\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6408",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Nanomaterials - Synthesis and Applications",title:"Novel Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Synthesis and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'"Nanomaterials" is a special topic of recent research and is a milestone of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Nanoscale materials are a series of substances/compounds, in which at least one dimension has smaller size than 100 nm. Nanomaterials have a broad area of development, which is growing rapidly day by day. Their impact on commercial applications as well as on the respective academia and education is huge. The basic points of this book can be divided into synthesis of nanomaterials and their applications. For example, special mention is about metal-oxide nanostructures, nanocomposites, and polymeric nanomaterials. Also, synthesis, characterizations, various processes, fabrications and some promising applications are also developed and analyzed.',isbn:"978-1-78923-089-5",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-088-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-460-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70149",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"novel-nanomaterials-synthesis-and-applications",numberOfPages:370,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f3585d338d78e4d31c200d9991b03692",bookSignature:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",publishedDate:"April 18th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6408.jpg",numberOfDownloads:24460,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:79,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:152,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 20th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 11th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 7th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 5th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 6th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/152296/images/system/152296.jpg",biography:"Dr. George Z. Kyzas is a professor in the Department of Chemistry, International Hellenic University (IHU), Greece. He studied Chemistry at the Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTh), Greece. He obtained his BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. in Chemical Technology from the same university where he also worked as a postdoctoral researcher. He is now working at the Department of Chemistry, International Hellenic University, Kavala, Greece, where he has been the head of the department since 2019. He is also the Director/Chair of the MSc in Cosmetic Chemistry. His research interests are the synthesis and characterization of various (majorly adsorbent) materials (inorganic, aluminates, polymers, graphenes, activated carbons, agro-food residues, nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes, etc.) for environmental applications (wastewaters treatment). Dr. Kyzas has published more than 220 scientific papers in international journals, 8 books, and 38 book chapters. He also holds three patents. He has been a guest editor for special journal issues and is the editor of Environmental Science and Pollution Research and is a reviewer for more than 200 other scientific journals. He has more than 120 announcements (invited) at international conferences. He was named in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists for 2019 and 2020. He has been awarded scholarships from the Research Committee of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (2009, 2013), the Greek State Scholarship Foundation (2013), and the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (2016). He has also participated in about twenty-five research projects.",institutionString:"International Hellenic University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"212796",title:"Dr.",name:"Athanasios C.",middleName:null,surname:"Mitropoulos",slug:"athanasios-c.-mitropoulos",fullName:"Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212796/images/5702_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Mitropoulos was born in Athens in 1957. He studied Chemistry at the University of Thessaloniki and Physical Chemistry at the University of Bristol. Adjunct Professor at the School of Aviation Engineering at the Air Force Academy, Research Scientist at NCSR Demokritos, Professor at the Department of Petroleum Engineering. Now he is in the highest position of Institute as President of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology. Professor Mitropoulos research interests focus on the characterization of nanoporous materials with x rays and neutrons. He has published many Papers, Books Chapters, and Patents in his expertise.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"208",title:"Material Science",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science"}],chapters:[{id:"59081",title:"Introductory Chapter: Nanomaterials in the 2020s",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74137",slug:"introductory-chapter-nanomaterials-in-the-2020s",totalDownloads:1134,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59081",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59081",authors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"},{id:"212796",title:"Dr.",name:"Athanasios C.",surname:"Mitropoulos",slug:"athanasios-c.-mitropoulos",fullName:"Athanasios C. Mitropoulos"}],corrections:null},{id:"58433",title:"Ga2O3 Nanowire Synthesis and Device Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72464",slug:"ga2o3-nanowire-synthesis-and-device-applications",totalDownloads:1496,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, gallium oxide nanowires have been used in many scientific disciplines due to their outstanding and unique properties. Several applications have focused on incorporating gallium oxide nanowires in devices to improve their performance and efficiency. These distinctive structures bring new opportunities to several research fields and applications such as optoelectronics, electronics, and chemistry. This chapter provides a basic overview of gallium oxide’s properties and the growth process of gallium oxide nanowires, with an emphasis on varied applications and future challenges.",signatures:"Badriyah Alhalaili, Howard Mao and Saif Islam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58433",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58433",authors:[{id:"223447",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Badriyah",surname:"Alhalaili",slug:"badriyah-alhalaili",fullName:"Badriyah Alhalaili"},{id:"223448",title:"Mr.",name:"Howard",surname:"Mao",slug:"howard-mao",fullName:"Howard Mao"},{id:"223449",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Saif",surname:"Islam",slug:"m.-saif-islam",fullName:"M. Saif Islam"}],corrections:null},{id:"59802",title:"Synthesis of TiB2-Ni3B Nanocomposite Powders by Mechanical Alloying",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73593",slug:"synthesis-of-tib2-ni3b-nanocomposite-powders-by-mechanical-alloying",totalDownloads:1040,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Combination of good oxidation resistance, thermal stability, hardness and high strength are great interest properties in engineering and, that are possible to obtain with the Ni-Ti-B ternary system. Mechanical alloying (MA) is an alternative method and cheapest for the synthesis of this kind of metal-ceramic materials with respect to the traditional melt and quench process. The transformation sequence of all the mixtures reported the formation of (ɣ Ni) phase with a nodular morphology and identified the additional presence of the TiB2 phase (needle morphology), which was more evident with the increase of titanium content (M2 and M3 mixtures) after 24 h of milling. Thermal activation of the milled powders showed the nucleation and growth of the Ni3B (O boride) and TiB2 (Hex) as the main phases after heat treatment, where the TiB2 phase (thin flakes morphology) was nucleated onto Ni3B matrix. Ternary alloy by MA took place under a metastable equilibrium, offering the possibility to form glassy alloys for compositions, which are not accessible by melting or quenching techniques.",signatures:"Jorge Morales Hernández, Verónica N. Martínez Escobedo, Héctor\nHerrera Hernández, José M. Juárez García and Joel Moreno\nPalmerin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59802",authors:[{id:"114381",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Morales-Hernandez",slug:"jorge-morales-hernandez",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Hernandez"},{id:"212009",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ana Lilia",surname:"De Jesús Lazaro",slug:"ana-lilia-de-jesus-lazaro",fullName:"Ana Lilia De Jesús Lazaro"},{id:"212010",title:"Ms.",name:"Verónica",surname:"Martínez Escobedo",slug:"veronica-martinez-escobedo",fullName:"Verónica Martínez Escobedo"}],corrections:null},{id:"58064",title:"Properties and Catalytic Effects of Nanoparticles Synthesized by Levitational Gas Condensation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72158",slug:"properties-and-catalytic-effects-of-nanoparticles-synthesized-by-levitational-gas-condensation",totalDownloads:1010,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One of the gas-phased methods of the levitational gas condensation (LGC) process was developed to obtain nanopowders with high purity. The instrument designed by unique concept using magnetically levitated melted droplet of metal is easily operated to synthesize nanopowder with highly defected surface. The complex compounds are also easily prepared using micron powder feeding (MPF) system in the instrument. The metals, ceramics, and carbon-coated metal nanoparticles prepared using the LGC are introduced in this chapter. Various applications such as magnetic and catalytic properties are also introduced. Nanoparticles prepared using LGC showed significantly enhanced catalytic activities during chemical reaction due to the high level of defects on their surface structure. The new heterogeneous catalysts of the solid nanoparticles were introduced in this chapter.",signatures:"Young Rang Uhm",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58064",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58064",authors:[{id:"216900",title:"Dr.",name:"Young Rang",surname:"Uhm",slug:"young-rang-uhm",fullName:"Young Rang Uhm"}],corrections:null},{id:"59264",title:"Vibrational Behavior of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Based on Donnell Shell Theory Using Wave Propagation Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73503",slug:"vibrational-behavior-of-single-walled-carbon-nanotubes-based-on-donnell-shell-theory-using-wave-prop",totalDownloads:1106,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is concerned with the