Dietary phytochemicals and their sources.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"600",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Approaches to Managing Disaster - Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts",title:"Approaches to Managing Disaster",subtitle:"Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Approaches to Managing Disaster - Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts demonstrates the array of information that is critical for improving disaster management. 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\r\n\tThis book will cover the processes of the fungi that attach themselves to plant roots forming mycorrhizae, the mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi are symbiotrophic mutualists, meaning that they grow and feed on living plant tissues without harming the host tissues. Arbuscular mycorrhizae, ectomycorrhizae, and ectoendomycorrhizae will be discussed in more detail. We will cover the taxonomic classification of spore germination and biotrophism. The establishment of mycorrhizae results in a series of events coordinated by the fungus and the plant and their interactions. Therefore we will have the possibility to further explore the molecular and biochemical signals of mycorrhization, its intra and extra root signals, and their occurrence. Furthermore, we want to address the availability of nutrients in the soil according to its characteristics and those of the host plants. Finally, we will address the characteristics, use, and management of the soil for a better symbiotic association between the fungi and the roots. Thus, a better response to the growth of the host plants will be observed in this book.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-090-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-089-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-091-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"dddc237ff52d11c9acbfbd488686336b",bookSignature:"Dr. Rodrigo De Sousa",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12144.jpg",keywords:"Fungi, Glomeromycota, Arbuscular Mycorrhizae, Ectomycorrhiza, Ectoendomycorrhizae, Obligatory Biotrophs, Quiescence, Symbiosis, Occurrence of Mycorrhiza, Stimulation of Plant Growth, Nutrient Use Efficiency, Mycorrhizal Dependence",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 4th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"19 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. de Sousa is a researcher on alternative sources of fertilizers in Brazil. He obtained a Ph.D. in Soil Science and Plant Nutrition from the University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil. Dr. de Sousa completed an internship at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, USA.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"297508",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"De Sousa",slug:"rodrigo-de-sousa",fullName:"Rodrigo De Sousa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297508/images/system/297508.jpg",biography:"Rodrigo Nogueira de Sousa obtained an undergraduate degree in Agronomic Engineering and a master’s in Soil Science and Plant Nutrition from the Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil, in 2016 and 2018, respectively. He obtained a Ph.D. in Soil Science and Plant Nutrition from the University of São Paulo (USP). From 2014 to 2015, he studied at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, USA. He also completed an internship at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, USA, in 2015, for which he studied the management of nitrogen fertilization in corn crops. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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These diseases/disorders are mainly linked to oxidative stress due to free radical induced toxicity. The free radicals (oxidants) are unstable species with a very short half-life, but they are highly reactive metabolites which are harmful to normal functions of the cells and body. They produce oxidative damage toward macromolecules like proteins, DNA, and lipids. In general, the reactive oxygen species circulating in the body tend to react with the electron of other molecules in the body and these also affect various enzyme systems and cause DNA damage which may further contribute to oxidative damage and inflammatory diseases and conditions such as cancer, ischemia, aging, adult respiratory distress syndromes, rheumatoid arthritis, etc. Oxidative stress occurs as result of an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidant defense system. A plant-based diet protects against chronic oxidative stress-related diseases. Many researchers reported that dietary fruits, vegetables, and grains apply a protective effect against the development of these chronic diseases [1, 2, 3, 4]. This protective role can be predominantly credited to the phytochemicals in them, which are defined as bioactive non-nutrient compounds in fruits, vegetables, grains, and other parts [5]. Antioxidants or inhibitors of oxidation are compounds that retard or prevent the oxidation in general, and prolong the life of the oxidizable matter.
Plants kingdom contains variable chemical families and amounts of antioxidants. It has been hypothesized that antioxidants from dietary plants may contribute to the beneficial health effects. Among these, routine dietary sources are also easily available and more suitable for dietary interventions.
The need is to identify and generate awareness about these sources, which can be rated from top to down regarding antioxidant potential. The people who are habitual of consuming these vegetables and fruits in their routine diet are proved to be less suffered by various chronic diseases [6], and studies have also endorsed the long-term health impact of consuming these plant based diets. This chapter presents certain information about oxidative stress, antioxidant categories, phytochemicals, and their role in prevention and cure of several diseases.
Free radicals are highly reactive species because they have unpaired electrons which seek an electron to stabilize the molecule. Free radicals can be generated by a variety of sources which can be classified as endogenous (within the body) and exogenous sources (outside the body). They are essential intermediates in natural processes and readily react with other molecules result in oxidative stress. Figure 1 represents the generation of free radicals. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a collective term which include hydroxyl radical (OH•), perhydroxyl radical (HO2•), hypochlorous acid (HOCl), superoxide anion radical (O2•¯), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), singlet oxygen (1O2), nitric oxide radical (NO•), hypochlorite radical (OCl•), peroxynitrite (ONOO), and different lipid peroxides. Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) such as ONOO¯ and NO• are formed by the reaction of nitric oxide with O2•¯ while RSS are easily produced from thiols through a reaction with ROS [7, 8]. Though, the free radicals are produced naturally by normal process of metabolism and lifestyle also influences their production in the body such as smoking, exposure of toxic chemicals, alcohols and fried foods. Although, cells have antioxidant defense system (antioxidant enzymes) to encounter harmful effects of free radicals. These free radicals are linked to the diseases such as cardiovascular, neurodisorders, diabetes, liver diseases, cancer and aging.
Overview of generation of reactive oxygen species (free radicals).
An imbalance between antioxidant defense system and reactive oxygen species result in oxidative stress which further leads to necrosis and cell damage. Cells experience oxidative stress when they are exposed with excess level of free radicals (ROS) as result of depletion of antioxidant level within cells. Free radicals contain uneven number of electrons which can harm biomolecules by producing lipid peroxides, protein carbonyls and various degenerative changes that can cause DNA damage and apoptotic events which lead to damage cell’s survival capacity and finally cause cell death. Cells use endogenous and exogenous antioxidants defense mechanism to detoxify these reactive products.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are typical by-products of cellular metabolism, playing a role as secondary messengers and influencing different normal physiological functions of the body. In some cases, oxidative stress is also useful for intracellular signaling which is necessary for physiological adaptation of the body.
Furthermore, there is growing evidence supporting the role of ROS in numerous pathological conditions, that is, diseases (Figure 2). The paired character of ROS with their beneficial and detrimental characteristics indicates the sophistication of their specific roles at a biological compartment and the difficulties in attaining applicable procedures to treat ROS-related diseases. From basic science research to clinical trials, the biomedical scientific society has promptly progressed toward an improved interpretation of ROS-metabolizing systems and their impact on specific conditions. The free radicals often involve in cell–cell communication, apoptosis, ion transportation, and gene expression [8].
Impact of free radicals on cellular system.
Oxidation is a normal and necessary process that takes place in the body. Whereas, oxidative stress, on the other hand, takes place when there’s an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants within the body due to lack of antioxidants or increased production of free radicals (ROS) [9, 10]. Free radicals due to unpaired electrons can start oxidation to biomolecules i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These consequences can lead to heart disease, inflammatory disease, cancer, diabetes mellitus, Alzheimer’s disease, autism, and to the aging process [7, 11].
