Registered pesticides in Nepal till 14 July, 2020.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7458",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Accuracy of GNSS Methods",title:"Accuracy of GNSS Methods",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Following the GPS, new GNSS techniques are emerging today. Various surveying and processing methods are available for the analysis of GNSS data. Equipment and software are also varied. The orbit quality, controlled by the system designer, and the IGS are continuously improved. The user is mainly interested in the quality of position and of the deformation rates produced by the GNSS. Hence, research needs to guide the user in terms of selecting the best combination of the available methods and instrumentation to produce the desired accuracy. This book reviews the current available accuracy obtainable using the GNSS methods. In fact, the main aim of this book is to make an impact on young researchers so that they keep updating the accuracy of GNSS for future generations.",isbn:"978-1-78984-926-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-925-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-824-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75424",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"accuracy-of-gnss-methods",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a14e33dccec2e13f34de6b9374364a5c",bookSignature:"Dogan Ugur Sanli",publishedDate:"January 16th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7458.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7914,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 21st 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 14th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 13th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 1st 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 30th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"245723",title:"Dr.",name:"Dogan Ugur",middleName:null,surname:"Sanli",slug:"dogan-ugur-sanli",fullName:"Dogan Ugur Sanli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245723/images/6878_n.jpg",biography:"Obtained his PhD from Newcastle University, UK. Studied sea level rise using GPS in his PhD thesis. In particular, specialized in vertical crustal deformation monitoring using GPS. Then moved into the area of GPS positioning accuracy. Managed to model both vertical and horizontal accuracy for relative-PPP and PPP. He also studied GPS positioning accuracy for rapid-static positioning for BERNESE and OPUS-RS software. On the other hand, he continued co-authoring sea level studies. He was involved in NEAMTWS Tsunami Warning efforts under the auspices of UNESCO. He was a member of Sea Level Working Group 3. Currently he is interested in assessing the accuracy of GPS positioning velocities with the focus on PPP derived positions from repeated GPS surveys.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Yıldız Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"653",title:"Remote Sensing",slug:"geology-and-geophysics-remote-sensing"}],chapters:[{id:"63737",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Philosophy Behind the Accuracy Assessment of GNSS Methods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81288",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-philosophy-behind-the-accuracy-assessment-of-gnss-methods",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Dogan Ugur Sanli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63737",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63737",authors:[{id:"245723",title:"Dr.",name:"Dogan Ugur",surname:"Sanli",slug:"dogan-ugur-sanli",fullName:"Dogan Ugur Sanli"}],corrections:null},{id:"63574",title:"Evaluation Methods of Satellite Navigation System Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81034",slug:"evaluation-methods-of-satellite-navigation-system-performance",totalDownloads:1064,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the development of global satellite navigation system, for example, global positioning system (GPS) and so on, some regional navigation systems and augmentation systems are developing rapidly. The continuous development of satellite navigation system has attracted the users’ attention to satellite navigation performance, which makes the navigation system performance become the key of satellite navigation system competition in the field of GNSS applications. The signal in space (SIS) continuity evaluation model based on the reliability is established, and the mean time between failures (MTBF) is used to characterize the probability that there is no continuity loss in unit time. Aiming at the incompleteness of the current availability model, a per-satellite availability evaluation models based on Markov process is established. Moreover, the constellation availability evaluation model is proposed by combining the satellite failure rate, repair rate and backup situation. By analyzing the measured data, the probability of the continuity and availability of GPS and BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) are calculated respectively. The results are instructive for the study of the availability performance monitoring and the evaluation of global BDS.",signatures:"Ershen Wang, He He and Chaoying Jia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63574",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63574",authors:[{id:"251168",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",surname:"Wang",slug:"dr.-wang",fullName:"Dr. Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"63070",title:"Robust GNSS Positioning in Urban Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80412",slug:"robust-gnss-positioning-in-urban-environment",totalDownloads:1243,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the past years, global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) have gained the core position concerning the geolocalization applications and services in urban environments. The major issue of the GNSS-based urban application expansion is related to the positioning service quality assurance, expressed in terms of accuracy, integrity, availability, and continuity of the localization service. The dense urban environments, such as city centers, are challenging to the GNSS signal reception causing the frequent blockage of the line-of-sight (LOS) signals and the multipath phenomenon, referred to as the reception of the diffracted/reflected echoes of the transmitted signal. These effects severely affect the pseudo-range and Doppler measurements, used by a GNSS receiver for the user’s position computation, which will further induce the computation of an erroneous positioning solution by the navigation processor down to a positioning loss in the presence of limited satellite visibility and few provided measurements. Therefore, advanced signal processing techniques do represent viable solutions aiming at the mitigation of these undesired effects in order to foster the accuracy and availability of the localization solution. This chapter will address in details the GNSS vector tracking (VT) receiver’s configuration able to cope with the urban environment-induced effects.",signatures:"Enik Shytermeja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63070",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63070",authors:[{id:"247893",title:"Dr.",name:"Enik",surname:"Shytermeja",slug:"enik-shytermeja",fullName:"Enik