vibration analysis of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). This analysis is based on the Donnell thin shell theory. The wave propagation approach in standard eigenvalue form has been employed in order to derive the characteristic frequency equation describing the natural frequencies of vibration in SWCNTs. The axial modal dependence is measured by the complex exponential functions implicating the axial modal numbers. Vibration frequency spectra are gained and evaluated for physical parameter like length-to-diameter ratios. The dimensionless frequency is also investigated in armchair and zigzag SWCNTs with in-plane rigidity and mass density per unit lateral area for armchair and zigzag SWCNTs. These frequencies of the SWCNTs are computed with the aid of the computer software MATLAB. These results are compared with those obtained using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation and the results are somewhat in agreement.",signatures:"Muzamal Hussain and Muhammad Nawaz Naeem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59264",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59264",authors:[{id:"215329",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Muzamal",surname:"Hussain",slug:"muzamal-hussain",fullName:"Muzamal Hussain"},{id:"215330",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Nawaz Naeem",slug:"muhammad-nawaz-naeem",fullName:"Muhammad Nawaz Naeem"}],corrections:null},{id:"59328",title:"Nanosynthesis Techniques of Silica-Coated Nanostructures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74097",slug:"nanosynthesis-techniques-of-silica-coated-nanostructures",totalDownloads:2279,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Core-shell nanomaterials are fast-emerging hybrid nanocomposites in area of nanotechnology, materials science and biochemistry, which are fast attracting research attention. Nanostructured nanomaterials are utilized in wide industry fields such as electronics, biopharmaceutical, biomedicine, optics and biocatalysis. Owing to the additional exterior shell-coating material, the primary core material’s functionality, biocompatibility, chemical stability and colloidal dispersibility can be greatly enhanced. Silica, in particular, is found to be an excellent exterior shell-coating material, has been widely researched for the synthesis of core-shell nanocomposite materials. So far, there have been numerous publications devoted to silica-coating techniques using hydrophobic silanes, such as tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) or tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS), via the classic Stober method. Recently, there has been strong interest in the use of water-soluble silanes such as MPTMS (3-(mercaptopropyl)-trimethoxysilane), MPTES (3-(mercaptopropyl-triethoxysilane), MTMS (3-(methyltrimethoxysilane)) and sodium silicate for water-based silica-coating techniques have gained much attention, due to the fast-growing need to focus on process simplicity, large-scale fabrication and environmental-friendly synthesis techniques of silica-based core-shell nanomaterials. Hence, this chapter focuses on the recent development on silica-coating techniques for colloidal nanoparticles, particularly on water-based techniques and morphologies. In summary, we emphasize the importance of advanced nanomaterials in today’s world and envisage there will be more breakthrough research on aqueous silica-coating techniques for silica-encapsulated core-shell nanomaterials.",signatures:"Kwok Wei Shah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59328",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59328",authors:[{id:"233031",title:"Prof.",name:"Shah",surname:"Kwok Wei",slug:"shah-kwok-wei",fullName:"Shah Kwok Wei"}],corrections:null},{id:"58117",title:"Delamination and Longitudinal Cracking in Multilayered Composite Nanostructured Coatings and Their Influence on Cutting Tool Wear Mechanism and Tool Life",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72257",slug:"delamination-and-longitudinal-cracking-in-multilayered-composite-nanostructured-coatings-and-their-i",totalDownloads:1119,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The wear and failure mechanism for multilayered nanostructured coatings has a number of significant differences from the one typical for monolithic single-layered coatings. In particular, while the strength of adhesion bonds at the “substrate-coating” boundary is important for monolithic coatings, then for multilayered nanostructured coatings, the strength of adhesion and cohesion bonds at interlayer boundaries and boundaries of separate nano-sublayers becomes of significant significance. Meanwhile, the delamination arising in the structure of multilayered nanostructured coatings can have both negative (leading to loss of coating uniformity and subsequent failure of coating) and positive influences (due to decrease of internal stresses and inhibition of transverse cracking). Various mechanisms of formation of longitudinal cracks and delaminations in coatings on rake tool faces, which vary based on the compositions and architectures of the coatings, are studied. In addition, the influence of internal defects, including embedded microdrops and pores, on the formation of cracks and delaminations and the failure of coatings is discussed. The importance of ensuring a balance of the basic properties of coatings to achieve high wear resistance and maximum tool life of coated metal-cutting tools is shown. The properties of coatings and the natures of their failures, as investigated during scratch testing and dry turning of steel C45, are provided.",signatures:"Alexey Vereschaka, Sergey Grigoriev, Nikolay Sitnikov, Gaik\nOganyan, Anatoliy Aksenenko and Andre Batako",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58117",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58117",authors:[{id:"196459",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexey",surname:"Vereschaka",slug:"alexey-vereschaka",fullName:"Alexey Vereschaka"},{id:"207607",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Sitnikov",slug:"nikolay-sitnikov",fullName:"Nikolay Sitnikov"},{id:"207624",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaik",surname:"Oganian",slug:"gaik-oganian",fullName:"Gaik Oganian"},{id:"216662",title:"Dr.",name:"Andre",surname:"Batako",slug:"andre-batako",fullName:"Andre Batako"},{id:"224118",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoliy",surname:"Aksenenko",slug:"anatoliy-aksenenko",fullName:"Anatoliy Aksenenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"57474",title:"Mechanical Properties of GO Nanostructures Prepared from Freeze-Drying Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71515",slug:"mechanical-properties-of-go-nanostructures-prepared-from-freeze-drying-method",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently, 3D graphene oxide (GO) has attracted much attention due to its high specific surface area, multifunction, and facile preparation. Here, porous GO foams with extraordinary mechanical properties were prepared by using freeze-drying technique. The structure and mechanical properties of the GO foams have been characterized by X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and electronic universal testing machine. The unique structure endows the GO foams excellent elasticity, which can recover to its original shape even after compression hundreds of times. The density of GO foams has a significantly positive impact on the elastic modulus. Furthermore, the compressive strength of GO foams decreased linearly with decreasing relative humidity. A honeycomb model was constructed to investigate the effects of wall thickness, length, and included angle on the elastic modulus of GO foams. The structural evolution during the compression was revealed by finite element simulation.",signatures:"Yanhuai Ding, Hui Chen, Zheng Li, Huming Ren, Xianqiong Tang,\nJiuren Yin, Yong Jiang and Ping Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57474",authors:[{id:"214991",title:"Prof.",name:"Yanhuai",surname:"Ding",slug:"yanhuai-ding",fullName:"Yanhuai Ding"},{id:"218666",title:"Mrs.",name:"Hui",surname:"Chen",slug:"hui-chen",fullName:"Hui Chen"},{id:"218667",title:"Mr.",name:"Zheng",surname:"Li",slug:"zheng-li",fullName:"Zheng Li"},{id:"218668",title:"Mr.",name:"Huming",surname:"Ren",slug:"huming-ren",fullName:"Huming Ren"},{id:"218669",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiangqiong",surname:"Tang",slug:"xiangqiong-tang",fullName:"Xiangqiong Tang"},{id:"218670",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiuren",surname:"Yin",slug:"jiuren-yin",fullName:"Jiuren Yin"},{id:"218671",title:"Prof.",name:"Ping",surname:"Zhang",slug:"ping-zhang",fullName:"Ping Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"58840",title:"Convective Transport Characteristics of Nanofluids in Light- Weight Metal Foams with High Porosity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72291",slug:"convective-transport-characteristics-of-nanofluids-in-light-weight-metal-foams-with-high-porosity",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metal foams can be well used as ideal materials for various efficient heat transfer devices due to light weight, high specific, and high thermal conductivity. Nanofluids have higher thermal conductivities than traditional fluid, so it can be used as an efficient heat transfer characteristics medium. This paper focuses on heat transfer of nanofluid, metal foam and the combination of the two. The physical properties of nanofluid and metal foam are summarized. The characteristics of flow and heat transfer are introduced. This work creates a close connection between scientific research and practical applications of this dual heat transfer enhancement method.",signatures:"Huijin Xu, Zhanbin Xing, Fuqiang Wang and Changying Zhao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58840",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58840",authors:[{id:"213843",title:"Dr.",name:"Huijin",surname:"Xu",slug:"huijin-xu",fullName:"Huijin Xu"},{id:"215015",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhanbin",surname:"Xing",slug:"zhanbin-xing",fullName:"Zhanbin Xing"},{id:"220671",title:"Dr.",name:"Fuqiang",surname:"Wang",slug:"fuqiang-wang",fullName:"Fuqiang Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"57951",title:"Nanotechnologies in Cultural Heritage - Materials and Instruments for Diagnosis and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71950",slug:"nanotechnologies-in-cultural-heritage-materials-and-instruments-for-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1303,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter aims to evaluate the nanomaterials that can be used to diagnostic, conservation and restoration of different artifacts and monuments and that can contribute to solving the problems which could appear during weathering processes