Antioxidants are molecule that reduce and prevent the harmful effect of free radicals. Humans have a complex antioxidant protection system, which functions interactively and synergistically to neutralize free radicals. There are several antioxidant enzymes that can neutralize free radicals and ROS. These enzymes form the body’s endogenous defense mechanisms from free radicals to protect the cell. Enzymatic defense system mainly includes enzymes such as glutathione peroxidases, superoxide dismutase and catalase, which decrease the concentration of the most harmful ROS whereas non-enzymatic antioxidants are vitamins C and E, β-carotene, uric acid and glutathione.
Antioxidant enzymes are important protein components that offer protection against ROS via removing potential oxidants/transferring ROS/RNS into relatively stable compounds [11]. For optimum catalytic activity, these enzymes require micronutrient cofactors such as Se, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn [12]. The following three antioxidant enzymes play significant roles in protecting cells from oxidative stress:
Mc Cord and Fridovich first discovered this enzyme in 1969. Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), is the best known and perhaps most important of the antioxidant enzymes. It converts the harmful free radicals superoxide to the less active peroxide, which then can be further converted by other antioxidant enzyme (catalase) into water. The enzyme dismutase converts two molecules of superoxide radical to form H2O2 and O2. The SOD family consists of four metallo forms which require copper, zinc, one manganese and one iron Cu for their free radical detoxifying activity. ZnSOD is found in the cytosol of most eukaryotic cells [13]. A different form of Cu, ZnSOD is found in extracellular fluids (EC), where it is called EC-SOD [14, 15]. The two superoxide radicals converted into hydrogen peroxide and oxygen during the catalytic reaction of SOD.
This is important, because free radicals are highly active and unstable, and will attack any molecule in the body. Organ or tissue damage can occur whenever production of free radicals exceeds to that of scavenger enzymes such as SOD, which are the first-line defense system of the body’s tissues.
Catalase is localized exclusively in peroxisomes and deals with the large amount of H2O2 present in them. It requires iron as a cofactor to degrade hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Human CAT composes four identical subunits of 62 kDa [16]. It’s optimum pH lies in the alkaline range. At the subcellular level, CAT is found mostly in perxoisomes (80%) and cytosol (20%), and deals with a large amount of hydrogen peroxides (H2O2) present in them.
Gutathione peroxidase (GPx) is a group of cytosolic enzymes which contains a single selenocysteine residue, in which selenium is covalently bound in its active site. This selenium dependent enzyme which converts hydroperoxides to H2O where GSH represent reduced state and GSSH represent the glutathione disulfie (oxidized state) [17].
The non-enzymatic antioxidants also play important role to neutralize intracellular free radicals which are discussed as follows:
Glutathione (GSH) is present in all plant and animal cells and is a tripeptide (glutamyl-cysteinyl-glycine). The cysteine provides an exposed free sulphydryl group (SH) that is highly reactive, providing an abundant target for radical attack. It is mainly synthesized in the liver [18] and exists in several redox forms, among which the most predominant is the reduced glutathione. GSH is a hydrosoluble antioxidant present in high cellular concentrations (1–10 mM) in the nucleus, mitochondria, and cytoplasm. GSH is involved in several lines of defense against ROS. First, the thiol group confers GSH with the ability to protect other thiol functions in proteins against oxidative damage [19]. Thiol groups (-SH) are widespread and highly reactive chemical entities in cells. They make complex with metal ions, participate in oxidation reactions by getting oxidized themselves to sulfonic acids, and form thiol radicals and disulfides [20].
Uric acid (UA) is a strong reducing agent (donates electrons) which acts as a powerful antioxidant and scavenge the singlet oxygen and radicals. Normally in humans, one of the main antioxidants in plasma is uric acid.UA is a hydrophilic antioxidant generated during the metabolism of purine nucleotides and accounts nearly for 66% of the total oxygen scavenging activity in the blood serum. Mammals and humans are capable of producing UA, making it the most predominant aqueous antioxidant present in humans [21, 22] with an approximate blood level of 3.5–7.5 mg/dL. UA is an effective metabolite that can stop free radicals produced by xanthine oxidase (XO) in catalysis reaction of xanthine and hypoxanthine [23]. UA gives cellular protection from oxidants, which related to a variety of physiological situation [24, 25].
In addition, there are diverse dietary foods and medicinal plants which are rich sources of vitamins and phytochemicals, provide additional protection to the body against oxidative stress. The major among those antioxidants are vitamin E, Vitamin A, vitamin C and flavonoids, carotenoids, lipoic acids and tannins etc.
Vitamin E is exogenous (lipid-soluble antioxidant) and must be obtained through diet in small amounts since the organism cannot synthesize it. Its biosynthesis is restricted to plants, photosynthetic algae, and certain cyanobacteria. It plays a vital role in protecting membranes from oxidative damage and thus its primary activity is to trap peroxy radicals in cellular membranes. It inhibits the lipid peroxidation induced by free radicals [26]. α-Tocopherol is the most active form of vitamin E that has antioxidant activity and immune functions. It has been revealed to be a more effective free radical scavenging vitamins that prevent peroxynitrite-induced lipid peroxidation and inflammatory reactions [27].
Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) is an optically-active hydrosoluble antioxidant which scavenges free radicals from a variety of sources. It bears a highly acidic hydroxyl group (pKa = 4.2) known to be completely ionized at neutral pH [28, 29]. It acts as an antioxidant and reducing agent by donating electrons to various enzymatic and nonenzymatic reactions. It reduces the transition metal ions of several biosynthetic enzymes, thus preventing biological oxidation of macromolecules. Interestingly, it also functions as an enzyme cofactor [23].
Vitamin A, a lipid soluble vitamin, is localization within the lipophilic compartment of membranes and lipoproteins. It has free radicals scavenging feature and thus play important role in human health. It has been shown to be essential for many physiological processes, such as cell metabolism, reproduction, embryonic development, immunity and bone metabolism, in all vertebrates [30, 31, 32]. It is essential for vision. The retinal and retinoic acid are the dietary components of vitamin A [33].
Carotenoids are important antioxidants for plants and animals which are present in fruits and vegetables. Carotenoids are known to be very efficient physical and chemical quenchers of singlet oxygen (1O2), as well as potent scavengers of other reactive oxygen species (ROS) [34, 35, 36]. This is of special significance, because the uncontrolled generation and concomitant increase of ROS level in the body results in “oxidative stress”, an essential contributor to the pathogenic processes of many diseases. Carotenoids have a protective role against ROS-mediated disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer as well as photosensitive or eye-related disorders.
Lipoic acid is one of the most versatile antioxidants known. Aside from its ability to function in both aqueous and lipid media, lipoic acid is capable of neutralizing a wide variety of free radicals: singlet oxygen, superoxides, peroxyl and hydroxyl radicals, hypochlorite, and peroxynitrite [37]. These radicals are believed to play a significant role in disease processes such as hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), cancer, cataract formation and diabetes.