Shytermeja"}],corrections:null},{id:"62312",title:"GPS Scintillations and Total Electron Content Climatology in the Southern American Sector",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79218",slug:"gps-scintillations-and-total-electron-content-climatology-in-the-southern-american-sector",totalDownloads:1222,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The radio communication and navigation systems can be strongly affected by the ionospheric conditions, which are controlled by solar phenomena associated with radiation variations and solar wind disturbances. These phenomena can generate ionospheric large-scale plasma redistribution and irregularities with scale sizes varying from centimeters to hundred kilometers. These ionospheric irregularities can produce rapid fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of global navigation satellite system (GNSS) signals, degrading the accuracy of GNSS measurements. Here we give a short review of the ionospheric variations associated with solar phenomena, and the actual state of art in the investigations of long-term (seasonal and solar cycle scales) TEC variations and climatology of scintillations, with focus on the southern American sector. It also presented a new TEC calibration procedure when applied to single-frequency PPP.",signatures:"Emília Correia, Marcio Tadeu de Assis Honorato Muella, Lucilla\nAlfonsi, Fabricio dos Santos Prol and Paulo de Oliveira Camargo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62312",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62312",authors:[{id:"249305",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",surname:"Correia",slug:"emilia-correia",fullName:"Emilia Correia"},{id:"259537",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcio",surname:"Muella",slug:"marcio-muella",fullName:"Marcio Muella"},{id:"259539",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucilla",surname:"Alfonsi",slug:"lucilla-alfonsi",fullName:"Lucilla Alfonsi"},{id:"259540",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabricio",surname:"Prol",slug:"fabricio-prol",fullName:"Fabricio Prol"},{id:"259541",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",surname:"Camargo",slug:"paulo-camargo",fullName:"Paulo Camargo"}],corrections:null},{id:"62255",title:"Evaluation of GNSS Data with Internet Based Services: The Case of HRUH Station",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79064",slug:"evaluation-of-gnss-data-with-internet-based-services-the-case-of-hruh-station",totalDownloads:970,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, as the Internet services are developed, it becomes possible to offer services for many applications in the engineering field online via the Internet. One of these services is the evaluation of online GPS data. The most important feature of Internet-based applications is that these services are free and easy to use. In this study, the data of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) of different periods belonging to newly established HRUH permanent GNSS station in Harran University were evaluated through Internet-based services. The evaluation strategy of GNSS data was conducted in 1-, 2-, 6-, 12-, and 24-h campaigns, and the results were compared between different Internet site solution results. When the results obtained are examined, it can be said that the accuracy of the data obtained from these services can be used in many applications requiring precision in centimeter levels and is capable of satisfying the expectancies.",signatures:"Mustafa Ulukavak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62255",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62255",authors:[{id:"247738",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Ulukavak",slug:"mustafa-ulukavak",fullName:"Mustafa Ulukavak"}],corrections:null},{id:"63924",title:"Comparative Study of Some Online GNSS Post-Processing Services at Selected Permanent GNSS Sites in Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79924",slug:"comparative-study-of-some-online-gnss-post-processing-services-at-selected-permanent-gnss-sites-in-n",totalDownloads:1496,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Many applications in surveying and mapping have been made simpler and more precise due to the advent of GNSS, and thus, the demand for using cutting-edge GNSS techniques in surveying and mapping applications has become indispensable. Online GNSS post-processing services are now available to provide support for users in need of precise point positioning or conventional differential positioning services and without requiring a prior knowledge of GNSS processing software. This study evaluates the performance of some online GNSS facilities with emphasis on observation duration (i.e. 1hr, 2hr, 6hr 12hr and 24hr observations). Three of these online facilities (AUSPOS, GAPS and magic-GNSS) were chosen based on their mode of operation and were evaluated at the location of five permanent GNSS stations in Nigeria. The study cut across two epochs in the year 2014 (i.e. seven days each in the months of January and July). Results in this study indicate that users can expect reliable results from these online services and their accuracy is within allowable limits for mapping applications in Nigeria. The similarity of the results between all of the services used is amazing, thus further demonstrates the robustness of the algorithms and processes employed by the different online facilities.",signatures:"Olalekan Adekunle Isioye, Mefe Moses and Lukman Abdulmumin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63924",authors:[{id:"246437",title:"Dr.",name:"Olalekan",surname:"Isioye",slug:"olalekan-isioye",fullName:"Olalekan Isioye"},{id:"260387",title:"Mr.",name:"Mefe",surname:"Moses",slug:"mefe-moses",fullName:"Mefe Moses"},{id:"260388",title:"BSc.",name:"Abdulmumin",surname:"Lukman",slug:"abdulmumin-lukman",fullName:"Abdulmumin Lukman"}],corrections:null},{id:"62619",title:"Development of Recurrent Method with Rotation for Combined Adjustment of Terrestrial Geodetic and GNSS Networks in National Spatial Reference System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78770",slug:"development-of-recurrent-method-with-rotation-for-combined-adjustment-of-terrestrial-geodetic-and-gn",totalDownloads:1031,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A construction of national spatial reference systems (NSRS) is promoted in many countries due to modern achievements of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) methods and results of building of high accurate geoid/quasi-geoid models at centimeter level of accuracy. One of the most popular methods used for the construction of the NSRS is related to Helmert block adjustment method, by which we ought to solve techno-scientific task of a separate adjustment of GNSS network in International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) and next combination of a results of adjustment of the terrestrial geodetic and GNSS networks in the NSRS. In this chapter, we carry out a research on the usage of a recurrent adjustment method with Givens rotation for solving the abovementioned task on an account of its advantages of being effective for application of a technique of sparse matrix, outlier detection and very simple for solving the subsystem of observation equations, created based on the transformation of the results of the separate adjustment of the GNSS network from the ITRF into the NSRS. The experiment results of solving the abovementioned task for the GPS network in the North Vietnam had shown that the horizontal and vertical position accuracy of the GPS points in VN2000–3D had reached the few centimeter level.",signatures:"Ha Minh Hoa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62619",authors:[{id:"247148",title:"Dr.",name:"Ha",surname:"Hoa",slug:"ha-hoa",fullName:"Ha Hoa"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3343",title:"Advances in Geoscience and Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d40150daaa27a3f6aa378ff979c402b7",slug:"advances-in-geoscience-and-remote-sensing",bookSignature:"Gary Jedlovec",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3343.