | \n\t\t\tHuskieTM [28] | \n\t\t\tEarly POST | \n\t\t\tEmerged broadleaf seedlings such as dandelion ( | \n\t\t|
Thifensulfuron + Tribenuron | \n\t\t\tHarmony®\n\t\t\t\t Extra [29] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tActively growing broadleaves, wild garlic ( | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Imazamox | \n\t\t\tBeyond® [30] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaves henbit and chickweed ( | \n\t\t
Herbicides for use in reduced-tillage wheat production.
aTrade names listed are representative of available herbicides. Inclusion of particular trade names does not suggest author endorsement.
bPRE, preemergence; POST, postemergence.
A major limiting factor to adopting reduced-tillage in corn production is the concern of less effective weed control. Tillage has long been used as a means for weed seed burial which reduces the number of seeds in the upper portion of the soil, the area most favorable for germination for most species. In addition to weed seed remaining in the upper layer of soil, shifts in weed species have also been noted. With the implementation of conservation-tillage, most crop systems experience a shift in weed species from annuals to perennials dominating the weed community.
Perennial weed species, largely controlled with tillage practices, can thrive on less disturbed crop land. For effective weed control, producers implementing reduced-tillage have relied on increased herbicide applications. To curb herbicide use, cover crops have been adopted in conjunction with reduced-tillage corn systems. Research has shown that utilizing a legume or grain cover crop can reduce weed density and growth while not affecting corn yield [31,32]. For corn in particular, cover crops offer a potential benefit in addition to weed suppression. Adequate nitrogen availability is essential for corn development. The use of legume cover crops, such as hairy vetch (
Use of burndown herbicides prior to corn planting is critical for early season weed control when using cover crops. A residual herbicide applied in conjunction with the herbicide used for cover crop termination can broaden weed species controlled as well as extend control into the season. A number of PRE herbicides are available that can be applied without incorporation into the soil and are effective even with plant residue on the soil surface. These herbicides and POST herbicide choices that can be successfully utilized in conservation-tillage corn with cover crops are listed in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Glufosinate | \n\t\t\tLiberty® [24] | \n\t\t\tPreplant burndown | \n\t\t\tEmerged weed species | \n\t\t
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup WeatherMax® [25] | \n\t\t||
Paraquat | \n\t\t\tGramoxone® [26] | \n\t\t||
2,4-D | \n\t\t\tAgri Star® 2,4-D [37] | \n\t\t||
Atrazine | \n\t\t\tAatrex® [38] | \n\t\t\tPreplant or PREb\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBroadleaves such as kochia ( | \n\t\t
Flumioxazin | \n\t\t\tValor® [39] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as horseweed ( | \n\t\t|
Pendimethalin | \n\t\t\tProwl® [40] | \n\t\t\tGerminating, small-seeded grass and broadleaf species such as crabgrass ( | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDual Magnum® [41] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as foxtail and | \n\t\t|
Carfentrazone | \n\t\t\tAim® [23] | \n\t\t\tPOSTc\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCertain broadleaf weed control; tank mix with atrazine or dicamba | \n\t\t
Bromoxynil | \n\t\t\tBuctril® [42] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf weeds such as burcucumber ( | \n\t\t|
Dicamba | \n\t\t\tBanvel® [43] | \n\t\t\tAnnual broadleaf species as well as certain perennial species such as dock ( | \n\t\t|
Mesotrione | \n\t\t\tCallisto® [44] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as wild mustard ( | \n\t\t
Tembotrione | \n\t\t\tLaudis® [45] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as common chickweed, purple deadnettle ( | \n\t\t|
Ametryn | \n\t\t\tEvik® [46] | \n\t\t\tPOST-directed spray | \n\t\t\tGrass species such as Texas panicum, goosegrass, and foxtail | \n\t\t
Linuron | \n\t\t\tLorox® [47] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as dog fennel, common ragweed ( | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Imazethapyr + Imazapyr | \n\t\t\tLightning® [48] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaves, grasses, and sedges such as kochia, ragweed, quackgrass ( | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Glufosinate | \n\t\t\tLiberty®\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species; ragweed, horseweed, johnsongrass seedlings | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup Weathermax®\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tNonselective control of some broadleaf and grass species | \n\t\t
Glyphosate + \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tExpert® [49] | \n\t\t\tPRE or POST | \n\t\t\tAnnual broadleaves and grasses; perennials such as quackgrass, dandelion ( | \n\t\t
Herbicides for use in reduced-tillage maize production.
aTrade names listed are representative of available herbicides. Inclusion of particular trade names does not suggest author endorsement.
bPRE, preemergence.
cPOST, postemergence.
Production of rice (
Wetland, transplant rice production is the dominant and highest yielding rice system in most regions [50, 51]. However, the water and energy requirements may limit rice production as competition for resources increases [52]. To reduce strain on environmental and economic resources and to ensure sustainable rice systems in the future, dry-seeded rice production has been implemented in some areas [53]. Dry-seeded rice production can be initiated in conjunction with conservation-tillage with fewer water demands, lower energy and labor requirements, and reduced soil erosion. Research has reported that dry-seeded rice in no-tillage can be a successful alternative to conventional systems [52].
A limiting factor to widespread adoption of dry-seeded, reduced-tillage rice, however, is reduced weed control. For rice, transitioning from wetland, conventional systems to a dry system with reduced-tillage can affect weed compositions in multiple ways. Standing water can reduce germinating weed seeds while the transplanted rice becomes established; removing this water barrier can increase weed numbers [54]. Additionally, reduced-tillage practices can result in an increase of weed seed germination due to less seed burial.