of them. The nanotechnology, as a new and revolutionary area in science, can improve the traditional methods currently used for restoration and preservation in cultural heritage and can contribute to the creation of new highly specialized methods for diagnostic and treatment of different artifacts or even monuments. With a smaller size, a higher penetrability, viscosity, thermal and magnetic properties, in comparison with the traditional materials, the nanomaterials can contribute to solve the problems deriving from specific phenomena that could appear during the intervention and to identify the potential newly formed products in the treated materials. In this chapter, some aspects about the nanomaterials used for conservation and restoration of stone and paper artifacts are evidenced and discussed.",signatures:"Rodica-Mariana Ion, Sanda-Maria Doncea and Daniela Ţurcanu-\nCaruțiu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57951",authors:[{id:"171504",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodica-Mariana",surname:"Ion",slug:"rodica-mariana-ion",fullName:"Rodica-Mariana Ion"},{id:"176482",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Turcanu-Carutiu",slug:"daniela-turcanu-carutiu",fullName:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu"},{id:"225658",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanda Maria",surname:"Doncea",slug:"sanda-maria-doncea",fullName:"Sanda Maria Doncea"}],corrections:null},{id:"59431",title:"Nanofibers and Electrospinning Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72060",slug:"nanofibers-and-electrospinning-method",totalDownloads:3028,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As a result of their peculiar features like extremely high surface area to weight ratio, low density, as well as high pore volume and controllable pore size, which may not be present in other structures, nanofibers have taken centre stage in nanotechnology. The indicated properties, consequently, make non-woven nanofibers as appropriate materials for wide-spread applications. Electrospinning, because of its high productivity, simplicity, low cost, reproducibility and its potentialities of being utilised at the industrial level is regarded as one of the most potential processes in nanotechnology. This method implies the application of high voltage electric field aiming to extract very thin fibres from a polymeric fluid stream (solution or melt) potentially deliverable through a millimetre-scale needle. Electrospinning, as a technique, is reliant on various processing standards like solution properties and processing parameters. Consequently, altering these parameters could exert a considerable degree of influence on the nanofiber size, shape and morphology. Thus, by controlling those parameters well, specific fibres can be produced to benefit various applications.",signatures:"Nabeel Zabar Abed Al-Hazeem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59431",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59431",authors:[{id:"215376",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Nabeel",surname:"Al-Hazeem",slug:"nabeel-al-hazeem",fullName:"Nabeel Al-Hazeem"}],corrections:null},{id:"58108",title:"Palladium (II) Oxide Nanostructures as Promising Materials for Gas Sensors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72323",slug:"palladium-ii-oxide-nanostructures-as-promising-materials-for-gas-sensors",totalDownloads:1263,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"One of the most important environment monitoring problems is the detection of oxidizing gases in the ambient air. Negative impact of noxious oxidizing gases (ozone and nitrogen oxides) on human health, sensitive vegetation, and ecosystems is very serious. For this reason, palladium (II) oxide nanostructures have been employed for oxidizing gas detection. Thin and ultrathin films of palladium (II) oxide were prepared by thermal oxidation at dry oxygen of previously formed pure palladium layers on polished poly-Al2O3, SiO2/Si (100), optical quality quartz, and amorphous carbon/KCl substrates. At ozone and nitrogen dioxide detection, PdO films prepared by oxidation at T = 870 K have demonstrated good values of sensitivity, signal stability, operation speed, and reproducibility of sensor response. In comparison with other materials, palladium (II) oxide thin and ultrathin films have some advantages at gas sensor fabrication. Firstly, for oxidizing gas detection, PdO films with p-type conductivity are more perspective than the material with n-type conductivity. Secondly, at ambient conditions, palladium (II) oxide is insoluble in water and does not react with it. These facts are favorable for the fabrication of gas detectors because they make possible to minimize the air humidity influence on PdO sensor response values. Thirdly, the synthesis procedure of PdO films is rather simple and is compatible with planar processes of microelectronic industry.",signatures:"Alexander M. Samoylov, Stanislav V. Ryabtsev, Vasily N. Popov and\nPetre Badica",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58108",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58108",authors:[{id:"125582",title:"Dr.",name:"Petre",surname:"Badica",slug:"petre-badica",fullName:"Petre Badica"},{id:"216601",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Samoylov",slug:"alexander-samoylov",fullName:"Alexander Samoylov"},{id:"229298",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislav",surname:"Ryabtsev",slug:"stanislav-ryabtsev",fullName:"Stanislav Ryabtsev"},{id:"229299",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasily",surname:"Popov",slug:"vasily-popov",fullName:"Vasily Popov"}],corrections:null},{id:"57712",title:"Functionalized Carbon Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery: Emergent Perspectives from Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71889",slug:"functionalized-carbon-nanomaterials-in-drug-delivery-emergent-perspectives-from-application",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have attracted substantial research interest in biomedical sciences and bionanotechnology, rendered from its unique structure, electronic, mechanical, and optical properties. Despite the diverse potential applications, the integration of CNTs in biomedical research is one of the most challenging areas where nanotubes fall under much scrutiny. Pristine nanotubes are highly hydrophobic, and non-dispersible in most of the common aqueous and organic solvents and to render nanotubes biocompatible, functionalization is one of the key prerequisites. In this regard, covalent and noncovalent functionalization are the two widely adopted approaches for co-tethering biologically active molecules on the CNTs. Likewise, the hollow cavity of the nanotube facilitates in the endohedral encapsulation of biomolecules, peptides, DNA oligonucleotides, and proteins, thereby retaining the physiological attributes of the biological molecules. The chapter focuses on the emerging approaches to the functionalization of single-wall CNTs (SWCNTs) and the potential application of functionalized SWCNTs in tuberculosis and cancer chemotherapy using state-of-the-art density functional theory, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation methods.",signatures:"Nabanita Saikia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57712",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57712",authors:[{id:"215325",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabanita",surname:"Saikia",slug:"nabanita-saikia",fullName:"Nabanita Saikia"}],corrections:null},{id:"59155",title:"Ultralight Paper-Based Electrodes for Energy Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74098",slug:"ultralight-paper-based-electrodes-for-energy-applications",totalDownloads:971,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we briefly introduce our recent work related to the topic of ultralight paper-based electrodes for energy applications. Herein, the ultralight paper-based counter electrodes containing commercial poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrenesulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) and homemade graphene dots (GDs) are synthesized for preparing flexible dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Because the GDs/PEDOT:PSS composite can well fill the porosity of paper substrate, the flexible DSSC with GDs/PEDOT:PSS-coated paper electrode exhibits much higher cell efficiency than that of DSSC using paper electrode with Pt. The features of lightweight, low-cost, space-saving (high flexibility), high machinability (easy-cutting) and environmental friendly would make the GDs/PEDOT:PSS-coated paper electrodes highly potential in portable/wearable electronic applications.",signatures:"Chuan-Pei Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59155",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59155",authors:[{id:"30213",title:"Dr.",name:"Chuan-Pei",surname:"Lee",slug:"chuan-pei-lee",fullName:"Chuan-Pei Lee"}],corrections:null},{id:"59684",title:"Rationally Fabricated Nanomaterials for Desalination and Water Purification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74738",slug:"rationally-fabricated-nanomaterials-for-desalination-and-water-purification",totalDownloads:1470,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rationally designed nanomaterials from synthetic/biopolymers like chitosan, zeolites, graphene, nanometal/oxides, zerovalent metal/magnetic iron, OMS and nanocarbon/carbon nanotube (CNT) utilized in desalination/purification are thoroughly discussed. Conventional desalination membrane/materials own inherent limitations; nevertheless, designed nanocomposite/hybrid/films address the new challenges/constraints and consequently aid the remediation of environmental/water pollution, thus denoting prospective nanotechnology/science. The morphology and chemical functionality of certain natural/synthetic polymers are altered/controlled rationally yielding advanced membranes/materials, for example, aquaporin, nanochannels, graphene and smart self-assemble block copolymer blends to cater futuristic desalination needs besides superseded conventional membrane limitations too. In a nut shell, advance nanotechnology via electrospinning, track-etching, phase inversion and interfacial polymerization yields structured composites/matrixes that conquer traditional barriers of conventional desalination and supplies treated/purified water. This review confers synthetic strategy and utility of nanomaterials that are procured via ordered/rational designing/self-assembly to be used in separation techniques including RO/FO antifouling membrane, superwet surface, oil-water/emulsion separation and multifunctional desalination nanodevices.",signatures:"Rajendra S. Dongre",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59684",authors:[{id:"188286",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rajendra",surname:"Dongre",slug:"rajendra-dongre",fullName:"Rajendra