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4191",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",surname:"Jedlovec",slug:"gary-jedlovec",fullName:"Gary Jedlovec"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2280",title:"Remote Sensing",subtitle:"Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ceea9c29b9b1f05fc128ae2cf564f110",slug:"remote-sensing-applications",bookSignature:"Boris Escalante-Ramirez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111500",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Escalante",slug:"boris-escalante",fullName:"Boris Escalante"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1340",title:"Remote Sensing",subtitle:"Advanced Techniques and Platforms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"336dcc589420ec91a5fdc29720442313",slug:"remote-sensing-advanced-techniques-and-platforms",bookSignature:"Boris Escalante-Ramirez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1340.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111500",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Escalante",slug:"boris-escalante",fullName:"Boris Escalante"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3838",title:"Advanced Geoscience Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"74f648b4e5f6fb290baeb0642c037c1d",slug:"advanced-geoscience-remote-sensing",bookSignature:"Maged Marghany",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3838.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96666",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Maged",surname:"Marghany",slug:"dr.-maged-marghany",fullName:"Dr. Maged Marghany"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6540",title:"Multifunctional Operation and Application of GPS",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8e4255f626679a5ba02da035d8c0aea",slug:"multifunctional-operation-and-application-of-gps",bookSignature:"Rustam B. 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Encoder",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74512.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74512",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74512",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74512",chapter:{id:"70013",slug:"many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited 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Sandoval-Gutierrez",slug:"jacobo-sandoval-gutierrez",email:"jacobosandoval@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305587",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Fernandez",fullName:"Mario Aguilar-Fernandez",slug:"mario-aguilar-fernandez",email:"maguilarf@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"70013",slug:"many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"118717",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Cedillo",fullName:"Jesús Antonio Álvarez-Cedillo",slug:"jesus-antonio-alvarez-cedillo",email:"jaalvarez@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305584",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodoro",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sanchez",fullName:"Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez",slug:"teodoro-alvarez-sanchez",email:"talvares@citedi.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305586",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacobo",middleName:null,surname:"Sandoval-Gutierrez",fullName:"Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",slug:"jacobo-sandoval-gutierrez",email:"jacobosandoval@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305587",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Aguilar-Fernandez",fullName:"Mario Aguilar-Fernandez",slug:"mario-aguilar-fernandez",email:"maguilarf@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited 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\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to include topics on modern approaches, procedures, algorithms, as well as devices in the field of spaces and dimensions for 3D graphics, descriptions, representations and formats of 3D objects/worlds/scenes, linear and nonlinear transformations of 3D objects, transformation sequences and projections, curves and surfaces in 3D, 3D morphing and warping, 3D scanning and 3D printing, solutions for visibility, shading and lighting techniques, photorealism in 3D, implementation of 3D computer graphics using virtual reality and related technologies, as well as 3D user interfaces.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d5b62fbb7d0c97b88977912a7205c647",bookSignature:"Dr. Branislav Sobota",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11191.jpg",keywords:"3D, Computer Graphics, 3D Object, 3D Transformation, 3D Scanning, 3D Printing, Visibility Solving, Photorealism, Virtual Reality, User Interface, Transformation Sequence, Shading and Lighting",numberOfDownloads:245,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 15th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 23rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Branislav Sobota acts as the head of the LIRKIS DCI FEEI TU Košice (laboratory for research and development of new flexible and intelligent interfaces based on computer graphics and virtual reality technologies) and is a holder of 2 patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",middleName:null,surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/109378/images/system/109378.jpeg",biography:"Branislav Sobota was born on 1967. In 1990, he graduated (MSc.) with honours at the Department of Computers and Informatics of the FEEI at Technical University in Košice. He defended his PhD. in 1999 and habilitation thesis in the field of virtual reality and computer graphics in 2008. He is working as an associate professor at the Department of Computers and Informatics Technical University of Kosice, Slovakia. His scientific research is focusing on computer graphics, parallel computing and especially virtual reality and related technologies.