In dry-seeded rice, mulches have been suggested as a means to combat weed increases [51]. Little research has been conducted to fully understand the benefits of cover crops for weed control in rice; however, legume covers have been associated with increased rice yield and reduced weed biomass in upland rice [55]. Future research needs include addressing the effects of cover crops on rice production in dry-seeded rice systems.
Due to challenging weed issues in rice systems, particularly dry-seeded rice, herbicide use will continue to be necessary for effective weed suppression in both conventional and reduced-tillage systems. The implementation of cover crops into these systems may lessen the herbicide requirements but will not eliminate the use of chemicals altogether. Currently there are a number of preemergent and postemergent herbicides available for use in rice production (Table 3); however, as dry-seeded, conservation-tillage rice systems increase in popularity, more herbicide options may become available.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Clomazone | \n\t\t\tCommand®[56] | \n\t\t\tPREb\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGrass species such as barnyardgrass ( | \n\t\t
Halosulfuron | \n\t\t\tPermit® [57] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as dayflower ( | \n\t\t|
Pendimethalin | \n\t\t\tProwl® [40] | \n\t\t\tGerminating, small-seeded grass and broadleaf species such as crabgrass ( | \n\t\t|
Quinclorac | \n\t\t\tFacet® [58] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as morningglory ( | \n\t\t|
Thiobencarb | \n\t\t\tBolero® [59] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as barnyardgrass, dayflower ( | \n\t\t|
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tUltra Blazer® [60] | \n\t\t\tPOSTc\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGrasses and broadleaves such as foxtail ( | \n\t\t
Bensulfuron | \n\t\t\tLondax® [61] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and sedge species, particularly aquatic weeds such as ducksalad ( | \n\t\t|
Bentazon | \n\t\t\tBasagran® [62] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and sedge species such as dayflower, eclipta, and yellow nutsedge ( | \n\t\t
Carfentrazone | \n\t\t\tAim® [23] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as common cocklebur ( | \n\t\t|
Propanil | \n\t\t\tStam® [63] | \n\t\t\tGrass, rush, and broadleaf species such as barnyardgrass, spikerush ( | \n\t\t|
Cyhalofop | \n\t\t\tClincher® [64] | \n\t\t\tAfter Flooding | \n\t\t\tGrass species such as barnyardgrass, broadleaf signalgrass ( | \n\t\t
2,4-D | \n\t\t\tAgri Star® 2,4-D [37] | \n\t\t\tAnnual and perennial weed species such as cocklebur, morningglory, and dock | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Imazamox | \n\t\t\tBeyond® [30] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as morningglory, barnyardgrass, and panicum | \n\t\t
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tNewpath® [65] | \n\t\t\tGrass, sedge, and broadleaf species such as barnyardgrass, morningglory, and nutsedge | \n\t\t|
Imazethapyr + Quinclorac | \n\t\t\tClearpath® [66] | \n\t\t\tGrass, sedge, and broadleaf species such as junglerice, eclipta, morningglory, and nutsedge | \n\t\t
Herbicides for use in reduced-tillage rice production.
aTrade names listed are representative of available herbicides. Inclusion of particular trade names does not suggest author endorsement.
bPRE, preemergence.
cPOST, postemergence.
Production of soybean [
Implementation of conservation practices, such as reduced-tillage, can be utilized as components of alternative management systems replacing conventional systems to provide erosion and runoff control while reducing labor and cost inputs. In the United States, in fact, approximately 80% of soybeans were produced with some form of conservation-tillage by 2006 [67]. This increase in conservation-tillage can be attributed to the environmental and economic benefits achieved with reduced-tillage as well as the commercial availability of herbicide-tolerant soybeans, which have made successful chemical weed control achievable with the use of fewer herbicides.
Early work in conservation-tillage soybean have reported equal or improved yield in soybean with reduced-tillage compared to conventional systems [68, 69]. Previous research has also examined soybean systems planted behind wheat or a cover crop such as rye with improved weed control being noted when compared to a fallow system [70] and greater yield with a cover crop than with just the previous crop’s stubble [71]. The inclusion of plant residue, either from a cover crop or a previous crop, provides a level of weed control by acting as a physical barrier for germinating weed seed or through allelopathic inhibition released by some cover crop species. The weed control provided by ground cover is crucial in a no-till practice due to the loss of control from tillage reduction and the shift towards more difficult to control perennial weed species.
While cover crops and plant residue have been identified as means to reduce weed emergence when implemented in reduced-tillage practices further measures are required to keep the weed population below an acceptable level [70]. Many cultural practices, such as crop rotation, row spacing, and planting date, can be manipulated in such a way as to reduce weed populations; however, herbicide use is still necessary in many systems.