Flavonoids are rich source of antioxidants, which are low-molecular-weight phenolic compounds. They are broadly present in fruits, vegetables and certain beverages. They belong to a class of plant secondary metabolites. Flavonoids are, in particular, important antioxidants that can act as reducing agents, free radical scavenger, hydrogen donors, and singlet oxygen quenchers. In addition, they have also metal chelating potential [38]. Their structures and impact on human health is discussed in details in subsequent sections.
Tannins are naturally found in a variety of edible and inedible plants, including tree bark, leaves, spices, nuts, seeds, fruits, and legumes. They are potentially very important antioxidants. Plants produce them as a natural defense against pests. Tannins also give color and flavor to plant foods. Tannins are phenolics such as flavan-3-ols: (−)-epicatechin and (+)-catechin. Hydrolysable tannins are heterogeneous polymers compound for example phenolic acids and gallic acid (3,4,5trihydroxyl benzoic acid) [23, 39].
The basic skeleton of polyphenols is made up of 15 carbon chain that arranged in two aromatic rings A and B connected by a unit of carbon–carbon bridge and it can also form ring C. They have conjugated double bonds and functional groups (hydroxyl or other substituents). Flavonoid can occur as a form in aglycones, glycosides and methylated derivatives in plants. They are present in all parts of plant such as stem, root, flower and leaf and seed. The structure of phytochemicals possesses functional groups such as hydroxyl groups (OH), aromatic compounds (CH), Carbonyl and carboxylic groups (CO) and organosulfur groups (SO). The major class of phytochemicals are polyphenols and caratenoids. Based on heterocyclic ring structure, flavonoids are divided into six chemical structures: flavones, flavonols, flavanones, catechins, or flavanols, anthocyanidins and isoflavones (Figure 3) [40].
Basic flavonoid structure.
The dietary sources of different phytochemicals are given in Table 1.Polyphenols are known for their unique property of activation at multiple levels, through the modulation of A mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), protein kinase B (PKB), and NF-κB signaling pathways, inhibiting the production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, suppressing the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX) and Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and thus decreasing the production of free radicals. Several phytochemicals including genistein, curcuminoids, and catechins are known to suppress the activation of Akt, thus, inhibiting cancer cell growth. Some phenols like resveratrol, curcumin, and green tea catechins have been shown to suppress COX-2 giving the benefit of decreasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [41]. The health benefits of functional foods and nutraceuticals fortified with natural polyphenols. Flavonoids exert many biological and pharmacological properties for instance, cardioprotective inflammatory, antiviral, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic and cytoprotective etc.
Phytochemical Class | Phytochemical constituents | Major dietary food sources |
---|---|---|
Flavones | Luteolin and Apigenine | Celery, chill paper and green vegetables |
Flavonols | Quercetin, kaempferol | Garlic, onion, Raw Broccoli, onion, chill paper, Parsely, Blueberries |
Flavanones | HesperetinTangeretin | Carrot, Grapefruit juice, citrus fruit, |
Isoflavones | Genistein, Daidzein | Soybean, tofu soymilk and black bean |
Flavanols | Epicatechinecatechin and epigallocatechin | Tea, fruits and cocoa Chocolate |
Anthocyanins | Cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, peonidin, petunidin, and pelargonidin | Strawberries Green vegetable and fruits |
Dietary phytochemicals and their sources.
Oxidative stress is accountable for pathogenesis of several human diseases, including CVD, certain types of cancers, and aging [42, 43]. Antioxidant phytochemicals play a therapeutic role against chronic diseases caused by oxidative stress [44]. The schematic overview of the therapeutic properties of flavonoid-rich foods is given in Figure 4. The phytochemicals are the recent area of drug research to find the promising herbal drug for the treatment of various human diseases such as diabetes, cancer, tuberculosis, malaria and viral diseases etc.
The schematic overview of the therapeutic properties of flavonoids.
Edible fruits and vegetable have medicinal properties with antioxidant potential. They contain various types of phytochemicals which are proven to reduce the impact of various diseases. The dietary fruits such as strawberries, citrus fruits or green vegetables, cereals are rich source of vitamins and phytochemicals [45]. The medicinal plant rich in flavonoids have been reported to have antioxidant potential [46]. α-tocopherol is good free radicals scavenging vitamins that reduced the oxidative stress in the body and prevents the aging process. Consumption of dietary plants lessens the development of life style related diseases because they are rich in polyphenols an show synergistic effect on metabolic pathway of diseases cells [47]. In addition, polyphenols may enhance the antioxidant defense system against free radical induced toxicity [48]. Many medicinal plant are known to provide defensive role against microbial and viral infections [49, 50]. Pathogens and oxidative stress can cause chronic inflammation that assist in the pathogenesis ofmany chronic diseases including CVD, cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes [51, 52, 53]. Most antioxidant phytochemicals have been scientifically investigated for their anti-inflammatory action, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, neuro-protective and anticancer and antidiabetes and antimalerial and antiaging effects. Phytochemicals including resveratrol, anthocyanins, and curcumin etc. are known to have medicine like properties that mediate protection via inhibition of lipid peroxidation, lower the prostaglandin production and modulate the nuclear factor-κB activity, enzyme inhibition, as well as improve the immunity [54]. Usually, the phytochemicals have strong antioxidant abilities as well as anti-inflammatory action, which account for other bioactivities with health benefits [55].
Though, the phytochemicals have been reported to exert wide range of biological activities. These include:
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is common health problem in modern society and is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Rising blood pressure and atherosclerosis diseases are common heart problem in all age group of people. The modern medicine and treatment can reduce the symptoms of the CVD but allopathic treatment sometime produce adverse side effect on the body. The adequate intake of phytochemical rich food can reduce the impact of CVD [56]. The phytochemicals constituents such as Epicatechin, catechin, garlic, Apigenin, luteolin are known to possess cardioprotective properties. Dietary foods containing flavonoids can suppress the cholesterol and lipoproteins to protect the heart.
Catechin is a known flavonoid found in green tea,
Nowadays, hepatic diseases are common concern in modern societies due to the unhealthy eating habits and over consumption of synthetic medicines, pathogen infection and environmental pollutants. Jaundice and cirrhosis are the most common liver diseases. There are many edible plant and fruits which keep liver healthy against drug induced liver toxicity. The plants contain many hepatoprotective phytochemicals such as resveratrol; saponin, Gallic acid, emodin, and tannin provide protection to liver against free radical induced damage.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a chronic brain disorder generally seen in the elderly people. Oxidative stress and neuroinflammation can account for neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Dementia (memory loss). A dietary food such as walnut is a rich source of many antioxidants (vitamin E and folate), minerals (selenium) and phytochemicals including flavonoids, phenolic acid (ellagic acid), and proanthocyanidins etc. Experimental evidence suggested that walnuts have anti-inflammatory effect which may show the synergistic effect to reduce the risk of neurogenerative disorders and enhance the activeness of neurotransmitter in brain cells. Withaferin A is the main active ingredient of Ayurvedic medicinal plant
Inflammation is a normal phenomenon of the body upon pathogen infection. The inflammation is characterized by physical appearance like swelling, redness, heat, pain, and loss of function. It is the series of transformation of infection site as a result of immunological response [72]. Flavonoids intake can inhibit the cyclooxygenase pathway involved in the inflammatory process.