\n\nA researcher in virtual reality and related technologies, head of the LIRKIS DCI FEEI TU Košice (laboratory for research and development of new flexible and intelligent interfaces based on computer graphics and virtual reality technologies) and holder of 2 patents (Interactive school desk and Virtual control panel).",institutionString:"Technical University of Košice",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Technical University of Košice",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:[{id:"80515",title:"View Synthesis Tool for VR Immersive Video",slug:"view-synthesis-tool-for-vr-immersive-video",totalDownloads:126,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80516",title:"3D Computer Graphics and Virtual Reality",slug:"3d-computer-graphics-and-virtual-reality",totalDownloads:58,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80181",title:"Enabling a 3-D Cyberspace Experience Online",slug:"enabling-a-3-d-cyberspace-experience-online",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429341",firstName:"Paula",lastName:"Gavran",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"paula@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7603",title:"Mixed Reality and Three-Dimensional Computer Graphics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96e6d4a84d98903e442415024f7403f5",slug:"mixed-reality-and-three-dimensional-computer-graphics",bookSignature:"Branislav Sobota and Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7603.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7435",title:"Computer Graphics and Imaging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"889abc91038189c977749c2175bbc8e2",slug:"computer-graphics-and-imaging",bookSignature:"Branislav Sobota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7435.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"72167",title:"Terpenoids as Important Bioactive Constituents of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91426",slug:"terpenoids-as-important-bioactive-constituents-of-essential-oils",body:'\nThe use of plant and plant-derived natural products for medicinal, religious, and cosmetic purposes has a history dating back to the emergence of humanity. Exploring natural plant products as an option to find new chemical entities as leads is one of the fastest growing areas of research. Medicinal plants are rich sources of bioactive phytochemicals and/or bionutrients, which have shown important role in preventing chronic diseases like cancers, diabetes, and coronary heart diseases [1]. It is well documented that plants produce these chemicals to protect themselves, but they also protect plants from diseases and damages and contribute to the plant’s color, aroma, and flavor [2]. The pharmaceutical properties of aromatic plants are partially attributed to essential oils (EOs), which can also be seen as an important group of plant secondary metabolites. Although the use of EOs has been primarily related to food flavorings, cosmetics, and perfumes due to their aroma, research demonstrates the high potential of the use of volatile monoterpene constituents to cure and prevent human diseases [3, 4]. During the recent years, plant EOs have come more into the focus of phytomedicine and aromatherapy; hence their widespread use has raised more interest to scientists in basic research, especially their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. In general, EOs consist of chemical mixtures involving from several tens to hundreds of different types of molecules, most of them being complex natural mixture of terpene and phenylpropanoids (benzene derivatives) which are responsible for their biological activities [5, 6]. At the first glance, terpenes and EOs can seem alike; both can come from plants and are aromatic; for many they are used for the same purpose. These similarities have led to a wide misconception that they are same, but this is not necessary the case [7].
\nA plethora of practical definitions of the term essential or volatile oils exist. Essential oils are concentrated aromatic hydrophobic oily volatile liquids characterized by a strong odor and produced by different plant materials such as flowers, peels, rhizomes, buds, seeds, leaves, twigs, bark, herbs or grass, wood, fruits, roots, and whole plant from one single botanic species [7, 8, 9]. However, EOs with a specific characteristic (including chemical properties and biological activities) are generally obtained from a single botanical source when the age of the plant, the climate, and the edaphic and harvest period are relatively identical [10]. They are called “essential oils” because they contain the “essence” of the plant material. A few are produced by animals and microorganisms [11]. Mosses, liverworts, seaweeds, and fungi have also been shown to contain EOs. EOs are limpid, rarely colored, and soluble in nonpolar or weakly polar organic solvents and of lower density (lighter) than water, with very few exceptions [12]. They are usually colorless particularly when fresh, but few may also be pale yellow (yellow mandarin), blue (
The quality and the quantity of EOs in plant material depends on the climate, the soil type, the age and vegetable cycle stage, the preparation method, chemotypes, as well as the plant organ [8]. An estimated 3000 EOs, from about 2000 plants, are of great value and are used in a very large variety of fields [15, 16]. All plants possess principally the ability to produce volatile compounds, quite often, however, only in traces. Those plants that can produce an EO of commercial interest are called essential oils plants [17]. EOs occur specially in higher plants (with about 17,500 known species) but are distributed in good amount in a limited number of families including Myrtaceae, Myristicaceae, Oleaceae, Rosaceae, Acoraceae, Cupressaceae, Lauraceae, Compositae, Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Umbelliferae, Apiaceae, Poaceae, Zingiberaceae, etc. [18, 19, 20, 21].
\nIn most cases, the biological function of EOs remains obscure. They are nowadays subject of intensive scientific research and also attract attention of diverse industries due to their potentials as active pharmacological compounds or natural preservatives [22]. Their ecological role is however well studied and described. The most known are plant interactions (allelopathic agents, germination inhibitors) and plant–animal interactions for protection against predators (insects, fungi, herbivores) and attraction of pollinating insect to their host [23]. Industries have always had special interest on the microbial safety of cosmetics, as microbial spoilage can lead to product degradation and cause a risk for customers’ health. EOs and drugs containing them are of great importance in pharmacy, perfumery (heal, perfume, incense, household cleaning products), food technology (favor for food, drinks, spices, preservative), agriculture (insecticide), and aromatherapy. Their importance is nowadays known and appreciated in plant chemotaxonomy [24, 25].
\nThe world production and consumption of EOs and perfumes are increasing very fast. Production technology of EOs is an essential element to improve their overall yield. They are obtained from raw material by several extraction techniques such as water or steam distillation, solvent extraction, expression under pressure, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid, or subcritical water extractions [22, 26, 27, 28]. The best extraction method to use depends on the ease of evaporating (volatility) and the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity (polarity) of the desired components. The extraction method chosen greatly affects the chemical composition of EOs.
\nThey are the most frequently used method for the extraction of EOs from plants.
\nIt is the oldest and easiest conventional method of extraction of EOs [11, 29, 30, 31]. The principle is based on the isotropic distillation. The plant material soaks up water during the boiling process, and the oil contained in the oil cells diffuses through the cell walls by means of osmosis. The distillation time depends on the plants material being processed (Figure 1).