As with most field crops grown in conservation-tillage systems, soybean production with reduced-tillage has heavily relied on postemergent herbicide applications. Use of cover crops in these systems may also contribute to the tendency for fewer PRE herbicides due to interception concerns. However, the increase in herbicide-resistant weed species such as Palmer amaranth (
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Glufosinate | \n\t\t\tLiberty® [24] | \n\t\t\tPreplant Burndown | \n\t\t\tEmerged weed species | \n\t\t
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup WeatherMax® [25] | \n\t\t||
Paraquat | \n\t\t\tGramoxone® [26] | \n\t\t||
2,4-D | \n\t\t\tAgri Star® 2,4-D [37] | \n\t\t||
Clomazone | \n\t\t\tCommand® [56] | \n\t\t\tPREb\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGrasses and broadleaves such as crabgrass ( | \n\t\t
Dimethenamid | \n\t\t\tOutlook® [72] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as foxtail ( | \n\t\t|
Flumioxazin | \n\t\t\tValor® [39] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as horseweed ( | \n\t\t|
Imazaquin | \n\t\t\tScepter® [73] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as morningglory ( | \n\t\t|
Metribuzin | \n\t\t\tMetribuzin [74] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as | \n\t\t|
Pendimethalin | \n\t\t\tProwl® [40] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as panicum and | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDual Magnum® [41] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaves such as barnyardgrass ( | \n\t\t|
Bentazon | \n\t\t\tBasagran® [62] | \n\t\t\tPOSTc\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf weeds such as coffee senna ( | \n\t\t
Chlorimuron | \n\t\t\tClassic® [75] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf weeds such as Florida beggarweed and morningglory | \n\t\t|
Cloransulam | \n\t\t\tFirstRate® [76] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf weeds such as common cocklebur ( | \n\t\t|
Fluazifop | \n\t\t\tFusilade® [77] | \n\t\t\tAnnual and perennial grass species such as crabgrass and bermudagrass ( | \n\t\t|
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tPursuit® [78] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as morningglory and crabgrass | \n\t\t|
Lactofen | \n\t\t\tCobra® [79] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as croton ( | \n\t\t|
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tPoast® [80] | \n\t\t\tGrass species such as foxtail, crabgrass, and panicum | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Glufosinate | \n\t\t\tLiberty®\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Fomesafen + Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tFlexstar® [81] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as morningglory, velvetleaf, and broadleaf signalgrass | \n\t\t
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup WeatherMax® \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as Florida beggarweed, crabgrass and groundcherry | \n\t\t
Herbicides for use in reduced-tillage soybean production.
aTrade names listed are representative of available herbicides. Inclusion of particular trade names does not suggest author endorsement.
bPRE, preemergence.
cPOST, postemergence.
Cotton production around the world is estimated at approximately 23 million tonnes (lint production) [2] with China, India, and the United States being the top producers [82]. Efforts to adopt sustainable cotton practices have led producers to utilize conservation-tillage systems in cotton production. Besides environmental benefits achieved with reduced-tillage, major economic advantages can be realized due to reduced time, labor, and fuel requirements when operating with less tillage. Prior to the introduction of herbicide-resistant crops, adoption of reduced-tillage was difficult due to control of weed species required multiple and costly herbicide inputs [13]. In some instances, effective herbicides were not available to control problematic weed species such as perennials that can thrive in reduced-tillage. When glyphosate-resistant cotton was made available, reduced-tillage became practical since a broad spectrum of weed species could be controlled with a single herbicide [83].
Extensive research has been carried out in conservation-tillage cotton with positive benefits seen for cotton yield [84-86]. Moreover, with herbicide-resistant cotton varieties, weed control has been as successful as conventional tillage cotton. Because of this success, conservation-tillage practices have been widely adopted in areas such as the southeastern United States. This dependence on a single herbicide, however, has led to the appearance of herbicide-resistant weed species and now threatens the feasibility of reduced-tillage cotton production. Currently, research efforts are focused on identifying ways to ensure the long-term viability of conservation-tillage while controlling established populations of herbicide-resistant weed species and reducing the risk of future development of resistant weeds.
Multiple weed management tactics are necessary to control weed resistance development with cover crops playing an important role in resistance management. The use of cover crops, particularly high-residue crops such as rye and black oat, can reduce herbicide inputs through shading and allelopathy. The use of high-residue crops allows for maximum shading of the soil surface during the beginning of the season while also providing a ground cover for a longer period into the growing season. Cover crops, along with multiple herbicide modes of action and rotation, have been shown to effectively control weeds in reduced-tillage cotton [87, 88].
A number of herbicide choices are available for use with conservation-tillage cotton (Table 5). PRE herbicides are especially important in early-season weed control to ensure management of weed species that are difficult to control later in the season. Although concerns have been raised as to whether cover crops reduce the efficacy of PRE herbicides, it has been suggested that any loss in weed control due to herbicide interception is offset by the control provided by cover crop residue [89-91].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Dicamba | \n\t\t\tBanvel® [43] | \n\t\t\tPreplant Burndown | \n\t\t\tEmerged weed species | \n\t\t
Flumioxazin | \n\t\t\tValor® [39] | \n\t\t||
Glufosinate | \n\t\t\tLiberty® [24] | \n\t\t||
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup WeatherMax®[25] | \n\t\t||
Paraquat | \n\t\t\tGramoxone® [26] | \n\t\t||
Clomazone | \n\t\t\tCommand® [56] | \n\t\t\tPreplant or PREb\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGrasses and broadleaves such as crabgrass ( | \n\t\t
Fluometuron | \n\t\t\tCotoran® [92] | \n\t\t\tGrasses and broadleaves such as signalgrass ( | \n\t\t|
Pendimethalin | \n\t\t\tProwl® [40] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as foxtail ( | \n\t\t|
Prometryn | \n\t\t\tCaparol® [93] | \n\t\t\tAnnual grass and broadleaves such as groundcherry ( | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDual Magnum®[41] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaves such as barnyardgrass ( | \n\t\t|
Clethodim | \n\t\t\tSelect® [94] | \n\t\t\tPOSTc\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGrass species such as crabgrass, panicum, and foxtail | \n\t\t
Herbicide | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
Common Name | \n\t\t\tTrade Name | \n\t\t\tApplication Timing | \n\t\t\tWeed Species Controlled | \n\t\t
Quizalofop | \n\t\t\tAssure® [95] | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Annual and perennial grasses such as foxtail, goosegrass ( | \n\t\t
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tPoast® [80] | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tGrass species such as foxtail, crabgrass, and panicum | \n\t\t
Trifloxysulfuron | \n\t\t\tEnvoke® [96] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as coffee senna ( | \n\t\t|
Diuron | \n\t\t\tDirex® [97] | \n\t\t\tPOST-directed spray | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as sicklepod, velvetleaf, and crabgrass | \n\t\t
Linuron | \n\t\t\tLinex® [98] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaves and grasses such as morningglory, Florida pusley, and panicum | \n\t\t|
MSMA | \n\t\t\tMSMA [99] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as crabgrass, Florida beggarweed, and | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Glufosinate | \n\t\t\tLiberty®\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup WeatherMax®\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPOST | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as Florida beggarweed, crabgrass, foxtail, groundcherry, and velvetleaf | \n\t\t
Herbicides for use in reduced-tillage cotton.