Dongre"}],corrections:null},{id:"57939",title:"Noble Metal-Based Nanocomposites for Fuel Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71949",slug:"noble-metal-based-nanocomposites-for-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:1184,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Noble metal-based nanocomposites are attractive for a rich variety of electrocatalytic applications as they can exhibit not only a combination of the properties associated with each component but also synergy due to a strong coupling between different constituents. Using noble metal as the base component, a plenty of methods have been recently demonstrated for the synthesis of noble metal-based nanocomposites with novel structures (e.g., alloys, core-shell, skin and 1D/2D structures). In this chapter, an account of recent advances of synthetic approaches to noble metal-based nanocomposites with controlled structures, compositions and sizes are reviewed. The relationship between structures and electrochemical properties of these nanocomposites in fuel cell field is discussed. The potential future directions of research in the field are also addressed.",signatures:"Hongpan Rong, Shuping Zhang, Sajid Muhammad and Jiatao\nZhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57939",authors:[{id:"176158",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiatao",surname:"Zhang",slug:"jiatao-zhang",fullName:"Jiatao Zhang"},{id:"230600",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongpan",surname:"Rong",slug:"hongpan-rong",fullName:"Hongpan Rong"},{id:"230606",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuping",surname:"Zhang",slug:"shuping-zhang",fullName:"Shuping Zhang"},{id:"230607",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajid",surname:"Muhammad",slug:"sajid-muhammad",fullName:"Sajid Muhammad"}],corrections:null},{id:"57884",title:"Capillary Electrophoresis in Nanotechnologies versus Nanotechnologies in Capillary Electrophoresis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72015",slug:"capillary-electrophoresis-in-nanotechnologies-versus-nanotechnologies-in-capillary-electrophoresis",totalDownloads:1137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanomaterials are attracting an interest of many researches. All this attention is due the unique physical and chemical properties of nanomaterials differing significantly from the bulk materials mainly due to their size in range of nanometers. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is a powerful, well-established analytical technique that provides numerous valuable benefits over other separation methods including high-performance liquid chromatography. The connection between CE and nanotechnology can be approached by two strategies: (i) CE analysis of nanomaterials and (ii) nanomaterials for CE improvement. The first perspective focuses on uses of CE as a method for characterization employed during nanomaterial production and modification as well as for monitoring their properties and interactions with other molecules. The second viewpoint deals with applications of nanomaterials for improving CE performance, mainly by enhancing efficiency of separation using nanomaterials as a stationary or pseudo-stationary phase and by enhancing detection sensitivity and/or selectivity in both optical and electrochemical detection. Moreover, applications of nanomaterials for sample preparation before CE analysis will be mentioned. This chapter aims at highlighting the symbiosis of CE and nanotechnology as a combination of modern, progressive field with well-known and reliable analytical method.",signatures:"Vojtech Adam and Marketa Vaculovicova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57884",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57884",authors:[{id:"142677",title:"Dr.",name:"Vojtech",surname:"Adam",slug:"vojtech-adam",fullName:"Vojtech Adam"},{id:"177390",title:"Dr.",name:"Marketa",surname:"Vaculovicova",slug:"marketa-vaculovicova",fullName:"Marketa Vaculovicova"}],corrections:null},{id:"58325",title:"Nanofluids as Novel Alternative Smart Fluids for Reservoir Wettability Alteration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72267",slug:"nanofluids-as-novel-alternative-smart-fluids-for-reservoir-wettability-alteration",totalDownloads:1381,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents an account of two metal oxide nanoparticles (zirconium and nickel oxide) on basis of their structure, morphology, crystallinity phases, and their wetting effect on solid-liquid interface. As a preliminary step to sound understanding of process mechanisms; wettability, nanoparticles, and their relations thereof were scrutinized. To investigate the nanofluids wetting inclinations, complex mixtures of the nanoparticles and NaCl brine (ZrO2/NaCl; NiO/NaCl) were formulated and their technical feasibility as wetting agents tested via contact angle measurement. The result shows that the nanoparticles exhibit different structural and morphological features and capable of addressing reservoir wettability challenges owing to favorable adsorption behavior on the surface of the calcite which facilitated the wetting changes quantified by contact angle. We believe this study will significantly impact the understanding of wetting at solid-liquid interface which is crucial for recovery process optimization.",signatures:"Lezorgia Nekabari Nwidee, Ahmed Barifcani, Mohammad\nSarmadivaleh and Stefan Iglauer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58325",authors:[{id:"37799",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Iglauer",slug:"stefan-iglauer",fullName:"Stefan Iglauer"},{id:"179076",title:"Dr.",name:"Lezorgia",surname:"Nwidee",slug:"lezorgia-nwidee",fullName:"Lezorgia Nwidee"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6215",title:"Graphene Materials",subtitle:"Advanced Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3a921aba41351ab84fd7a9b4ea63914d",slug:"graphene-materials-advanced-applications",bookSignature:"George Z. Kyzas and Athanasios Ch. 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Kemper",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10558.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"276287",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotsedi Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Monyeki",slug:"kotsedi-daniel-monyeki",fullName:"Kotsedi Daniel Monyeki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"300903",title:"Prof.",name:"Simeon Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Choukem",fullName:"Simeon Pierre Choukem",slug:"simeon-pierre-choukem",email:"schoukem@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"326000",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel Noutakdie",middleName:null,surname:"Tochie",fullName:"Joel Noutakdie Tochie",slug:"joel-noutakdie-tochie",email:"joeltochie@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"334742",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Nzali",fullName:"Frank Nzali",slug:"frank-nzali",email:"nzalifranck@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:{name:"Catholic University of Cameroon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cameroon"}}},{id:"334743",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazou Ngou",middleName:null,surname:"Temgoua",fullName:"Mazou Ngou Temgoua",slug:"mazou-ngou-temgoua",email:"mazoutemgoua@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Catholic University of Cameroon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cameroon"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"74853",slug:"lifestyle-and-epidemiology-poverty-and-cardiovascular-diseases-a-double-burden-in-african-population",signatures:"Franck Ngowa Nzali, Mazou Ngou Temgoua, Joel Noutakdie Tochie and Simeon Pierre Choukem",dateSubmitted:"December 18th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 29th 2020",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 6th 2021",book:{id:"10558",title:"Lifestyle and Epidemiology",subtitle:"The Double Burden of Poverty and Cardiovascular Diseases in African Populations",fullTitle:"Lifestyle and Epidemiology - The Double Burden of Poverty and Cardiovascular Diseases in African Populations",slug:"lifestyle-and-epidemiology-the-double-burden-of-poverty-and-cardiovascular-diseases-in-african-populations",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",bookSignature:"Kotsedi Daniel Monyeki and Han C.G. Kemper",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10558.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"276287",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotsedi Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Monyeki",slug:"kotsedi-daniel-monyeki",fullName:"Kotsedi Daniel Monyeki"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"300903",title:"Prof.",name:"Simeon Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Choukem",fullName:"Simeon Pierre Choukem",slug:"simeon-pierre-choukem",email:"schoukem@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"326000",title:"Dr.",name:"Joel Noutakdie",middleName:null,surname:"Tochie",fullName:"Joel Noutakdie Tochie",slug:"joel-noutakdie-tochie",email:"joeltochie@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"334742",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Nzali",fullName:"Frank Nzali",slug:"frank-nzali",email:"nzalifranck@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:{name:"Catholic University of Cameroon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cameroon"}}},{id:"334743",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazou Ngou",middleName:null,surname:"Temgoua",fullName:"Mazou Ngou Temgoua",slug:"mazou-ngou-temgoua",email:"mazoutemgoua@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Catholic University of Cameroon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cameroon"}}}]},book:{id:"10558",title:"Lifestyle and Epidemiology",subtitle:"The Double Burden of Poverty and Cardiovascular Diseases in African Populations",fullTitle:"Lifestyle and Epidemiology - The Double Burden of Poverty and Cardiovascular Diseases in African Populations",slug:"lifestyle-and-epidemiology-the-double-burden-of-poverty-and-cardiovascular-diseases-in-african-populations",publishedDate:"October 6th 2021",bookSignature:"Kotsedi Daniel Monyeki and Han C.G. 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Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment deals with several aspects of POP monitoring, occurrence, impact, and treatment technologies. 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As the name implies, it is insertion of a tube through the intercostal space to facilitate the drainage of abnormal collection in the pleural cavity. The procedure is also known as tube thoracostomy and thoracostomy drainage. The earliest reports of thoracic drainage dates back to 5th century BC [1, 2].