Cancer, a disease is characterized by uncontrolled cell division [74, 75]. Many flavonoids have shown to possess the anticancer properties. There are many dietary flavonoids such as apigenin, karmpferol, quercetin and resveratrol showed the anticancer effect against various cancers such as breast, lung, liver, skin, blood, colon, prostate, pancreatic, cervical, oral, and stomach by modulating the signal pathway of apoptosis. The experimental results showed the protective efficacy of flavonoids on cancer cells by modulating the pathway of cell cycles. The molecular mechanism of flavonoid is due their antiproliferation activity, cell cycle arrest, inhibition of P53 protein and down regulation of tyrosin kinases. Flavonoids are evidenced to be effective chemopreventive agents.
Diabetes is one of the emerging health disease caused by metabolic abnormalities of carbohydrate. The presence of higher blood sugar level in blood and urine is the main the sign of the diabetes. There are many dietary flavonoids such as bitter guard, f
Parasites are organism that live in the another organism called host. They use other organism to survive and get food from them. The common parasite that live on or in human body are scabies (skin mites), threadworm (stomach), and hookworm (gut worms). Parasites are microscopic organisms such asprotozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites that cause diseases such as malaria and leishmaniasisin human [90, 91].
Many plant derived phytochemicals have been tested for their antiparasite activity. Quinine is an alkaloid isolated from the Cinchona species is well known effective herbal medicine for its antimalarial properties. It is used to treat malaria disease. Another popular alkaloid,
Aging is a well-established risk factor for a wide range of diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases, and presently, there is no effective treatment for age-related neurodegenerative diseases [93].
Grapes and citrus fruits have a high content of polyphenols which showed free radical scavenging activity [94]. Curcumin and vitamin E are promising antiaging compounds that may delay the symptoms of aging. Vitamin E is lipid soluble antioxidants that scavenges the peroxide radical and stop the chain reaction of free radicals which are involved in aging process [95]. Being a efficient antioxidant and anti-inflammatory molecules, curcumin is modulated cellular senescence involved in aging [96, 97].
Chronic kidney disorders are common world health problem including India. People with chronic diabetes are at risk of diabetonephropathy. Nephrotoxicity can occur by chemotherapy treatment with cisplatin medicine which causes the oxidative stress and inflammation in kidney [98].
Medicinal plants are used traditionally in ethnomedicine for the treatment of kidney disease.
Medicinal plants are natural source of phytochemical antioxidants that are known to prevent different diseased states. The medicinal plants contain phytochemical ingredients as source of antioxidants. Phytochemicals are antioxidants compounds that inhibit or delay onset of biological oxidation. They are nitrogenous cyclinphytols compounds which possess functional groups such as hydroxyl groups, ketone groups and aldehyde. Phytochemicals work at different level to provide protection and boost the body defense mechanism against oxidative stress.
Antioxidants are such anti molecules which work against oxidation reaction. It means they prevent oxidation of biomolecules caused by free radicals. Many phytochemicals work as antioxidant helping to scavenge free radicals. They donate electron to stabilize the free radicals in order to maintain the imbalance between antioxidant defense system and free radicals. The phytochemicals are subtle molecules or compounds that work like as an antioxidant.
Some phytochemical can influence the hormonal activity in the body. Genistein a soy isoflavones, it works like estrogen hormone which inhibit the menopausal hot flushes in some women [103].
Different phytochemicals play different role in the biological system. There are many different groups of phytochemicals which all have different chemical structures which may induce different health benefits. Caroteniods may inhibit the cancer cell growth and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and boost immunity. Dietary anthocyanins may help lower the high blood pressure. Phytochemicals as an antioxidant scavenge the free radicals and reduce the oxidative damage.
Oxidative stress has been linked to the various chronic diseases including cardiovascular diseases (CVD), cancer, neurological disorders, hepatic diseases, diabetes and aging. Free radicals (reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species) are accountable for the pathogenesis of such diseases. Free radicals that naturally produced by the normal process of metabolism are generally neutralized by antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase and GPx) and non-antioxidants molecules
There are many different subclasses of phytochemicals which all have different chemical structures responsible for different positive health effects. Scientific communities across the world focusing on the alternative medicinal system in exploring the natural ingredients to be used in the food and food products for the prevention of human diseases. Herbal based medicine can be more safe, convenient and efficient as dietary components for the prevention or treatment of human diseases.
Authors are thankful to Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India and Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi India for providing necessary facilities.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Considering the many positive effects of hypnosis, such as relief from chronic pain [1, 2], the ability to enhance hypnotizability has considerable clinical utility. Hypnosis can be defined as an altered state of attention, receptivity, and concentration during which the hypnotized person is immersed in a suggestion [3, 4, 5]. Hypnosis can modulate perceptual, motor, emotional, and cognitive processes by producing changes in subjective experience and in behavior, such as greater relaxation, changes in perception of the body and/or of the environment, and increased imagination [6, 7, 8]. While neurophysiological data may not completely resolve the debate around hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness (ASC) [9, 10], they do offer interesting clues regarding the role that intentionality and specific types of attention may play in hypnosis. Furthermore, the debate about hypnosis as an ASC could benefit from a reframing in light of current theories of consciousness, particularly the Sphere Model of Consciousness (SMC).
The Sphere Model of Consciousness developed by Paoletti [11, 12, 13, 14, 15] suggests that every experience of consciousness can be phenomenologically described as a movement within a spherical matrix. As will be illustrated in Section 4, the model provides that intentionality could be a means through which one can move from Narrative to Minimal Self and this, in turn, could allow deeper hypnotizability as well as other phenomena related to hypnosis, such as a reinterpretation of the nociceptive input underlying pain [16].
While different theories of hypnosis share the assumption that a hypnotic response is automatic and feels like it is happening by itself [17, 18], they do not necessarily agree on the level of intentionality and cognitive control processes that are involved. For instance, the response expectancy theory claims that expecting a behavior to happen can elicit that particular behavior; therefore, suggestions can be implemented without the involvement of intentional executive systems [19, 20]. However, expectations cannot fully account for the variance in hypnotic responding [21, 22], which is indicative of trait differences in both hypnotizability [23] and in hypnotic depth [24].
In parallel to intentionality and volition, there is a close connection between hypnosis and movement. Hypnosis may help patients to better achieve tasks of motor imagination and alter activity in the motor cortex [5]. In addition, while some argue that eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and hypnosis are qualitatively different, the two are often used in conjunction in therapy [25, 26, 27].