aTrade names listed are representative of available herbicides. Inclusion of particular trade names does not suggest author endorsement.
bPRE, preemergence.
cPOST, postemergence.
Groundnut, or peanut (
The increased farming costs of conventional tillage systems have spurred producers to implement conservation-tillage to reduce expenses; however, peanut growers face unique difficulties when using these systems [101,102]. Particularly, concerns over peanut response to reduced-tillage due to peanut growth habits have required research in order to identify successful means of conservation-tillage integration into peanut production [102, 103].
Peanut yield variability under reduced-tillage compared to conventional tillage has been noted as one of the greatest concerns when adopting conservation-tillage practices [101,102]. Inconsistent yield response by peanut has been noted in previous studies investigating conservation-tillage. Research has reported yields of peanut to be reduced or equal to conventionally tilled peanut [101, 104]; other studies have shown reduced-tillage peanuts to produce equally or greater than conventional tillage peanuts [103,105]. Research efforts continue to recognize the contributing factors that affect peanut response to tillage systems.
Weed management in conservation-tillage peanut is also a concern for producers. Weed control in peanut, regardless of tillage system, can be problematic due to the extended growing season and unique growth habits [106,107]. Generally, peanut production requires an incorporated residual as well as a POST herbicide to provide effective weed control under the slow-closing canopy of peanut [107]. Moreover, in-season cultivation for weed management cannot be implemented due to the potential to damage developing peanut pods [106,108].
Weed control in reduced-tillage peanuts can be even more difficult than in conventional tillage due to the loss of weed control through seed burial and the inability to utilize preplant incorporated herbicides [109]. This results in increased dependence on post emergent herbicides which may or may not control the number of perennial weed species that may predominate in a reduced-tillage setting; the loss of effective weed management can reduce peanut productivity due to weed competition [102,107].
Utilization of cover crops in peanut systems may offer beneficial weed control while reducing the need for increased postemergent herbicide applications. Research has shown effective weed control with cover crops in strip-tillage peanut systems that use a dinitroaniline preemergent herbicide over cover crop residue [107]. Other effective herbicides used in conservation-tillage peanut systems are listed in Table 6.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Glyphosate | \n\t\t\tRoundup WeatherMax® [25] | \n\t\t\tPreplant Burndown | \n\t\t\tEmerged weed species | \n\t\t
Paraquat | \n\t\t\tGramoxone® [26] | \n\t\t||
2,4-D | \n\t\t\tAgri Star® 2,4-D [37] | \n\t\t||
Diclosulam | \n\t\t\tStrongarm® [110] | \n\t\t\tPREb\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as eclipta ( | \n\t\t
Flumioxazin | \n\t\t\tValor® [39] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as horseweed ( | \n\t\t|
Pendimethalin | \n\t\t\tProwl® [40] | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species such as foxtail ( | \n\t\t|
Acifluorfen | \n\t\t\tUltra Blazer® [60] | \n\t\t\tPOSTc\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as coffee senna ( | \n\t\t
Bentazon | \n\t\t\tBasagran® [62] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as morningglory ( | \n\t\t|
Chlorimuron | \n\t\t\tClassic® [75] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf weeds such as Florida beggarweed ( | \n\t\t|
Clethodim | \n\t\t\tSelect® [94] | \n\t\t\tGrass species such as panicum, foxtail, and crabgrass ( | \n\t\t|
Imazapic | \n\t\t\tCadre® [111] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf and grass species such as morningglory, | \n\t\t|
Imazethapyr | \n\t\t\tPursuit® [78] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf, grass, and sedge species such as Florida pusley ( | \n\t\t|
Paraquat | \n\t\t\tGramoxone®\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tGrass and broadleaf species | \n\t\t|
Sethoxydim | \n\t\t\tPoast® [80] | \n\t\t\tGrass species, foxtail and panicum | \n\t\t|
2,4-DB | \n\t\t\tButyrac® [112] | \n\t\t\tBroadleaf species such as velvetleaf and prickly sida ( | \n\t\t
Herbicides for use in reduced-tillage peanut.
aTrade names listed are representative of available herbicides. Inclusion of particular trade names does not suggest author endorsement.
bPRE, preemergence.
cPOST, postemergence.