The aim of thoracostomy drainage is to:
Remove fluid and air from pleural cavity as promptly as possible.
Prevent drained air and fluid from returning to pleural cavity.
Restore negative pressure in pleural cavity to help re-expand the lung.
Although, the procedure has been in practice since long, there is still no consensus in the management of chest tubes and there remains great variability in practice. The procedure of inserting a chest tube is simple, definitive in treating a majority of thoracic pathologies and may be life-saving in certain situations. However, improperly placed chest tubes and poor post-procedural care may increase the morbidity and is associated with complications in up to 40% of patients [3, 4]. It is therefore imperative that all clinicians should be well versed with this simple yet life-saving procedure.
In this chapter, we will discuss various aspects of intercostal drainage including the prerequisites, technique of insertion, post-procedural care, complications and common pitfalls in the management of chest tubes in the light of the recent advances and updates.
An ideal thoracostomy tube should:
Allow collected air and fluid to drain out from the chest.
Contain a one-way valve to prevent air and fluid from returning back into the chest.
Allow maintenance of negative intra-pleural pressure (the normal intrapleural pressure is −3 mmHg that decreases further on inspiration).
Have provision for applying higher negative pressure to help in expanding the lung.
Allow accurate measurement of drained fluid and air.
Tube thoracostomy is required to drain any abnormal collection in the pleural cavity, that includes:
Air: Pneumothorax
Fluid: Pleural effusion
Blood: Hemothorax
Pus: Empyema
Chyle: Chylothorax
Prophylactically following cardio-thoracic surgery to drain post-operative collection of air, fluid or blood
The modern, commercially available chest tubes are soft and pliable that are either made up of Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or silicone (Figure 1).
Intercostal drainage tube (chest tube).
The red rubber or malecot tube drains (Figure 2) are sometimes used as thoracostomy tubes mostly in resource constraint settings because of their low-cost, however their use is not advisable as they are difficult to retain, get kinked easily, wither rapidly and at times may break.
Malecot (red rubber) tube drain.
Chest tubes come in various sizes from 6 French gauge (F) to 40 F. Larger the size of the tube, greater is its diameter. One F is equal to 0.033 cm. To know the diameter of the tube from the F size, one need to multiply F size by a factor of 0.033, so a chest tube of size 24 F will have an internal diameter of approximately 0.8 cm.
Some chest tubes are available with metallic trocar that has a pointed end (Figure 3).
Chest tube with metallic trocar.
These are meant to insert in intercostal space after making a small skin incision, without dissecting the intercostal muscles. Although, this makes the procedure fast, there is a higher risk of injury to the intrathoracic organs and as such use of chest tubes with trocars should be discouraged [3, 5, 6]. Most of the chest tubes are open from one end while the other end is sealed. There are side holes or eyes on the tube and the markings are printed on it. There also is a radiopaque line all along the length of the tube that helps in identifying the position of the chest tube on X-ray (Figures 1 and 4).
Radiopaque line in the chest tube visible on x-ray (arrow).
Insertion of ICD tube is a surgical procedure and like any other surgery, a written informed consent is required prior to the procedure. Consent may not be possible in cases where the patient requires urgent tube thoracostomy as a lifesaving measure and when he/ she is unconscious, unattended or is in extremis.
Following instruments and equipment are required for inserting the chest tube. One must ensure the availability of all necessary equipment beforehand to avoid any difficulty during the procedure.
5 ml syringe with a suitable local anesthetic. Preferably 2% lidocaine with adrenaline.
Sponge holding forceps
Bowl with solution for painting
Number 11 surgical blade with handle
Sheets for draping
A pair of medium sized curved artery forceps
An appropriately sized chest tube: See the section on ‘selecting the size of chest tube.
Silk No.1 suture on cutting needle
Needle holder
A pair of tooth forceps
Prepared underwater seal bottle or bag.
Gauze pieces
Adhesive tape for dressing
The chest tubes are available in various sizes ranging from 6 F to 40 F. There is a general understanding that large-bore tubes are required to drain fluid and small-bore tubes are sufficient to drain air. There have been numerous studies on this issue, however there is no conclusive scientific data to support this idea. Large-bore tubes have been related to higher incidence of pain and patient discomfort without any significant advantage in draining the intra-pleural fluid. In various studies, small-bore tubes have been found to be equally effective to drain pleural effusion and hemothorax [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. This has generated wider interest in use of small-bore tubes for thoracostomy. Conventionally, for most of the clinical conditions requiring tube thoracostomy a 24–32 F chest tube is inserted, depending on the expected underlying pathology, however tubes smaller than 24 F may be sufficient to drain pneumothorax.
The reservoirs for collecting the pleural drainage are available either in the form of bags or single or multiple chambered plastic bottles (Figure 5A and B).
A: Two chambered plastic bottle and B: ICD bag.
In both of these reservoirs, there are markings for calculation of effluent. In addition, there is also a marking for ‘initial fluid level’. Before connecting the reservoir to the chest tube, a sterile fluid like normal saline should be filled till this mark. As the chest tube is connected with the tube in the reservoir that remains below the ‘initial fluid level’, the air from the environment cannot gain access to the pleural cavity, however the intrapleural collection may egress easily into the reservoir, thus it functions as a one-way valve or ‘under water seal’.
Any suitable local anesthetic is appropriate for the procedure. Plain Lidocaine 2% solution and Lidocaine 2% with adrenaline are commonly used drugs for ICD insertion. A volume of nearly 5 ml is sufficient to anesthetize the local site. Local anesthesia may not be required where the patient is obtunded or unconscious and ICD insertion is required urgently.
The step by step procedure is demonstrated in the video supplemented with this article.
Inserting Intercostal drainage tube: step by step.
Although the ICD can be inserted while the patient is sitting, leaning forward with the forearms resting over a stool, the supine position is less cumbersome and more comfortable for both patient and the doctor. In addition, the patient may not be able to sit for the procedure due to the underlying clinical condition. We prefer to insert ICD tube in supine position. The patient lies on the table close to the edge with arm abducted over the head if possible.
The ideal site of inserting ICD is 4th or 5th intercostal space just anterior to the mid axillary line. One may calculate the desired intercostal space by considering sternal angle as landmark. The rib attached to the level of sternal angle is the second rib, subsequent ribs can be counted while palpating the chest wall distally and laterally. There is an alternative way of counting the ribs and the intercostal spaces which is quick and is particularly helpful in obese patients and in presence of subcutaneous emphysema. The level of the nipple in males and inframammary crease in females can be taken as a reference point- a line drawn from this point laterally to a point where it intersects the mid-axillary line is marked and the site for insertion of the chest tube is just anterior to this.
In case, the chest tube is being inserted prophylactically during thoracic surgery, the site of insertion is selected under vision in appropriate intercostal space.
A wide area around the predetermined site of ICD insertion is painted with a suitable antimicrobial solution (Chlorhexidine or Povidone-iodine) and is draped. If the patient is awake and conscious, 5 ml of local anesthetic solution (preferably 2% lidocaine with adrenaline) is infiltrated in the overlying skin, intercostal muscles and pleura at the site of ICD insertion. Before injecting the local anesthetic, one should ensure that the needle is not in a blood vessel by pulling the plunger of the syringe back. For the adequate effect of local anesthesia, it is prudent to wait for at least 2 minutes before making the incision.