\nDiagrammatic illustration of hydrodistillation (HD) method [
The principle of this technique is that the combined vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure at about 100°C so that the volatile components with the boiling points ranging from 150 to 300°C can be evaporated at a temperature close to that of water. The steam distillation takes advantage of the volatility of a compound to evaporate when heated with steam and the hydrophobicity of the compound to separate into an oil phase during the condensation process (Figure 2) [33].
\nDiagrammatic illustration of steam distillation method [
Also known as liquid–liquid partitioning, its principle is based on the solubility in an organic solvent non-mixable to water. This technique is used on delicate plants to produce higher amounts of EOs at a lower cost. The method is limited by the compound solubility in the specific solvent used, long extraction time, relatively high solvent consumption and often unsatisfactory reproducibility and purity (Figure 3) [33].
\nIllustration of liquid–liquid extraction method.
Typically, it is a solid–liquid extraction used when the desired compound has a limited solubility in a solvent and the impurity is insoluble in that solvent. There are several advantages of using this technique. These advantages include:
Low solvent consumption for a larger amount of raw material,
Repeatedly brought into contact with fresh portions of the solvent, this prevents the possibility of the solvent to become saturated with extractable material and enhances the removal of analyte from the matrix. Moreover, the temperature of the system is close to the boiling point of the solvent. This helps to increase the extraction kinetic of the system.
As disadvantages, it requires several hours or days to be performed; moreover, the sample is diluted in a large volume of solvent.
\nDue to heating, the thermal degradation and volatilization of components have been observed, and hydrolysis of esters to yield alcohols and carboxylic acids can occur (Figure 4) [34].
\nSoxhlet equipment [
Also kwon as scarification method, this is one of the best methods to extract EOs. The term cool pressed theoretically means that the oil is expeller-pressed at low temperature and pressure. This process insures that the resulting oil is 100% pure and retains all the properties of the plant. Here the heat is reduced and minimized throughout the batching of the raw material. EOs are then separated from the material by centrifugation [36].
\nSince economy, competitiveness, eco-friendly, sustainability, operation costs, high efficiency, and good quality become keywords of the modern industrial production, the development of EO extraction techniques has never been interrupted. The most relevant disadvantage of conventional techniques are time and solvent consumption and also related to the thermolability of EOs components which undergo chemical alteration (hydrolyze, isomerization, oxidation) due to the high applied temperatures [37]. The quality of the obtained oil is damaged, particularly if the extraction time is long. It is important that the extraction method maintain the chemical composition and the natural proportion at its original state. Strictly speaking, conventional methods are not the only way for the removal of EOs. Novel techniques known as innovative have been developed for this purpose but may not necessarily be widely used for commercial production due to the high cost of production of oils without any alteration of their thermosensitive components (Figure 5).
\nCold pressing apparatus and procedure distillation method [
It is a process of separating one component (the extractant) from another (the matrix) using supercritical fluids as the extracting solvent. In practice, more than 90% of all analytical supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is performed with carbon dioxide (CO2) as the most used fluid. The CO2 is chosen for several reasons including the following: relatively low critical pressure (74 bars) and temperature (32°C), inertness, non-toxic, nonflammable, high soluble, non-corrosive, safe, available in high purity at relatively low cost, perfect conditions for thermosensitive compounds extraction, selectivity for desired compounds, and easy removal from the extract. At lower temperatures, to avoid potential damage of desired components of EOs, supercritical CO2 extraction technique is highly recommended [39, 40]. Extraction of EOs by SFs, particularly with CO2, provides products free of toxic waste, having a higher quality (especially it reserves the thermal instability of compounds) than EOs obtained by conventional methods (Figure 6) [40, 41, 42].
\nFlow diagram of SC-CO2 extraction [
SFEAP is a novel technique of extraction recently developed by Johner and collaborators [43]. It integrated both the cold-pressed extraction method and the SFE technique. Here, the solid raw material is loaded inside the extraction vessel, and a cold pressing is provided by contracting an under pressure piston with the raw material. SFEAP has been shown to offer faster extraction rate at 333 K and 40 MPa with the best yield [44]. Its advantages include gain of extraction time and solvent consumption. This technique has been used to extract EOs from
Schematic diagram of SFEAP apparatus [
The principle of the microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) is based upon its direct impact with polar materials/solvents and is governed by two phenomena: ionic conduction and dipole rotation, which in most cases occurs simultaneously [46]. MAHD has been shown to reduce both extraction time and volume of solvent required, minimizing environmental impact by emitting less CO2 in atmosphere [47, 48, 49]. Some recently reported studies have successfully utilized a microwave oven for the extraction of volatile active components from plants [50]. It has been regarded as an important alternative in conventional extraction techniques because of its advantages which mainly are a reduction of extraction time, solvents, selectivity, volumetric heating, and controllable heating process (Figure 8) [51].
\nSchematic and picture of MAHD apparatus [
The basic principle of ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to extract EOs from plant raw material consist of generating sound waves (ultrasound frequency about 20 KHz), which create cavitation bubbles in the solution and produce enough energy to break the structure containing the oil in order to release it. Moreover, UAE can act as an emulsifier dispersing lipophilic molecules in water, this facilitating the subsequent separation and purification of EOs [54, 55]. This technique was developed in 1950 [56]. It has been used to extract many EOs especially from flowers, leaves, or seeds [32, 55]. As known disadvantages, it requires filtration steps, and possible degradation of compounds at high frequencies occurs (Figure 9) [57].