Preemergent, residual herbicides must reach the soil surface to be effective. When spraying over cover crop residue, herbicide applications can be intercepted and absorbed prior to reaching the soil surface. Herbicides, such as acetochlor, chlorimuron, and oryzalin have been shown to be impeded by plant stubble [113,114]. While timely rainfall can move herbicides to the soil, some portion of herbicide can be retained in the residue.
Herbicide amounts intercepted by stubble can affect weed control achieved with the herbicide; efficacy can be reduced by cover crops either through physical interception preventing soil contact or through increased microbial activity in the residue speeding herbicide degradation [115]. Increases in soil organic matter from extended conservation-tillage practices may also increase herbicide adsorption within the soil [116]. Additionally, herbicide persistence and carryover risks may be increased when applied to residue [114]. Certain crops may be susceptible to herbicides at low doses that can persist in cover crop residue that would otherwise have dissipated in bare soil. However, little research has been done to determine the extent of persistence for most herbicides.
Methods to reduce herbicide interception are limited when using cover crops. Interception could potentially be managed, particularly in strip-till operations, through banded herbicide applications over the row allowing for in-row weed control while reducing herbicide inputs. Furthermore, a water-based, microencapsulated herbicide formulation, like Prowl H2O® (pendimethalin), may allow more herbicide to reach the soil after a rain event or irrigation.
The ever increasing demands on global agriculture dictate the use of intensive, high-yielding production practices. However, the inability to sustain these systems long-term necessitates the implementation of more energy-efficient, environmentally-sound practices that can still produce successful yields. Conservation agriculture practices seek to achieve these goals in order to ensure current and future agricultural production. While components of conservation agriculture, such as reduced-tillage and cover crops, are fundamental practices in these systems, herbicides are still valuable and necessary weed management tools within conservation systems. Integrating these management practices can be challenging and continue to warrant research to identify the most successful means of utilizes herbicides in conjunction with reduced-tillage and cover crops.
Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine) is a non-selective post-emergence herbicide widely used in field crops, vegetable crops, and orchards. Glyphosate is absorbed by plants via leaves and shoots and is transported throughout the whole plant. Its usual formulation is salt of a deprotonated acid of glyphosate and a cation, e.g. isopropylamine or trimethylsulfonium. Its chemical structure has three groups (amine, carboxylate, and phosphonate) that form strong coordination bonds with metal ions to form bidentate and tridentate complexes (Figure 1). Hence it is a strong chelating herbicide [1].
Chemical structure of glyphosate [
Chemically, glyphosate is a phosphonate. It is mainly the phosphonate group via which glyphosate is bonded to iron and aluminum oxides by ligand exchange with the formation of mononuclear, monodentate, and/or binuclear, bidentate surface complexes [2].
Among the microorganisms, bacteria represent the majority of the glyphosate-degrading organisms [3]. Bacteria degrade glyphosate by cleaving the C-N bond and converting glyphosate to AMPA (amino-methyl phosphonic acid) which is further decomposed and finally excreted to the environment. Glyphosate degradation can also occur via C-P lyase pathway to sarcosine, rather than AMPA. A bacterial strain
The binding mechanisms of clay minerals and organic colloids result in non-occurrence of free glyphosate, but leaching of glyphosate complexes via preferential flow paths through the soil and transfer to waterways can occur, which could be a concern from the environmental pollution point of view [4]. In another study related to the desorption rate of glyphosate from goethite mineral surfaces, the rate of glyphosate desorption is mainly controlled by the breaking of the Fe-glyphosate bond through a dissociative or a dissociative interchange mechanism [5]. Soil redox condition is also an important factor controlling the mobility of glyphosate. Microbial degradation and mineralization of glyphosate were slow in anoxic environments compared with oxic environments [6].
In US soils, glyphosate and AMPA have been detected together and found widely in the environment. The occurrence was more frequent in soils and sediments, ditches and drains, and rivers and streams and less in lakes, ponds, wetlands, soil water, and groundwater [7]. In western Switzerland, the surface runoff has been suggested as the major reason for the occurrence of glyphosate and AMPA in surface waters [8]; however, in a study related to Danish soils, limited leaching of glyphosate was reported in non-structured sandy soils, while subsurface leaching to drainage systems was observed in a structured soil when high rainfall followed glyphosate application [9].
In a study related to 14C glyphosate transport in undisturbed topsoil columns, the amounts of glyphosate leached from the macroporous sandy loam were 50–150 times larger than that from the sandy soil [10].
Glyphosate and its decomposition product AMPA have been reported in stream water samples in areas of Zurich, Switzerland, with median concentrations of 0.11 and 0.20 μg/l; however, these compounds were not detected in groundwater [11].
In a Canadian study, glyphosate residues were observed in both upland and wetland settings; however, the concentrations were well below the Canadian guidelines for drinking water quality. Many other studies have reported glyphosate residues in streams and groundwater systems [8].
An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine glyphosate presence levels in Hungarian water samples. Few samples showed exceedingly high concentration levels of glyphosate with this method [12]. Liquid chromatography is another method that can be used for the detection of glyphosate residues in cereal, oilseed, and pulse crops [13].
Data from sorption studies indicated that sorption coefficients are the most sensitive parameters for environmental risk assessment and soil properties like pH and clay content govern the glyphosate adsorption in Argentinian soils. In a related study in Argentina, high glyphosate sorption with low desorption in mollisols and ultisols indicated a low risk of groundwater contamination [14].