But what is the exact nature of the relationship between movement and hypnosis, and what are the possible mediating electrophysiological mechanisms between inner and outer movements and hypnosis? These are the main questions that will be addressed in this chapter. Specifically, we will discuss the possible underlying neuronal mechanisms mediating both movement and hypnosis, with a specific focus on theta activity. What we term “inner movements” and their relation to theta activity will be discussed in Section 2, focusing on hypnosis, meditation, and perceptual deprivation. This will be followed by external movement practices and their relation to such “inner movement.” Consequently, we will embed our discussion within the framework of the Sphere Model of Consciousness [15] giving special attention to the Minimal Self and Narrative Self (for review see [28]). Briefly, the Minimal Self has a short temporal extension and is endowed with a sense of action, property, and first person nonconceptual content, while the Narrative Self involves personal identity and continuity through time and includes conceptual content. The SMC specifies the addition of a third state, called Overcoming of the Self, in which all sense of self disappears. Overcoming of the Self, which is parallel to consciousness without contents, has only recently been the subject of neuroscientific studies [29, 30]. It can further be compared with self-transcendence, absorption, and nondual states [31, 32].
Neural oscillations are divided into different frequency bands: both theta (4–7 Hz) and alpha (8–12 Hz) bands are associated with working memory and attention, while the gamma band (30–70 Hz) is associated with functions that include long-term memory storage and retrieval, as well as perceptual processing [33, 34, 35]. An increase in theta activity, quantified as spectral power, both frontally and globally, is a hallmark of hypnotic states [36], trance [37], meditative states [38, 39, 40], states of absorption [40], and of hypnotizability ([41]; but see [42] for an opposing view). Importantly, frontal theta activity correlates negatively with default mode network (DMN) activity [43], which is typically active during task-free resting states and is thought to represent neural processing related to mind-wandering [44, 45]. Keeping in mind that the DMN activity is automatic and is thus considered nonvoluntary, it is not surprising that electrophysiological studies based on predictive coding models1 have focused mostly on theta activity [49, 50].
In addition, while hypnosis and hypnotizability are thought to be mediated electrophysiologically by theta activity and behaviorally by relaxation [51, 52], it is still under debate whether all hypnosis is actually autohypnosis (see for a review [53]), since motivation seems to play a central role in the process. For example, being motivated to participate in a hypnotic session and having a positive attitude about it correlates with the success of the hypnotic response and the effectiveness of the hypnotic experience [54]. This suggests that the levels of intentionality and attention could be related to the levels of hypnosis and participant susceptibility. Seemingly paradoxical, there may be a voluntary “letting go” that occurs in the hypnotic process [13, 55] related to
At the electrophysiological level, it has been suggested that slow wave oscillations facilitate responses to suggestion, which in turn may help to explain the known variability in hypnotic responding between individuals [56]. This has been supported by findings of significantly higher levels of baseline theta activity in highly hypnotizable participants relative to those scoring “low” on hypnotizability [36, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61] and a tendency for hypnotic inductions to result in increases in theta activity, especially among highs [36, 62, 63].
Notably, an increase in both theta activity and alpha activity was reported among proficient meditators during meditation ([39], p. 191; [64]) and at rest ([39], p. 190), but not among those assessed for hypnotizability ([65]; note, however, that in their review, these authors only discuss the lack of a systematic relationship with alpha activity). However, the authors clarify that this increase in theta activity among proficient meditators was “the frontal midline theta generated by the anterior cingulate, dorsal, and medial prefrontal cortices” and not the “theta typically seen at the transition from Stage I to Stage II sleep…[which] originates from more widespread source” ([39], p. 202). Thus, some evidence suggests that the notion that a meditative state is essentially a hypnagogic state (the transitional state between wakefulness and sleep) or even sleep itself [66] should be replaced by the notion that a meditative state can be an intentionally prolonged hypnagogic state ([67], pp. 99–100; [68], p. 403; [69], p. 158); this, itself, would be considered to be a trance state [70]. Furthermore, as Holroyd ([71], p. 115) suggests, “a distinction is drawn between low range theta (4–6 Hz) which is associated with reverie and high range theta (5–7 Hz) which, in the frontal cortex area, is associated with loss of executive control.” Mitchell, McNaughton, Flanagan, and Kirk ([72], p. 179) also suggest, “The meditation data make it possible that FM [frontal-midline]-theta is a sign that attentional resources are more internally than externally focused.” Turning to change in gamma activity in the low range (25–45 Hz) in these states, there is a decrease in frontal power [73] and an increase in posterior power [38, 73] and/or a decrease in central power [40].2
It is noteworthy, then, that an increase in theta activity during hypnotic induction has been found in various studies ([36, 56, 62, 63]; for review, see [78]. From [79]). Frontal theta has been found to increase with working memory load, indicating a role of theta oscillations in working memory maintenance (for review, see [43]). Theta activity increases with increasing task demands and is related to orienting, attention, memory, and affective processing mechanisms [35, 80]. Theta activity is highest at frontal midline electrodes in the resting state, indicating that the frontal theta rhythm is also detectable during rest conditions [81].
While hypnosis has been most closely linked to power in the theta band, reports suggesting changes also in gamma activity have been considered [56]. Jensen et al. [56] proposed a link between theta oscillations and hypnosis, whereby theta oscillations facilitate hypnotic responding. They further speculated that theta-gamma phase-locked oscillations may provide a physiological explanation for hypnosis by suggesting the linking of limbic and neocortical circuits [56]. However, gamma activity is known to be at possible risk of contamination from muscular activity [82] or saccade-related spike potentials (SP) due to eye movements [83].
While acknowledging that theta is associated with a large number of cognitive activities and states (including, among others, attention, orienting, decision-making, feelings of drowsiness, and emotional arousal, as noted above), it is important to emphasize that the most commonly identified roles for theta are those concerned with declarative memory coding and retrieval (for a review, see [78]) and navigation, such as maze navigation [84, 85, 86]. In parallel to navigation in the external environment, which is electrophysiologically mediated mostly by theta activity [84, 85, 86], we will suggest that:
Hypnosis and other “internal movement” paradigms may be regarded as mental navigation.
Hypnosis can be compared with external movement and navigation in space [82].
Internal movement paradigms, such as hypnosis and meditation, are electrophysiologically mediated, among other bands, by theta activity and require greater intentionality and attention [15].
The following section will introduce several “internal movement” techniques related to both hypnosis and meditation, as well as absorption and theta activity.
Trait absorption has relevance for the study of imagery, hallucinatory or pseudo-hallucinatory experiences of altered states of consciousness, and elaborate imagination [87, 88, 89]. Individuals scoring high on trait absorption will have a markedly different experiential profile compared to those scoring low on trait absorption [89, 90], and these two groups will perform differently on tasks of attentional demand [91, 92]. The overlap between high trait absorption and (1) high hypnotizability [23, 93, 94] and (2) proficiency in meditation [95] may indicate that the correlation between the two is either “significant only when both scales are administered in the same context, thus allowing the subjects to become aware that the experimenter expected to find an association between them” ([96], pp. 849–850; see also [97], but also [98], who do not find such a context effect), or the position we support that “absorbed attention may be an important prerequisite for successful long-term practice of meditation” ([69], p. 188), and that “a deeper state of absorption seems to facilitate the entrance to a deeper ASC” ([99], pp. 126–127).