\nUltrasound-assisted extraction (UAE): from laboratory (a) to pilot scale (b) [
Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is a process of using microwave energy to heat the solvent in contact with a sample in order to partition analytes from the sample into the solvent. The ability to rapidly heat the sample solvent mixture is inherent to MAE and is the main advantage of this technique [59]. It is a recent green technology broadly used to extract various EOs from plant. It has been established as an alternative method to conventional heating because it allows gain of time, volume of solvent used, and amount of biomass needed while increasing the extraction yield [28]. In most cases, recoveries of analytes and reproducibility are improved compared to conventional techniques (Figure 10) [59].
\nPicture and schematic diagram of the microwave oven adaptation to perform MAE [
Solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) is proposed as a method for “green” extraction of edible EOs from fresh plant material, at atmospheric pressure without addition of water or organic solvent [61]. The SFME apparatus (Figure 3) is an original combination of microwave heating and dry distillation at atmospheric pressure. Based on a relatively simple principle, this method involves placing the plant material in a microwave reactor, without adding any solvent or water. The internal heating of the in situ water within the fresh plant material distends the plant cells and leads to the rupture of the glands and oleiferous receptacles. This process thus free EO which is evaporated by in situ water of the plant material. A cooling system outside the microwave oven condensed the distillate continuously. The excess of water is refluxed to the extraction vessel in order to restore in situ water to the plant material. At the end, EO is removed from the aqueous extract by simple decantation. SFME is neither a modified microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) which uses organic solvents nor a modified hydrodistillation process which uses a large amount of water; it can be consider as a dry distillation process, with water coming from the fresh plant material [62, 63, 64]. As advantages, the SFME method increases the EO yield, ameliorate the EO composition, eliminate the waste of water treatment, and also contributes to limited time, and lower an energy consumption (Figure 11) [62].
\nSchematic representation of the solvent-free microwave extraction apparatus [
Microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG) is a new green extraction technique of EOs developed by Vian and collaborators in 2008. This green extraction technique is an original “upside down” microwave alembic combining microwave heating and earth gravity at atmospheric pressure [65]. MHG has become not only an economic and efficient but also an environmental- and eco-friendly, not require water or solvent and as it does require less energy (Figure 12) [65, 66].
\nSchematic representation of the microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity [
As the consumption of EOs is growing up annually, their world production by different companies to satisfy the market demand has been increasing every year. The quality control of produced EOs has become then necessary to ensure the genuineness of the product, the shelf life, and the storage conditions [67]. The EO composition can sometimes be falsified by adding cheaper oils; it is often necessary to characterize small differences between oils that correspond to variation in geographic or genetic origin of the plant material. EOs analysis can be summarized in few points: the qualitative composition, the quantitative determination (major and/or minor constituents), and the detection of alteration of true EOs. With regard to the quality aspect of the EO, the identity and the purity are always investigated. Their physical properties are commonly assessed by specific gravity, the relative density, the optical rotation, the refractive index, etc.
\nMost of the methods applied in the analysis of EOs rely on chromatographic procedures, which enable component separation and identification. These include gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS), gas chromatography-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (GC-FT-IR), gas chromatography-Fourier transform infrared spectrometry-mass spectrometry (GC-FT-IR-MS), gas chromatography-atomic emission detector (GC-AED), gas chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IR-MS), on-line coupled liquid chromatography-gas chromatography (LC-GC), and multidimensional gas chromatography (MDGC) [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78].
\nA considerable large number of studies on EOs to evaluate their pharmacological properties and toxicity in order to find possible alternative medicine have become active in recent years [79]. EOs are known to exhibit a large range of biological activities.
\nIt is one of the most intensively studied properties of EOs. This could be explained by the damages of various biological substances by oxidation which subsequently causes many degenerative and/or metabolic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, arthritis, inflammation, and Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease just to name a few [80, 81, 82, 83, 84]. EOs are known as rich sources of potential antioxidants that can be investigated to prevent oxidative damage [85]. Antioxidants comprise substances that, in low concentrations, significantly delay or inhibit the oxidation of the substrate [86]. Volatile compounds in EO, beside their protective antioxidant activity, can also act as prooxidant, by affecting the cellular redox status and damage cellular biomolecules, in the first instance proteins and DNA [15]. All these must be taken into account when antioxidant properties of EOs are considered.