In another study on glyphosate mineralization in different agricultural soils, exchangeable acidity (H+ and Al3+), exchangeable Ca2+ ions, and ammonium lactate extractable K were the key soil parameters governing mineralization [15]. In a study related to glyphosate sorption with high soil phosphate levels, glyphosate sorption distribution constant Kd in soils ranged from 173 to 939 l Kg −1 under very strong to strongly acidic conditions, but the Kd was always <100 l Kg −1 under moderately acidic to slightly alkaline conditions suggesting that glyphosate may become mobile by water in soils with high phosphate levels [16]. This is important concerning the application of phosphatic fertilizers, as the phosphate ion would desorb glyphosate from adsorption sites resulting in the mobility of glyphosate towards aquatic environments [17].
Generally, iron and aluminum oxides adsorb a greater amount of glyphosate and phosphates in comparison to layer silicates [18] supporting the role of soil mineralogy concerning glyphosate sorption. As high phosphorus application can desorb glyphosate from sorption sites, application of char can be effective in these scenarios concerning sorption of glyphosate. The rapid degradation of glyphosate in surface waters and its practically irreversible sorption indicated a low potential environmental risk [19].
An investigation on adsorption of the herbicide glyphosate and its main metabolite AMPA found that pH(CaCl2) values, available phosphate, and amorphous iron and aluminum contents were the major parameters to predict the adsorption constants for these molecules [20]. In a similar study, while examining the effect of humic acid (HA) on the adsorption/desorption behaviour of glyphosate on goethite minerals, the herbicide was desorbed by two parallel processes: (i) a direct detachment from the surface, which is first order in adsorbed glyphosate, and (ii) a ligand exchange with HA molecules, which is first order in adsorbed glyphosate and first order in dissolved humic acid [21]. Glyphosate is adsorbed by humic acids via hydrogen bonding [22].
A laboratory study related to the fate of glyphosate and degradation in cover crop residues and underlying soil indicated that the differences in sorption and degradation levels were due to differences in the composition of the crop residues and availability to microorganisms [23]. In a related study of adsorption and mobility of glyphosate in different soils under no-till and conventional tillage, adsorption of glyphosate was influenced by the soil clay content and cation exchange capacity (CEC) and negatively related to pH and phosphorus. High Freundlich parameter (KF) values obtained in isotherm studies were the dominant factor influencing glyphosate mobility. KF values indicate the adsorption capacity of the soil [24].
Sorption coefficients provide accurate information needed for reliable risk assessments of groundwater contaminants by pesticides [25]. In a study related to sorption and leaching of 14C-glyphosate in agricultural soils, non-extractable glyphosate residues become available eventually and take part in biodegradation and leaching. Empirical constants (KF) of Freundlich sorption isotherm were 16.6 for the clay loam, 33.6 for the silty clay loam, and 34.5 for the sandy clay loam indicating that it is the soil structure which dictates the glyphosate sorption behaviour [26]. Leaching of glyphosate was dependent on hydrodynamic and biodegradation properties of soils [26]. Application of char can be used as a strategy to increase the sorption of glyphosate [27].
Movement of pesticides and their bioavailability and biotransformation are controlled by adsorption/desorption mechanisms operating at the interface between organic and inorganic soil colloids. High-resolution magic angle spinning and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques can distinguish mobile and immobile phases of pesticides like glyphosate [28]. Another study on glyphosate transport parameters suggested that glyphosate sorption is a kinetic process that depends on pore-water velocities and residence time of soil solution [29].
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has reclassified that glyphosate is “probably carcinogenic to humans” [30]; however, the United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA) concluded that there is no convincing evidence that “glyphosate induces mutations” [31]. The US EPA relied mostly on unpublished regulatory studies, 99% of which were negative, while IARC relied mostly on peer-reviewed studies, 70% of which were positive [31]. Glyphosate-based herbicides often contaminate drinking water sources, air, and precipitation in agricultural regions [30]. As the usage of glyphosate-based herbicides continues to increase, investment in epidemiological studies, biomonitoring, and toxicology studies based on the principles of endocrinology should be done [30]. Apart from cancer, glyphosate has been found to be a potential factor causing chronic kidney disease due to drinking water faced by Sri Lankan farmers [32]. The role of drinking water has also been reported in another study which caused ill health in Indian farmers [33].
Biochar can be defined as “the porous carbonaceous solid produced by the thermochemical conversion of organic materials in an oxygen-depleted atmosphere that has physicochemical properties suitable for safe and long-term storage of carbon in the environment” [34]. Biochar and activated charcoal are similar concerning production via pyrolysis, with medium to high surface areas [35]; however, biochar is not activated or treated like activated charcoal [35, 36]. Crop residues are pyrolyzed at high temperature (>500°C) in the absence of oxygen, followed by various activation processes to form activated charcoal [35]. In comparison to activated charcoal, biochar has a non-carbonized fraction that interacts with soil contaminants like glyphosate. Soil minerals can increase the surface area and pore size of biochar, which in turn increase the adsorption capacity of biochars for organic pollutants like glyphosate [37]. Biochar application can reduce the bioavailability and leachability of organic pollutants in soils through adsorption and other physicochemical reactions [38]. An increase in the surface area of biochars has been observed to increase the biochar’s ability to adsorb organic contaminants [39, 40]. The addition of phosphorus fertilizer to biochar-amended soils can, however, remobilize glyphosate and damage non-target plants; therefore, improved understanding of this risk is important (Figure 2) [41].