An incision measuring nearly 1.5–2 cms is made by a number 11 surgical blade at the predetermined site of ICD insertion along the long axis of the rib in the intercostal space just over the upper border of the lower rib. This is done to prevent injury to the neurovascular bundle that runs along the lower border of the ribs.
Using a medium sized curved hemostatic clamp, the subcutaneous tissues and inter-costal muscles are dissected bluntly till the parietal pleura is reached. By the tip of the closed hemostatic clamp, gentle pressure is then applied till there is a feeling of ‘give way’ which marks the entry into the pleural cavity. The entry into the pleural cavity is also confirmed by the escape of intra-pleural collection like air, fluid or blood (as the case may be). One should be careful enough not to apply undue force while puncturing the pleura as this may cause injury to lungs or mediastinal structures. The jaws of the hemostatic clamp are then opened while withdrawing the instrument to increase the size of the thoracostomy wide enough to allow the entry of index finger. This should be followed by ‘finger thoracostomy’. The index finger is inserted through the thoracostomy site to explore the pleural cavity for presence of any pleuro-pulmonary adhesions. In case they are present, adhesiolysis is performed to create space inside the pleural cavity for the chest tube. This step is important as attempts to insert a chest tube without ensuring space between the lung and the chest wall may injure the lung, cause air leak from the damaged lung parenchyma and such improperly placed tube may fail to drain the intra-pleural collection.
Following finger thoracostomy and ensuring safe space inside the pleural cavity to accommodate the chest tube, an adequately sized chest tube is then taken. The tip of the tube from the open end (the end that should lie inside the thoracic cavity) is held with the tip of the hemostatic clamp and the rest of the tube is held parallel to the instrument. The tube is introduced inside the pleural cavity, the instrument is then released and the tube is inserted gradually by guiding it to lie posteriorly and superiorly by using the same instrument aided by the index finger of the opposite hand to the point till the last eye (hole) on the chest tube is at least 5 cms inside the pleural cavity (this can be confirmed by looking at the markings over the chest tube). The limit to which the ICD tube needs to be put in depends on the build of the patient. In a patient with an average built a length till 8–12 cms inside the chest is sufficient.
The tube is then clamped by using an artery forceps (hemostatic clamp) close to its distal (closed) end. The end of the chest tube is now cut and is connected with the tubing of the underwater seal using the connector provided with the chest tube. The length of the tube of under-water seal apparatus should not be unduly long as the fluid column in the tube will provide resistance to the egress of intrapleural collection compromising the drainage. A good rule is not to allow any loop in the draining tube between the connector and the tubing of the reservoir.
The chest tube is then fixed by silk suture no.1. For better fixity, it should be anchored on either side. While fixing, one must ensure to take deep bites through the soft tissues close to the tube. Fixing the tube by taking superficial bites (including skin only) may leave potential space around the tube at the site of entry in the intercostal space which may lead to subcutaneous emphysema in cases of pneumothorax and may increase morbidity. Some clinicians prefer purse string suture for fixation of the tube but that leaves an ugly scar following removal of the chest tube and as such is not necessary. A dressing is now applied at the ICD site and the tube may then firmly be reinforced at the site by using adhesive tapes. This completes the procedure.
The free drainage of the collected material from the pleural cavity and the movement of the column of the fluid in the tube confirms the adequate position of the chest tube. The chest should now be auscultated, improvement in the breath sounds suggests success of the procedure. A chest X-ray is then performed for confirmation of proper positioning of the tube radiologically.
Some authors advocate creation of an oblique passage or ‘tunnel’ in the chest wall to insert the tube, primarily to decrease the incidence of recurrent pneumothorax following removal of the chest tube [12]. In this technique incision is made one intercostal space below the pre-determined site of thoracostomy, the skin and soft tissues of the chest wall are then bluntly dissected to reach the site of thoracostomy thereby creating a curved passage through the chest wall for introduction of the chest tube. This requires additional time at the expense of no added advantage and therefore is not required.
Utmost care should be exercised while nursing a patient with chest tube. The reservoir should remain below the level of the chest at all times. Raising the reservoir above the chest level may result in passage of the fluid from the reservoir back into the pleural cavity. While turning or shifting the patient, one must ensure that the tube is not held or entangled in the patient’s bed. This may result in accidental displacement or dismantling of the tube. The outlet of the reservoir should remain open at all times especially in patients with pneumothorax or air leak. The closed outlet of the reservoir may lead to failure of decompression of pneumothorax leading to development of life-threatening tension pneumothorax. For the same reason, the tube should not be clamped at any time except while changing the fluid in the reservoir, collecting a sample of effluent or while planning to remove the chest tube. The patient should be closely monitored during this period.
The patient should be motivated for active physiotherapy and incentive spirometry (Figure 6).
Patient performing incentive spirometry.
This aids in faster resolution of pleural collection and thereby early removal of the ICD tube. In case, the patient is unable to do active physiotherapy, passive physiotherapy should be performed. All efforts must be made to ambulate the patient early. The chest tube must be secured carefully while patient mobilizes and the drainage bag (reservoir) should be kept well below the thoracostomy site.
The ICD site should be carefully examined every day for signs of local infection like peri-tubal inflammation or tenderness. The dressing needs to be changed in case it is soaked. Extreme care must be taken while dressing the ICD site lest the tube is displaced or dismantled. The patient should be clinically monitored every day and the volume of drained fluid should be charted carefully in the patient’s record. The reservoir should be emptied once it is full up to 3/4 of its capacity. A new reservoir with prepared under water seal or disposable reservoir (in case of digital chest tube drainage systems) is kept ready while changing the reservoir. In resource constraint settings the same reservoir may be reused. It is important to follow universal precautions while changing the reservoir. The chest tube is clamped and the filled reservoir is disconnected from the tube, the new reservoir is then connected or fluid is filled up to the ‘initial water level’ mark (or till the outlet tube is at least 2 cms below the water level) in case one contemplates to use the same reservoir. Once the reservoir is reattached, the tube is unclamped. It is important to prepare the equipment beforehand while changing the reservoir to keep the time of occlusion of the chest tube to minimum possible.
The practice of performing daily x-ray has been questioned by many authors and it is suggested that this may not be required if there is pleura to pleura apposition in the post-procedure x-ray and the patient is improving clinically [13].
Appropriate oral or parenteral analgesics are administered depending on the underlying condition for which tube thoracostomy was necessitated. There has been much debate on the use of antibiotics following tube thoracostomy. There is no evidence to support the routine use of prophylactic antibiotic therapy following the procedure [14, 15]. However, the antibiotics may be needed for other associated causes for which tube thoracostomy was performed like in empyema thoracis or in a patient of trauma with soft tissue injuries.
The use of controlled suction (−10 to −15 cm saline) to the outlet of the reservoir may help in faster resolution of intrapleural collection and promote early pleura to pleura approximation. This is most useful following pulmonary resections and may decrease the incidence of persistent post-operative space problems. In our practice, we apply overnight suction in patients undergoing pulmonary resection surgery (except following pneumonectomy). At times, the application of suction may result in pleural pain, the amount of suction should be decreased in such situations. In case of increased air leak on application of suction, the suction may be decreased or avoided altogether.
Blockage of thoracostomy tube is not uncommon and occur frequently in hemothorax. Careful observation of the ICD tube and the ensuring drainage of the fluid are paramount to detect this complication early. If appropriate measures are taken in time, the possibility of maintaining the tube patency are high.
Various manipulations can be performed to restore the patency of blocked ICD tube. These include tapping, milking and stripping of the tube. These measures are successful only with partial blockage of the tube and should not be performed routinely to prevent blockage. There is theoretical possibility of generation of high intrapleural pressures with stripping and milking. Some authors have raised concern that this may cause pulmonary injury, however we have not observed any clinically significant adverse effects of these procedures. The practice of flushing the blocked tube by instilling sterile solutions should be discouraged as this may increase the chances of introducing infection from outside with resultant increase in the incidence of empyema. Some clinicians have used novel methods like using a fogarty balloon catheter to unblock the chest tube [16] or use of advanced systems to either prevent clot formation inside the tube [17] or wipe the inside of tube to unblock it [18].