The trait-state approach to hypnosis [100] suggests that the
Furthermore, one can investigate concomitant electrophysiological changes in theta power in this trait-state interaction. For example, Graffin et al. [103] concluded from their study that “that the high-susceptible individuals displayed a decrease in EEG theta activity from the baseline period immediately preceding the hypnotic induction to that immediately following the induction, whereas the low-susceptible individuals showed an increase in EEG theta activity. This is consistent with the view that the high- and low-susceptible individuals are indeed in different cortical states prior to and following the hypnotic induction, that is to say, the induction procedure itself would be assumed to differentially affect high- and low-susceptible individuals.” Kihlstrom ([101], p. 367) has a different take on this. He comments: “Graffin et al. interpreted the changes in theta as indicative of heightened concentration among hypnotizable subjects, but the fact that theta activity decreased in hypnotizable subjects and increased in insusceptible subjects suggests that, following the induction of hypnosis, both groups of subjects were actually in very similar cortical states.” Either way, what is important here is the interaction of trait with condition in producing these shifts in theta activity.
Given that theta activity can be indicative of either the induction of a hypnagogic-like state of consciousness (which, in the present context, is closely affiliated with both meditation and hypnosis), or of highly concentrated attention [104], such shifts in theta power can be indicative of either of these. Schacter ([104], pp. 74–75) warns us that “It is not yet know whether the two “classes” of psychological events related to theta activity are essentially different processes, or whether they are different aspects of the same process ... This is a critical problem for future research. …we might question whether it is plausible to accept that theta activity observed during zazen concentration in experienced meditators indexes psychological processes that are similar to those observed in college-age volunteers when concentrating on a mental arithmetic problem.” Thus, even though, as White, et al. ([105], p. 98) have noted, the “correlation between baseline theta and hypnotizability has been described as a robust finding in the literature, proposed to result from attentional differences between high and low susceptibility groups,” without a close analysis of how such theta activity is related to the actual performance of those scoring low or high on absorption, we will remain with the problem underlined by Schacter [104]. What is promising is that “findings showing differences between highs and lows in both the
Speaking of beta, it was further found that the hypnotic depth and increased imagery and exceptionality of the hypnotic experience in highly suggestible individuals were related to fast frequencies, including beta and gamma, while the lows exhibited negative correlations between imagery on the one hand and theta and beta on the other [106].
In this context, it should also be kept in mind that beta oscillatory activity is likely to have a functional role in response selection, resembling attentional modulation of alpha activity [107]. Beta modulation was found also following “animal hypnosis,” also known as “tonic immobility” or “immobility reflex”.
The modulation depended on type of induction and session number [108, 109], supporting previous evidence that beta power has also been implicated in broader cognitive processes [107] in addition to movement and response inhibition [107].
Meditators have been found to score higher on trait absorption than controls [95, 110]. In addition, increased theta and alpha power, reflecting activity of multifunctional neuronal networks and differentially associated with orienting, attention, memory, affective, and cognitive processing, is evident in meditators [80]. Altered theta and alpha activity has consistently been reported following meditation [111]. In fact, numerous studies conducted with Western meditators, usually having less than 10 years’ experience, have reported increased power and coherence in the alpha and theta frequency bands during meditation practice [39, 111, 112]. Increased gamma power has also been reported in studies with advanced meditative practitioners [38, 73, 113, 114].
Consistent with previous meditation research (for review see [115]), also Berman and Stevens [116] found increased delta (0–4 Hz), theta, and alpha activity during meditation. When differentiating between general meditation and nondual states (in which the participant transcends the separation between self and other), the opposite trend was observed for gamma, which was higher during the meditation sessions in entirely compared to the nondual state [116]. Similarly, Berkovich-Ohana et al. [73], who examined three levels of mindfulness expertise and controls, found that mindfulness practitioners generally exhibited reduced resting-state frontal low gamma power as compared to controls, as well as decreased resting-state gamma functional connectivity representing DMN deactivation in the long-term practitioners, suggesting a trait/long-lasting effect of reduced mind-wandering and self-related processing [73, 117]. In addition, creativity, as measured by ideational fluency and flexibility, which were higher in the long-term practitioners than short-term practitioners and control participants, was negatively correlated with gamma interhemispheric functional connectivity [118]. Thus, one should keep in mind that different mediation techniques can produce different electrophysiological results, depending among others on the depth of the experience and the experimental design [116].
As we will see in the current section, studies examining perceptual movement, where movement is absent and stillness is the main feature, were also found to be related mostly on delta waves. While delta has historically been associated with sleep and pathological processes, it has recently been found to be related to both autonomic and metabolic processes, suggesting that it is involved in integration of cerebral activity with homeostatic processes, as well as in motivation and reward, as delta also increases during hunger, sexual arousal, and sustained pain [119]. Delta activity is further related to attention, salience detection, and subliminal perception, consistent with meditative states and absorption [116, 119, 120], such as in the case of Yoga Nidra [121]3.
In-line with previous research linking delta waves in meditative states [125], a recent study examined the effects of the OVO Whole-Body Perceptual Deprivation (OVO-WBPD) chamber effects on absorption in experienced meditators. The OVO, an altered sensory environment, is in the form of a human-sized egg (“uovo” means egg in Italian), within which the subject cannot easily perceive spatial coordinates. Based on the Sphere Model of Consciousness, the OVO-WBPD was specifically built with the aim of facilitating an immersive experience and an increased state of
In addition to the insula [120], theta was further linked to another main area of the salience network, namely, the anterior cingulate [126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131]. While DMN activity is negatively correlated with both hypnosis and theta activity [129, 130, 131], the salience network is thought to support the detection of subjectively important events and the mobilization of attentional and working memory resources in the service of goal-directed behavior [132, 133, 134].
As in the case of perceptual deprivation, different meditative states have also been found to be related to decreased DMN activity [73, 135, 136, 137]. Similarly, hypnosis was found to be related to decreased DMN activity [138] and suspending habitual modes of attention and achieving refined states of meta-awareness [139]. In fact, hypnotic induction increased subjective ratings of attentional absorption and decreased ratings of mind-wandering. Moreover, these changes were associated with decreased DMN activity and increased activity in prefrontal attention networks [138].
As indicated above, according to Jensen et al. [78], hypnosis can be viewed as a use of suggestions for creating changes in thoughts, feelings, or behaviors when the clinician views the client as having enough theta power to be able to respond to those suggestions. Jensen indicates that “hypnotic strategies, then, could include (1)
These converging lines of thought together with Dietrich [143, 144] support the connection between hypnosis, meditation, and acute exercise, which all result in prefrontal hypoactivation. Consequently, we now address the presence of increased theta activity following specifically structured bodily movement, focusing on several specific examples involving different degrees of diagonal movement.