Phosphate and glyphosate adsorption by minerals [
The soil environment is a three-dimensional structure of water-filled pores, gas-filled pores, and soil particulates (organic matter, sand, silt, and clay) [42]. Biochar can be used as a sorbent for organic pollutants due to its highly aromatic nature, high surface area, micropore volume, and abundance of polar functional groups [43]. Factors affecting biochar’s performance for adsorption include pyrolysis temperature and surface area. Pyrolysis temperature is one of the factors directly affecting biochar’s performance. An increase in pyrolysis temperature of biochar generally increases the degree of carbonization and consequently surface area.
Even with the increase in surface area of biochars, sorption sites can be blocked by organic matter, and this is the likely cause for the diminished capability of aged biochars to adsorb organic contaminants [44]. The behaviour of biochar changes with time after its application to soil, and this process is known as “aging”. Aging can alter the behaviour of biochar. To increase the remediation efficiency of biochar concerning herbicides, more detailed research to explore the aspect of aging is warranted.
In a study related to herbicide terbuthylazine-biochar-soil interaction, there was higher adsorption of herbicide in soil with low organic matter than in soil with the high organic matter. The reason for this result was attributed to a high concentration of organic molecules competing with herbicide for sorption sites in the soil having a high amount of organic matter [40]. Availability of herbicides can be greatly reduced with the application of biochar [45]. Even a low application rate (0.1%) of biochar in the soil can appreciably reduce the availability of herbicides like diuron [44].
In a comparative study [46], 42 times higher hexachlorobenzene sorption by biochar than that by control soil was observed, resulting in the reduction of volatilization and earthworm (
Plant uptake of pesticides decreases markedly with increasing biochar content of the soil despite the greater persistence of the pesticide residues in biochar-amended soils [47]. In a similar study related to the effects of biochar, wood vinegar, and plants on glyphosate leaching and degradation, the addition of biochar to the soil decreased the leaching of glyphosate irrespective of plants. Hence, it was concluded that biochar can be used as an effective strategy to reduce the potential environmental risk to aquatic environments caused by glyphosate [27].
In a study related to the effects of wood-based biochar on the leaching of pesticides chlorpyrifos, diuron, and glyphosate, it was concluded that biochar can be used as an adsorptive layer directly on or close to the soil surface to prevent losses of pesticides [48]. In another study, biochar was found to limit glyphosate transport in soil systems; however, the addition of phosphatic fertilizer remobilized the glyphosate from biochar-amended soils. This phosphate-induced glyphosate desorption phenomenon is important to consider in soils having biochar amendment [41]. The type of biochar also plays an important role, as hardwood biochars were ineffective sorbents of glyphosate in high-phosphate soils [41]. Biochars produced at high temperature were effective sorbents of glyphosate [41]. Reduced glyphosate sorption on biochars was observed with the increase in pH from 6 to 9 [41, 49, 50].
The second major aspect in this review paper is the evolution of glyphosate resistance in weeds due to heavy reliance on glyphosate. Glyphosate toxicity and glyphosate resistance are not different but connected problems, as glyphosate is applied to control weeds and its application results in movement of glyphosate to water bodies via soil systems affecting human health. When glyphosate-contaminated drinking water is used for human consumption, it may potentially result in diseases like cancer or chronic kidney disease; however, frequent application of glyphosate not only results in its downward movement via soil systems but also results in the development of glyphosate resistance in weeds. Hence these problems are interconnected.
While assessing the weeds at risk of evolving glyphosate resistance in Australian subtropical glyphosate-resistant cotton systems, species with the highest risk to glyphosate resistance were
Mechanisms involved in providing resistance to glyphosate in weeds include (i) target-site alterations (target site mutation, target site gene amplification) [55, 56] and (ii) non-target site mechanisms involving reduced glyphosate uptake and/or reduced translocation of glyphosate [57, 58, 59]. The alterations inhibit glyphosate binding or increase the effective dose needed for enzyme inhibition. Target site EPSPS mutations are the primary mechanism conferring glyphosate resistance in populations of
Seed germination is a key event in the growth of annual plants like
In a study related to growth, development, and seed biology of
The thermal time to panicle emergence of
Water stress due to extremely low rainfall over the summer months was the reason for the delayed growth of
On national ranking basis in Australia,
Minimum tillage due to its benefits like reduced soil erosion and improvement in moisture conservation has resulted in the reduction of soil disturbance in grain cropping fields. The factors that aided the adoption of minimum tillage systems in Australian cropping systems include machinery modifications that allow greater flexibility in the cropping systems, precision agriculture and refinement of controlled traffic farming, improved crop resistance or tolerance to plant diseases associated with stubble retention, availability of more crop options and rotations, development of a broader spectrum of effective herbicides, and the use of genetic modification technologies to breed herbicide-resistant crops [79].
Minimum tillage has increased the use of herbicides and consequently increased the rapid appearance of herbicide resistance in weeds [75]. Another reason for evolution is the introduction of glyphosate-resistant crops in the mid-1990s that has resulted in a sharp increase in the populations of
Glyphosate resistance was first reported in broadleaf
From the evolution point of view, minimum tillage along with reliance on glyphosate has contributed the most towards glyphosate resistance in
Crop competition can be used as an effective strategy against
Time of emergence of the weed relative to the crop and weeds that emerge later than the crop are much less competitive than the weeds that emerge before the crop.
Weed seedling density is the second most important factor influencing weed-crop competition.