A loop is formed in the ICD tube and the intrapleural fluid is allowed to accumulate in this loop. The tube is then clamped proximal to this collected fluid. With all aseptic measures the external surface of the ICD tube near its connection with the tubing of the reservoir is cleaned with alcohol based antiseptic solution. The tube is then disconnected from this end and the sample is collected in a sterile container. The ICD tube is then reconnected with the reservoir tube and is unclamped.
There are no fixed or universally agreed criteria that applies to all patients for guiding removal of the thoracostomy tube. There is great heterogeneity in practice, however the rule of thumb is that the chest tube should be removed once it has served its purpose. If the patient is clinically well, there is no more air leak than on forced expiration, no expanding subcutaneous emphysema, no blood, pus or chyle in the effluent and the volume of the fluid being drained is less than 250 ml, the tube can be safely removed. In case of residual space following pulmonary resection with persistent low volume air leak (no more than on forced expiration) beyond day 5, the chest tube may be clamped for up to 24 hours and a repeat x-ray is performed. The patient should be closely monitored during this period for tachypnoea or dyspnea. In case the patient remains asymptomatic and the pneumothorax does not worsen, the chest tube may be removed. The same may be done in case of persistent non-expanding effusion. This practice however, carries the risk of serious side effects if the patient monitoring following clamping of the tube is not diligent. The use of digital chest tube drainage devices might obviate this risk. The chest tube may be safely removed if the air leak is <40 ml/ min over 24 hours [19]. Alternatively, in patients with prolonged air leak (beyond day 5), a Heimlich valve may be applied to the chest tube and the patient may be followed on outpatient basis with a plan to remove the tube later allowing more opportunity for the residual lung to expand. We have recently proposed a protocol for removal of chest tubes following thoracic surgery that have enabled us to decrease the chest tube indwelling time [20].
In some specialties like Colorectal and Gynecological Surgery, the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol has been well established. This has recently been proposed for patients undergoing oncological major lung resection surgery too. The guidelines suggest that chest tubes may safely be removed with a non-chylous fluid output of up to 450 ml/ day in absence of air leak or minimal air leak detected by the digital chest tube drainage systems [21].
The view is equally divided regarding removal of the chest tube during end-inspiration or end-expiration [22, 23]. In a Randomized Controlled Trial by Bell RL et al., there was no significant difference between the complications following removal of the chest tube at either the height of inspiration or expiration and both methods were considered safe [23]. The incidence of recurrent pneumothorax is likely to be multifactorial and correlates poorly to the method of chest tube removal alone [23, 24]. We prefer to remove the chest tube by a swift motion followed immediately by sealing of the thoracostomy wound by appropriate dressing material irrespective of the phase of respiration.
The complications of tube thoracostomy may be divided into 3 phases:
During insertion of the tube:
Hemorrhage from the ICD site
Injury to the lung and the mediastinal structures
Misplacement of the tube
During the indwelling time of the chest tube:
Displacement or dislodgement of the tube
Subcutaneous emphysema
Kinking
Blockage
Fracture of the tube
Empyema thoracis
Wound infection
Re-expansion pulmonary edema
Following removal of the tube
Recurrent pneumothorax or pleural effusion
Thoracostomy site pain
Hemorrhage from the ICD site may be avoided by carefully siting the thoracostomy incision on the upper border of the lower rib in the desired intercostal space. This avoids the damage to the neurovascular bundle that runs along the lower border of the rib. All aseptic measures should be taken while inserting the chest tube and later while handling the tube during the post procedural care to prevent wound infection and empyema. Care should be exercised while nursing and mobilizing the patient with chest tube to prevent accidental displacement or dislodgement of the tube.
To prevent re-expansion pulmonary edema, the pleural cavity should be gradually decompressed. Sudden evacuation of more than one liter of fluid from the thoracic cavity should be avoided. It is desirable to monitor the intrapleural pressure while draining large amount of fluid from the pleural cavity. The intrapleural pressure should not be allowed to fall below −20 cm saline at any point of time.
A pitfall is different from complication and is defined as a hidden or unsuspected danger or difficulty that may lead to adverse events. The awareness of a pitfall and preparation to act swiftly in such eventuality may help in averting the complication arising from it. Following are the common pitfalls in ICD tube management:
Missed diagnosis: ICD tube placed in a patient with large diaphragmatic hernia suspecting it to be a loculated pneumothorax. A careful history and diligent look at the x-ray will avoid this pitfall (Figure 7A and B).
Placement of ICD on wrong side: One should confirm the side with pathology before putting the chest tube. The history of the patient, clinical notes and the radiological findings should be correlated to correctly identify the side of pathology.
A large thoracostomy incision may result in potential space around the chest tube. This coupled with fixation of the tube by superficial skin suturing results in development of a closed plane in the subcutaneous tissues. Peri-tubal air leak in this situation may lead to massive surgical emphysema with attended morbidity and mortality.
Avoiding digital exploration of the pleural cavity may result in injury to pulmonary parenchyma in addition to improper positioning and kinking of the tube (Figure 8).
One must perform ‘finger thoracostomy’ before inserting the chest tube to avoid this from happening.
Use of tubes with trocar and applying undue force while gaining entry to the pleural cavity may result in injury to various thoracic, mediastinal or intra-abdominal organs.
Poor placement result in a tube that may be:
Too in: may impinge on to the mediastinal structures (Figure 9A and B).
Too out: the eye (hole) of the tube may lie in the subcutaneous tissues with resultant subcutaneous emphysema (Figure 10).
Mispositioned or kinked resulting in poor drainage (Figures 11–14).
Poor fixation of the chest tube may result in accidental displacement or dislodgement (Figure 11). The chest tube should be anchored properly with number 1 silk suture. An additional suture from the opposite side improves the fixation and decreases the chances of this mishap.
Improper filling of the reservoir (under water seal) with sterile solution so that the outlet tube is not beneath the water column may result in pneumothorax.
Raising the reservoir above the level of the chest may result in drainage of the collected material back into the thoracic cavity. The reservoir should remain below the chest level of the patient at all times.
Clamping the tube while shifting or mobilizing the patient may result in tension pneumothorax. The outlet of the reservoir should be kept open at all times to prevent this.
A: Left sided diaphragmatic hernia with large gastric shadow. B: Chest tube inserted in a patient of diaphragmatic hernia misdiagnosed as hydropneumothorax.
A kinked chest tube.
A & B: Chest tube impinging on mediastinal structures.
Eye of chest tube in subcutaneous tissues with subcutaneous emphysema.
Chest tube (arrow) about to come out.
Chest tube lying outside the chest wall.
Mispositioned tube over the diaphragm (arrow).
Mispositioned tube lying in abdomen (arrow).
With the advancement in technology, newer equipment has become available that may help in decreasing some of the complications associated with the tube thoracostomy, make the assessment of drainage more objective and accurate thus helping in better management of ICD tubes. Some of the advancement in the recent times are:
Devices for better fixation of the chest tubes: Some devices are available that claim better fixation of the chest tubes [25], others have been tested on animal models and may soon become available [26].
Digital chest tube drainage systems: This has been perhaps the most significant advancement that is now the part of most modern thoracic surgery units (Figure 15).
A patient being managed on digital chest tube drainage system following thoracotomy.
The use of these drainage systems has been associated with improved decision-making regarding chest tube management, decrease complications, improved quality of life and reduce the hospital stay [27, 28, 29] These are light weight, portable system with a disposable reservoir that may be replaced once full. The main advantages of this system are:
It does not require an ‘underwater seal’ thus eliminating the risk of accidental pneumothorax and passage of drained material from the reservoir back to the chest.
It allows accurate measurement of drained fluid and air over time and thus helps in assessment of the trend of drainage (Figure 16A & B).
A & B: Objective depiction of air and fluid drainage and trend of drainage in digital chest tube drainage system.
This may help the clinician in making decision for removal of chest tube more objective and accurately.
Continuous controlled suction may be applied to the chest tube that remains constant irrespective of the position of the drainage system.