\nAlthough phenolic compounds are recognized as being responsible for the antioxidant ability, recent studies showed that volatile components could also individually and/or in mixture (essential oil) contribute to the whole antioxidant ability. EO of lemon balm (
Cancer is a worldwide public health concern with 18.1 million people been diagnosed with the disease annually. It is the second largest single leading cause of death claiming in excess of 9.6 million lives in the world in 2018, with approximately 70% of deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries [88]. Current valuable drugs used in the treatment include vinblastine, vincristine, camptothecin, and Taxol [89]. Many studies pointed out the anticancer properties of plants. Over 500 research papers are published on the anticancer activity of EOs [90, 91, 92, 93], even though, till date, there are no scientific studies showing that aromatherapy can cure or prevent cancer. Most promising research results obtained from in vitro studies revealed that EOs were found to affect cancer cell lines in petri dishes. EOs are well known for their anti-inflammatory activity; hence it appeared that EOs could also have anticancer effects as there is a relationship between the production of reactive oxygen species to the origin of oxidation and inflammation that can lead to cancer. More than 100 EOs from more than 20 families of plants have been tested on more than 20 different types of cancers in the past 10 years [94]. Bourgou and collaborators showed that the EO from seeds of black cumin (
EOs are well-kwon as antimicrobial agents and are well documented in numerous research works. Their antimicrobial activity depends not only on the presence of the main active compounds but also on the interaction between different components which can have synergistic or antagonistic actions. It also depends on the content, concentration, interaction between main active components, and susceptibility of microorganisms [97, 98]. The inactive compounds might influence resorption, the rate of the reactions, as well as biological activities of active compounds. The combination of both major and minor components can thus modify the activity to exert significant synergistic or antagonistic effect [99, 100]. EOs extracted from cinnamon, oregano, and thyme showed significant antibacterial activities against
In general, EOs in decreasing order of antimicrobial activities are reportedly as follows: oregano (
Antibiotic resistance is one of the most serious health burdens worldwide due to the continuous appearance of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains. The bacteria that cause the most major clinical problems are
New agents that are effective against common pathogens are needed particularly for those resistant to conventional antiviral agents. The ability of viruses to persist in fresh products, as well as their low infectious dose, could lead to serious foodborne problems [111]. Plants and plant-derived natural products provide unlimited opportunities for new antiviral drugs. Many EOs have been investigated in recent years toward their antiviral activity. As conclusion of their work, Reichling and collaborators reported that particular free viruses are very sensitive to EOs [112].
\nMost of EOs have been firstly identified and used for the treatment of inflammatory and oxidative diseases.
The insect repellent activity of EOs is well studied and many research papers have been published. The EOs of
EOs of the leaves of
EOs are generally very complex mixture (60–300) of nonpolar and semipolar lipophilic constituents of low molecular weight, at different concentrations with two or three appearing to be major ones [116, 117]:
Terpenoids
Straight-chain compounds not containing any side chain
Aromatic and phenolic components
Sulfured derivatives
The variation in odor and taste of EO depends on the plants variety, the harvesting seasons, the geographical location, the drying methods, and the extraction techniques [102, 118, 119, 120]. The major volatile constituents may be classified into two main categories: terpenoids and polypropanoids [121, 122, 123]. We will focus our investigation on terpenoids.
\nTerpenes are defined as secondary metabolites with molecular structures containing carbon backbones of isoprene (2-methylbuta-1,3-diene) units [124]. Terpenes are synthetized in the cytoplasm of plant cells through the mevalonic acid pathway. Biochemical modification such as oxidation or rearrangement of terpenes produces the related terpenoids. Terpenoids are then oxygenated derivatives of hydrocarbon terpenes such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, acids, ethers, and esters [34]. Terpenoids are the largest classes of plants’ natural products accounting for more than 40,000 individual compounds of both primary and secondary metabolisms been identified; to date, new terpenoids are being discovered every year [12, 124].
\nIn general, terpenoids can be divided into at least four groups of compounds that include true terpenes, steroids, saponins, and cardiac glycosides.
\nThese types of natural lipids can be found in every class of living things, mainly in plants as constituents of EOs, and are therefore considered as the largest and structurally diverse group of natural products [125]. In general, only the hemiterpenoids, the monoterpenoids, and sesquiterpenoids are sufficiently volatile to be components of EOs. As widely acknowledged, the composition of EOs is mainly represented by mono-, sesqui-, and even diterpene hydrocarbons and their respective oxygenated derivatives [30, 126, 127, 128].
\nStructurally, EO constituents typically have low molecular weights, which contribute to their high volatility. Terpenes are the most common constituents found in EOs [128]. They are made from isoprene units (several five carbon base units). Each group of terpenes arises from the head-to-tail condensation of a variable number of isoprene units. Variations in the number of isoprene unit repetitions, cyclisation reactions, and rearrangements are primarily responsible for their chemical and structural diversity. EOs consist of mainly monoterpenes (C10) and sesquiterpenes (C15) but also have diterpenes (C20), triterpenes (C30), and tetraterpenes (C40) at very low concentration with their oxygenated derivatives, respectively (Figure 13) [15, 102, 130].
\nBiosynthesis pathways of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes.
Hemiterpenes are part of minor terpenes of EOs. They are usually alcohols, aldehydes, and esters, with a 2-methylbutane skeleton [131]. The number of hemiterpene aglycone is less than 100 [132]. Chlorinated hemiterpenes were recently isolated from the leaves of
Structure of few isolated hemiterpenes and hemiterpenoids.
Regular monoterpenes are made from the combination of two isoprene units (C10) linked by the head-to-tail binding. They are the major molecules consisting of 90% of (some) EOs; thereby, they contribute to the specific smell of plants [134, 135]. Monoterpenes are found in nearly all EOs and usually possess one double bond in their structures. In nature, they are mostly involved in plant–animal and plant–plant interactions such as pollination, seed and fruit dissemination, and allelopathic agents. Monoterpenes occur in more than 30 known skeletons and can be divided into 3 subgroups: acyclic, monocyclic, and bicyclic. A number of monoterpenes are oxygenated (Figure 15).
\nStructures of some monoterpenes and monoterpenoids.
Sesquiterpenes are other major EO components and are less volatile than monoterpenes. They are derived from three isoprene units and exist in a wide variety of forms, including linear, monocyclic, bicyclic, and tricyclic frameworks. Sesquiterpenes are the most diverse group of terpenoids (Figure 16).
\nStructures of some sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpenoids.