It has been suggested that rhythmical bilateral diagonal body movement improves motor and cognitive functions [145, 146], such as creativity and cognitive flexibility, similar to findings for hypnosis/mediation. However, no study that we are aware of has actually examined electrophysiological changes during diagonal body movements. The diagonal axis has the role of a metaphorical rule-breaker in relation to
Shapiro [148, 149], in her original description of EMDR, proposed that its directed eye movements mimic the saccades of rapid eye movement sleep (REM), known to be electrophysiologically related to synchronous theta waves [75, 150]. In addition, Stickgold [151, 152] proposed that the repetitive redirecting of attention during EMDR induces a neurobiological state similar to that of REM sleep. Additional study findings have supported the hypothesis that EMDR promotes the transfer of episodic memory to semantic memory, which will then be consolidated during REM-like (4–6 Hz) states [153]4,5.
As mentioned above, activation of frontal areas and especially the anterior cingulate that occurs during hypnosis matches well with the behavioral changes occurring in hypnotic state, such as the intensification of focused attention (for review see [159]). Importantly, the anterior cingulate has known anatomical connections with the frontal eye field and supplementary eye field and thus plays a prominent role in regulating eye movements, such as maintenance of visual fixation and suppression of reflexive saccades [159]. For example, classical behavioral marker of hypnosis, namely, the
Only a few recent studies have examined electrophysiological changes during diagonal movements. A rare pioneering study [161] has found increased frontal theta activity during the initiation of diagonal movement, compared to purely vertical movements, which were also studied. The increased frontal theta was possibly due to greater computational effort [86, 95, 140]. Source localization further showed that the increased frontal theta activity was generated in the middle frontal cortex. In addition, the authors found a biphasic pattern of frontoparietal alpha/beta modulations during vertical movements.
Rimbert et al. [5] reported modulation in sensorimotor beta and theta activity during real movement and motor imagery; Marson et al. [161] also found biphasic modulation of alpha activity related to the second part of vertical movements (
Quadrato Motor Training is a mindful movement practice based on the Sphere Model of Consciousness. Participants are asked to move within a square (
What appears to make QMT different from other forms of physical activity is its impact on interhemispheric functional connectivity in the theta and alpha bands. In contrast to studies of other types of physical activity that focused on local changes in activity and have usually not reported changes in long-range connectivity, studies of healthy populations engaging in QMT have demonstrated both increased EEG power [168, 169] and coherence [170, 171, 172, 173], especially in the theta and alpha bands. Indeed, both single sessions and protracted periods of QMT were found to result in increased intra- and interhemispheric functional connectivity in the theta and alpha bands [170, 171, 172, 173]. Increased theta and alpha functional connectivity is thought to reflect improved cognitive functions and higher states of consciousness, due to better integration of information and communication across brain regions [174, 175, 176]. As such, these findings provide additional evidence relating to QMT’s capacity to promote cognitive and psycho-emotional well-being.
Moreover, Ben-Soussan et al. [170] also found improved spatial cognition and reflectivity in groups who underwent a single session of QMT, in comparison to two control groups that underwent either simple motor or verbal training. The improvements were thought to stem from changes in functional connectivity, as evidenced by changes in intra- and interhemispheric coherence in theta and alpha bands [170].
Until recently, there has been a paucity of studies that investigated neural modulation during meditative movement. In a recent pilot study, De Fano et al. [163] examined five volunteers performing a single session of QMT characterized by three “blocks” which are rounds of the QMT routine. Since QMT requires executive control, which involves frontal theta activity, higher frontal theta power toward the last of the three QMT blocks, compared to the starting one, is expected. Indeed, a trend of increased theta activity was observed toward the last two blocks compared to the first one, which may reflect not only the cognitive control required by QMT performance but also the increase in cognitive effort that occurs overtime [163].
Going back to the theme of navigation and its connection to attention and salience dorsal and ventral streams discussed above, which are further related to the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi [177], 6 weeks of daily QMT was further found to increase white matter integrity as indicated by increased fractional anisotropy in the superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculi, as well as in additional tracts related to sensorimotor and cognitive functions [165].
Another meditative movement paradigm, tai chi, has been more heavily studied. Several electroencephalography EEG studies have reported that tai chi can produce changes in mental state or electroencephalogram patterns associated with other alterations of cognitive or physical indices. An early study by Pan et al. [178] examined the difference in EEG theta between concentrative and non-concentrative qigong states, demonstrating that the frontal midline theta rhythm was related to the concentrative qigong state. As the theta rhythm has been suggested as one of the normal EEG patterns occurring in mental concentration, the authors concluded that the theta rhythm is an indicator of mental concentration during qigong. Notably, Field et al. [179] observed that performance on math computations significantly improved after a 20-min tai chi/yoga training course and was associated with increased frontal theta activity. Field et al. [179] further found a trend of increased theta activity and decreased self-reported anxiety, and the authors attributed this to the relaxation effects of tai chi. This increased frontal theta activity was replicated in a study of skilled female tai chi practitioners, showing a pattern typically occurring during states of relaxation and attention [180].
Additional support for the importance of external movement, in parallel to inner movement and their possible connection, related to theta activity, comes from the fact that frequent movement is preferable to one’s health over sedentary behavior, making movement therapies, when applied correctly, beneficial to chronic pain conditions, by ameliorating pain and related symptoms [181]. Moreover, the reported benefits are not only strictly related to musculoskeletal or vascular function but also with the mental dimension of well-being. For example, mindful movement practices, such as tai chi, have been found to significantly help in chronic pain management, for conditions such as osteoarthritis, low back pain, and fibromyalgia (for review, see [182]).
The Sphere Model of Consciousness [15] aims to symbolize the phenomenology of consciousness utilizing the geometrical properties of spatial coordinates within a spherical framework (see Figure 1).
The Sphere Model of Consciousness (adapted from [
Each axis of the SMC represents the deployment and polarity of an aspect of experience, with an equilibrium point in the center of the sphere and a graduated scale indicating distance from the center. The center of the sphere represents an equilibrium point, with respect to three spatial coordinates, namely: (1) a horizontal
Movement, volition, and cognition are deeply related [188, 189] and, as seen above, are all related to theta activity. In fact, it has been suggested that the nervous system has evolved to allow active movement and provide a goal-oriented plan; as such, motivation and emotion represent facets of a common phenomenon. That commonality is the motivational-emotional system, which interacts with learning and higher-order cognition [184, 185]. In contrast to meditation practices, which are thought to involve and cultivate mindfulness (being aware of one’s current mental state; about the problems in defining mindfulness, see [186, 187]), different theories of hypnosis posit that the hypnotic response is a form of strategic self-deception in regard to one’s mental state [188]. Thus, it has been suggested that hypnotic response implies a lack of mindfulness, at least regarding particular mental states about which one is strategically deceived [188].
However, we suggest that it is also the combination of attention and intentionality (and not self-deception), which should be addressed in regard to hypnosis and other states of mind [13, 14, 15]. People often engage in meditation training because they believe it will result in a specific positive outcome, having received suggestions regarding its potential benefits [56]. Such suggestions—here in the form of self-suggestions, also known as outcome expectancies—are in-line with social cognitive views of hypnosis [10, 189] that posit that hypnosis can be viewed as a use of suggestions for creating changes in thoughts, feelings, or behaviors [56]. As such, self-suggestion implies both attention and intentionality.