Differences in the competitive ability of weeds due to rapid leaf area development, high-density root systems, and plant heights [85].
Crop and weed plants compete for limited resources like water, nutrients, and light. Competition for nutrient uptake is dependent on intrinsic nutrient requirements and uptake efficiencies. Uptake efficiencies are further dependent on root length densities and nutrient membrane transporters. Species with a low nutrient requirement, extensive root systems, and effective membrane transporters will have a competitive advantage in a nutrient-limited system [85].
Crop and weed plants compete for water, as water is required for plant growth. In the absence of water, a reduction in photosynthesis, wilting, and nutrient deficiencies can occur. The length, magnitude, and timing of the drought periods as well as soil attributes (water holding capacity, texture, structure, and hydraulic conductivity), plant traits (root structure and density, drought tolerance, and water use efficiency) are the major factors that influence the competition for water availability between crop and weed plants [85].
Light as a third major factor affects the growth of crop and weed plants [86]. Different phenophases of both crop and weed plants are affected by light. Morphological changes in both crop and weed plants due to competition for light include an increase in stem elongation and reduction in stem diameter, the rate of leaf appearance, and root and shoot biomass [87, 88].
Crop competition studies under field conditions are mainly influenced by the environment, soil type, plant density, spatial arrangement, the proportion of each species, and design of experiment [89]. The design of the crop competition experiment depends on the objective, as different objectives require different techniques [90].
Crop species may outcompete weed species depending on factors such as crop density, crop planting pattern, crop vigor, and weed vigor. Crop density or the number of plants per unit of area is important for competition studies considering the relationship among plant yield and the number of individuals and resources present in the area [91]. The competitiveness of a crop can be enhanced using competitive cultivars, higher plant densities, narrow row spacings, and different row orientation [92].
Weed growth can be substantially reduced by shading weeds in the inter-row space by physical orientation of the crop rows [92]. Competitive ability of the crops can also be increased by increasing plant density [84]. The significant interaction between sorghum cultivars and planting densities in suppressing weed biomass has been observed [93]. A high-density crop can limit water and nutrients available to weeds more effectively than a low-density crop, and high-density crops can result in the reduction of light available to weeds [92].
In summary, the review paper covered two major problems associated with single reliance on glyphosate application for controlling weeds. The first one is glyphosate mobility via soil systems, a potential risk for aquatic environments, and there is no information on the fate of glyphosate on Australian soils from the last 22 years apart from a single study in Western Australia. This research gap prompted an investigation into glyphosate sorption behaviour in Australian soils of the different mineral composition due to increased usage of glyphosate as a single strategy to control weeds. The second major problem is the evolution of glyphosate-resistant weeds like
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These results show that the Cameroonian authorities must intensify measures in favor of the formalization of enterprises to boost the potential for innovation within enterprises.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Martin Ndzana and Gregory Mvogo"},{id:"80595",title:"The “Lateral Transshipment” is a Cooperative Tool for Optimizing the Profitability of a Distribution System",slug:"the-lateral-transshipment-is-a-cooperative-tool-for-optimizing-the-profitability-of-a-distribution-s",totalDownloads:37,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101992",abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss a network consisting of a distribution center (or central depot) and two retailers who serve customers. D1 andD2 represent, respectively, the demands of retailer 1 and 2. We assume that the demandDi (i = 1, 2) at retailer i follows a normal distribution with mean μi and standard deviationσi (known). This analysis makes it possible to assess the effect of emergency transshipment both at the level of the Average Global Profit and of the Average Global Desservice Rate. In this chapter, we consider a centralized one-echelon supply chain with two-retailers selling products and facing stochastic demand.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Elleuch Fadoi"},{id:"80382",title:"Innovation and Entrepreneurial Ecosystems",slug:"innovation-and-entrepreneurial-ecosystems",totalDownloads:103,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102344",abstract:"Nowadays special attention is paid to ecosystem conditions that encourage innovation and entrepreneurship. This chapter provides a critical review and expands the understanding of the concepts of the innovation ecosystem and entrepreneurial ecosystem. The entrepreneurial ecosystem represents a collection of actors that interact within a geographically bound entrepreneurial environment and factors, which contribute to the development of productive entrepreneurship. Innovation ecosystems represent communities of interacting actors that support innovation processes and create technologies and innovations. The focus of the innovation ecosystem is on value creation through the creation of innovations, while the focus of the entrepreneurship ecosystem is on the development of entrepreneurship. There are differences between the two concepts, but also the relationships and interactions, which are revealed in the chapter. Also, there are highlighted the framework, components and features of both entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystems.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Alina Ianioglo"},{id:"80138",title:"Valuation and Capital Return as Inverse Problems",slug:"valuation-and-capital-return-as-inverse-problems",totalDownloads:63,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101943",abstract:"The capital return rate is the relative time change rate of value. Correspondingly, the current value can be produced in terms of value change rate divided by capital return rate. There is a variety of ways to approximate the expected capital return rate. These are briefly discussed. The approximation of the value change rate is still more variant, depending on the type of businesses discussed. A variety of businesses may appear within a firm, in which case the value change rates must be integrated. An example is provided of a real estate firm benefiting from the growth of multiannual plants of varying age. It is found that the application of a duration-dependent reference capital return rate increases the value increment rate of juvenile stands and decreases that of mature stands, however increasing the valuation result of both.",book:{id:"11258",title:"Innovation, Research and Development and Capital Evaluation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11258.jpg"},signatures:"Petri P. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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