The patient may easily carry the device while ambulation without the risk of changes in pressure effecting drainage or accidental drainage of the collected material back in chest.
Chest tube systems with inbuilt mechanism to keep the inside of the tube clean to prevent clogging [16, 18].
Motion activated systems for prevention of clot formation inside the chest tube: This system uses motion-activated energy (vibration) primarily to prevent early adhesion of clots within the internal chest tube surface and thus maintains the patency of the chest tube [17].
Insertion of ICD is a common, simple yet lifesaving procedure. All clinicians should be well versed with the appropriate technique of inserting the thoracostomy tube and various aspects of its management. Although simple, it is associated with high rate of complications that primarily occur due to improper technique of insertion or poor post-procedural care. Awareness of these factors will make the procedure safer with improved outcome.
There are no conflicts of interest.
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Segmentation is a section of image processing for the separation or segregation of information from the required target region of the image. There are different techniques used for segmentation of pixels of interest from the image. Active contour is one of the active models in segmentation techniques, which makes use of the energy constraints and forces in the image for separation of region of interest. Active contour defines a separate boundary or curvature for the regions of target object for segmentation. The contour depends on various constraints based on which they are classified into different types such as gradient vector flow, balloon and geometric models. Active contour models are used in various image processing applications specifically in medical image processing. In medical imaging, active contours are used in segmentation of regions from different medical images such as brain CT images, MRI images of different organs, cardiac images and different images of regions in the human body. Active contours can also be used in motion tracking and stereo tracking. Thus, the active contour segmentation is used for the separation of pixels of interest for different image processing.",book:{id:"6692",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis"},signatures:"R.J. Hemalatha, T.R. Thamizhvani, A. Josephin Arockia Dhivya,\nJosline Elsa Joseph, Bincy Babu and R. 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There are millions of imaging procedures done every week worldwide. Medical imaging is developing rapidly due to developments in image processing techniques including image recognition, analysis, and enhancement. Image processing increases the percentage and amount of detected tissues. This chapter presents the application of both simple and sophisticated image analysis techniques in the medical imaging field. This chapter also summarizes how to exemplify image interpretation challenges using different image processing algorithms such as k-means, ROI-based segmentation, and watershed techniques.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Yousif Mohamed Y. 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This provides a new idea for revealing the underlining mechanisms of neuropathic pain and improving the clinical treatment concepts. In this chapter, we summarized the recent studies of fMRI in neuropathic pain so that readers can better understand the research status and future research directions.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Zhi Dou and Liqiang Yang",authors:[{id:"302075",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Dou",slug:"zhi-dou",fullName:"Zhi Dou"},{id:"310181",title:"Dr.",name:"Liqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"liqiang-yang",fullName:"Liqiang Yang"}]},{id:"68142",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88004",title:"Elastometry Indices of Unchanged Liver in Healthy Children",slug:"elastometry-indices-of-unchanged-liver-in-healthy-children",totalDownloads:681,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Two hundred healthy children aged 3–18 years were included in the study to determine liver stiffness indices by means of shear wave elastometry. The difference is significant when we compared shear wave velocity in children aged 3–6 years, on the one hand, and in children aged 7–18 years, on the other (p = 0.001). Liver stiffness indices in boys and girls were not different. As a result, liver stiffness indices in children in various age groups have been obtained, which can be recommended as normal ones for pediatric patients.",book:{id:"8691",slug:"ultrasound-elastography",title:"Ultrasound Elastography",fullTitle:"Ultrasound Elastography"},signatures:"Mikhail Pykov, Natalia Kuzmina, Nikolay Rostovtsev and Alexander Kinzersky",authors:null},{id:"68259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88183",title:"2D Shear Wave Elastography for Liver Fibrosis Evaluation",slug:"2d-shear-wave-elastography-for-liver-fibrosis-evaluation",totalDownloads:1218,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"2D shear wave elastography is a technique embedded in ultrasound machines which allows the interrogation of the tissue by acoustic radiation force impulses induced into the tissues by focused ultrasonic beams and captures the propagation of resulting shear waves in real time. Elasticity is displayed using a color-coded image superimposed on a B-mode image, and at the same time, a quantitative estimation of liver stiffness (LS) can be performed in a certain region of interest (ROI). The published data showed a real value of this method for liver stiffness estimation in patients with chronic hepatitis. It has the following advantages: it is integrated into standard ultrasound systems; it is a real-time elastographic method; and it is also feasible in patients with ascites and with large and adjustable size of the ROI that will be evaluated.",book:{id:"8691",slug:"ultrasound-elastography",title:"Ultrasound Elastography",fullTitle:"Ultrasound Elastography"},signatures:"Alina Popescu, Roxana Şirli and Ioan Sporea",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"67331",title:"Research in Medical Imaging Using Image Processing Techniques",slug:"research-in-medical-imaging-using-image-processing-techniques",totalDownloads:4379,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Medical imaging is the procedure used to attain images of the body parts for medical uses in order to identify or study diseases. There are millions of imaging procedures done every week worldwide. 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The features of some characteristic detector systems with the relative electronics and the data acquisition system (DAQ) are presented. Those detectors are related with the medical imaging sensor systems. The characteristics of the medical imaging process of the X-ray and nuclear imaging with SPECT, PET and the combination of PET-CT are presented. The computed X-ray tomography, called CT, and the nuclear medicine tomography are presented, implementing the most of the previous parts, as they are defined in PET and SPECT imaging plus the combination of PET with CT the PET-CT.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Evangelos Gazis",authors:[{id:"281707",title:"Prof.",name:"Evangelos",middleName:null,surname:"Gazis",slug:"evangelos-gazis",fullName:"Evangelos Gazis"}]},{id:"68830",title:"PET-CT Principles and Applications in Lung Cancer Management",slug:"pet-ct-principles-and-applications-in-lung-cancer-management",totalDownloads:1128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Lung cancer is the most common malignant cancer throughout the world; the positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET-CT) combines both the metabolism information from PET and anatomy details from CT, which is the state of the art. This manuscript introduced the PET-CT and applications in lung cancer diagnosing, staging, and treatment. Several aspects including clinical features, classification, grading and pathology of the lung cancer, principles of PET-CT, and evaluation of diagnosing and treatment had been covered. Detailed demonstration of each cancer subtype, staging criteria, and classification was described. The content will benefit the clinical doctors as well as radiologists.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Long Chen, Hua Sun and Yunchao Huang",authors:[{id:"278386",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Long",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"long-chen",fullName:"Long Chen"},{id:"280160",title:"Prof.",name:"Yunchao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"yunchao-huang",fullName:"Yunchao Huang"},{id:"280161",title:"Prof.",name:"Hua",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"hua-sun",fullName:"Hua Sun"}]},{id:"64352",title:"Endoscopic Dacryocystorhinostomy",slug:"endoscopic-dacryocystorhinostomy-1",totalDownloads:5946,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Epiphora, or abnormal tearing, occurs because of the blockage in the lacrimal drainage system, which impairs normal tearing channeling into the nose. It is essential that with proper history and examination including syringing and probing, a correct diagnosis is made. Syringing and probing are performed only in congenital and acquired nasolacrimal duct obstruction (NLDO). Dacryocystorhinostomy (DCR) is a procedure performed for the treatment of tearing (epiphora) due to blockage of the nasolacrimal drainage system. Endoscopic dacryocystorhinostomy (E-DCR) using telescopes has gained a lot of momentum among otolaryngologists, since the outcomes are comparable to the external approach. Advances in surgical technique and a better understanding of the anatomy have resulted in improvements in outcomes. The anatomy of the lacrimal system will be discussed in detail including the surgical indications and techniques of DCR. 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Active contour is one of the active models in segmentation techniques, which makes use of the energy constraints and forces in the image for separation of region of interest. Active contour defines a separate boundary or curvature for the regions of target object for segmentation. The contour depends on various constraints based on which they are classified into different types such as gradient vector flow, balloon and geometric models. Active contour models are used in various image processing applications specifically in medical image processing. In medical imaging, active contours are used in segmentation of regions from different medical images such as brain CT images, MRI images of different organs, cardiac images and different images of regions in the human body. Active contours can also be used in motion tracking and stereo tracking. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. 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He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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