Importantly, as noted earlier, frontal theta EEG activity correlates negatively with default mode network activity [43]. Recalling that high theta activity facilitates response to suggestions (e.g., [56]) and plays an important role in attention [80] and intention, such as intentional learning, and intentional movement [190, 191], we suggest that the combination of attention and intention may help to explain the known variability in hypnotic responding between individuals. This, in turn, suggests that the level of hypnotizability can be related to the participant’s baseline position within the sphere [14, 15]. Together, these may have significant implications for the success of treatments.
Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of hypnosis in various clinical conditions, such as chronic pain [192]. Pain is a conscious experience, which can be considered an interpretation of the nociceptive input and potentially influenced by many factors, such as memories, emotions, and cognitions [16]. Decreased temporal-parietal theta (as well as alpha) activity during pain is consistent with a pain-related activation of the insula [193], which is known to be involved in pain processes [16]. Decreased theta connectivity was also found between the insula and the DMN in fibromyalgia, which may reflect persistent pain encoding associated with the chronic pain state in the disorder [194]. Maladaptive rumination and the re-experience of symptoms, which occur in many chronic pain conditions [195], and are known to be related to the DMN [196, 197, 198], were further found to be related to decreased theta band networks in post trauma [199]. Thus, finding ways to voluntarily move from the maladaptive and automatic narrative, which is predominant in these conditions, may aid in ameliorating symptoms.
In fact, studies found decreased DMN activation following hypnosis [138]. Decreased DMN activation, following different therapeutic approaches, is further linked to improvements in pain-related catastrophizing, which is generally self-referential, negative, and automatic [200]. In addition, there is growing evidence that mindfulness, as a volitionally initiated cognitive act, can significantly attenuate the subjective experience of pain [201]. Thus, cultivating experiential openness and acceptance, anchored in the embodied minimal self, and not in the narrative/default self, can reduce pain unpleasantness and lead to a reduction of symptoms in chronic pain patients [202, 203].
Emphasizing the importance of intentionality and its electrophysiological markers can further aid in differentiating hypnosis from “animal hypnosis” or “tonic immobility.” “Animal hypnosis” has been found to effect electrophysiological state, such as altering beta, gamma, and alpha activities, depending on the method of induction, duration, and number of sessions [108, 109]. Nevertheless, one should keep in mind that while “animal hypnosis” can be induced in different ways, ranging from restraint to visual fixation, they are all involuntary [204], while the degrees of freedom in human hypnosis, although debatable, are greater. In fact, “tonic immobility” is physiologically quite different in physiological terms (i.e., defense and anti-predation reactions) [8, 205] and is controlled by a motor inhibitory system [204]. Thus, it is not surprising that in contrast to hypnosis, tonic immobility is more related to decreased theta activity and increased delta activity [108, 109], which are both inversely related to intentionality and volition [206]. Together these emphasize the importance of the intentionality aspect in human hypnosis. Nevertheless, it has been argued that hypnotic ability in humans may have evolved at least in part to allow for the control of pain and anxiety after injury, thereby reducing the likelihood of attack by predators [207].
In conclusion, although not a systematic review of this topic, this chapter offers three primary ideas for further consideration: (1) hypnosis and other “internal movement” paradigms may be regarded as mental navigation, (2) they can be compared to external movement and navigation in space, and (3) they are electrophysiologically mediated primarily by theta activity and require greater intentionality and attention. Based on the SMC, this may be related to an intentional shift away from DMN activity, which is anticorrelated with theta activity, and toward clear goal direction, represented by the center of the sphere. Thus, combined multidisciplinary examination of the connection between consciousness and hypnosis, encompassing cognitive psychology and motor and contemplative neuroscience, would produce greater theoretical understanding and implications on consciousness and hypnosis practice. First, in order to reach our personal and social aims, one can and should train to internally move intentionally from an automatic Narrative to the Minimal self, and eventually reach the state of Overcoming the Self, in order to know and better master one’s own perceptions and mental processing. This idea is also related to the works of Charles Tart [208], who describes our ordinary everyday experience as being in a state similar to hypnotic trance, where we are not sleeping but neither are we truly awake. The solution to this state of affairs, similarly to current contemplative neuroscience results presented here, necessitates waking up to our true selves through a process of self-observation and self-remembrance [11, 12, 14, 208].
Second, the parallels between these two lines of research, namely, the similar electrophysiological modulation present in hypnosis, real movement, and motor imagery and the findings related to diagonal movement, can have a useful impact on the field; it can do so by helping to validate reliable electrophysiological effects of hypnosis and increase our understanding of the related biological mechanisms and connections to internal and external movement. If confirmed in future research, these ideas may have important implications for enhancing the response to hypnosis treatments and for customized, combined therapeutic modalities. In turn, emphasizing the importance of intentional inner and outer navigation and their electrophysiological signature can also aid in differentiating between the different techniques and their possible synergetic effects.
In summary, as we know, hypnosis has many benefits, including the relief of chronic pain. These benefits are possible due to knowledge gained related to how the mind works and thus the possibility of leading it into specific mental and neural states, as is the case with hypnosis. The investigation of the connections between hypnosis and theta activity, among others, further demonstrates an affinity between meditative practices and hypnosis, and that intentionality can play an important role in leading oneself into desired states. In these states we are able to know ourselves better and master our perceptions and the interpretation we give of them. Training ourselves in this direction can, therefore, improve our well-being and quality of life. Future studies should combine behavioral, neuroanatomical, and electrophysiological measures to help in distinguishing different types of hypnotic states and practices, as well as to examine the role of the person’s detached and attentive intentionality in reaching them.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). 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It provides a novel ALIZA Canvas and ALIZA Process supported by a comprehensive ALIZA Toolset. This output is derived from observed, tangible deficiencies in contemporary functional communications in manufacturing. This study proposes an innovative approach with robust methodologies for strategic alignment of the technical and business components in manufacturing. The requirement for a supplementary educational infrastructure, to address the pronounced educational shortcomings and knowledge gaps in the transition to Industry 4.0 is outlined. An explanation is provided of how E-Cubers (our own educational organization) will design, develop, and deliver educational programmes on Topics relevant to achieving Industry 4.0 Equipment Engineering Excellence. It defines and tests the novel concept of the E-Cubers Eight Ps; encompassing prioritized problem solving, via portfolios and projects, through peer collaboration within a defined technology playground with emphasis on learning and playing with passion. The E-Cubers Eight Ps is combined with The E-Cubers Library to deliver a truly comprehensive specialist, national learning framework. This holistic approach will ultimately enable Ireland to lead the way in Industry 4.0 by doing what we do best “ag spraoi agus ag imirt” (Gaelic – playing by having fun and competing).",book:{id:"7436",slug:"new-trends-in-industrial-automation",title:"New Trends in Industrial Automation",fullTitle:"New Trends in Industrial Automation"},signatures:"Shane Loughlin",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"119",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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