They are chemically complex and are usually components of plants resins but are sometimes encountered as by-products in the isolation of EOs. Diterpenes are less volatile because of their high molecular weights and less numerous than the mono- and sesquiterpenes. Consequently, they are difficult to extract by steam distillation and then appear rarely in distilled EOs. When present, they are found in EOs in very low amounts. However, traditional extraction using distillation allows separation and identification of diterpenes present in EOs [136]. Generally, molecules with molecular masses higher than 300 uma can be seen as sign of improper extraction conditions or adulteration. Diterpenes that are usually found in EOs include camphorene, cafestol, kahweol, cambrene, and taxideme (Figure 17).
\nStructures of some diterpenes and diterpenoids.
Some sesquiterpenoids are very toxic, but some are antifungals, carminatives, and insecticides.
\nBeing complex mixtures of constituents, overall activities of EOs cannot therefore be attributed only to their major components (terpenoids) [137]. Many aroma components of EOs, such as terpenes and terpenoids, were proposed to contribute to their antioxidant activity; that include
Terpenoids are, by far, the most important group (numerous and structurally diverse) of natural products as far as EOs are concerned. Reports on the level of terpenoids in EOs vary considerably. Many terpenes have biological activities and are used for medical purposes. For example, the antimalarial drug artemisinin and the anticancer drug Taxol (paclitaxel) are two of a few terpenes with established medical applications [26].
\nMonoterpenes are well known as main constituents of EOs, floral, and scents. Monoterpenes and monoterpenoids have antioxidant, anticonvulsant, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antitumor, antiviral, analgesic, antihypertensive, antibacterial, and therapeutic antidiabetic properties [26, 138]. The general mechanism of action of monoterpenes, such as their antimicrobial and antitussive activity, is mainly related to their volatility. Their hydrophobicity, as well as the EOs as a whole, determines their effect on bacterial cell structures with a subsequent antimicrobial effect [139].
Some bicyclic monoterpenoids are known to suppress the acetylcholinesterase activity, which is increased in patient with Alzheimer’s disease. In a study of 17 monoterpenes and monoterpenoids, (+)- and (−)-
In recent years, a considerable large number of research studies have been carried out on the chemical constituents of EOs as source of bioactive natural products against cancer. Piaru and collaborators showed that EO of
Many EO components possess enantiomers that can be sometime present in an oil. It is important to note that there is a close relationship between the chirality of organic compounds and their biological properties. For a given optically active substance, the activity is not identical for both enantiomers [153]. Linalool, for example, has two enantiomers: (3
Geraniol, an acyclic aldehyde monoterpene present in various EOs from many aromatic plants, has in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity against several cancer cell lines. In fact, geraniol alters several metabolic pathways of HepG2 cells such as the mevalonate pathway and the phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, which results in cell growth inhibition, cell cycle arrest occurring at the G0/G1 interphase, and increased apoptosis [155]. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of oils with high levels of sesquiterpenes as cadinene, spathulenol, and selinene were described [156].
\nCristiani and coworkers have reported the antimicrobial activity of four monoterpenes (
Monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated derivatives extracted from EOs have shown strong inhibitory activities against pathogenic bacteria, hence suggesting their use as flavoring and antioxidant agents [104].
\nAlzheimer’s disease is by far the most prevalent of all known forms of dementia. Wojtunik-Kulesza and collaborators showed that three monocyclic monoterpenes (carvone, pulegone, and γ-terpene) possess acetylcholinesterase (AchE) inhibitory activity. Among the investigated terpenes, the three later were recognized as compounds with promising activities in the development of multi-target directed ligands [160]. The lipophilic character of terpene skeleton combined with the hydrophobic character of the functional group is essential for activity. Thus, a rank of activity has been proposed as follows: aldehydes > ketones > alcohols > esters > hydrocarbons [156].
\nIn 2010, Conti and coworkers measured the insect repellent activity of three EOs. They found that at lowest dose (0.001%), the OE of
In EOs, the components found in higher concentrations and related to antimicrobial activity are phenolic compounds such as linalool, sabinene, menthol, myrcene, and camphene [161].
\nSesquiterpenes have anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties. The anti-inflammatory activities of some medicinal plants are due to the presence of one or more sesquiterpene lactones [26]. Above all, terpenes are responsible for the smell and flavor typical of the different varieties of
Terpenes represent one of the largest and most diverse classes of natural products. They have numerous roles ranging from defense repellents against herbivores or pathogens through animal attract hormones to agents designed to help disperse seeds and pollen. Monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids are obviously the major constituents of EOs, while in some oils the occurrence of diterpenoids was observed as quite minor constituents when present. In an ecological context, mono- and sesquiterpenes play an important role in the relations between organisms, for example, as attractants of pollinators or deterrents of herbivores. The enormous diversity of terpenoids and wide spectrum of biological activities make them attractive for many industries, and new areas of application still have not been discovered. Despite their rich and complex composition, the use of EOs remains limited to the cosmetics and perfumery domains. It is worthy to develop a better understanding of their chemistry and biological properties as well as that of their individual components for new and valuable applications in human health.
\nDespite their well-recognized bioactivities, EOs have been misused with regard to their level of toxicity. Some EOs or their major constituents have been recorded to be much toxic with bad side effects including convulsions, irritation, and photodermatosis. Literature review of the available data shows that serious accidents, most of which involve young children, are due to a small number of EOs, ingested in large amount. The development and the expansion of therapies using EOs and the evaluation of their acute toxicity have become more important to avoid their abusive use. The most common adverse events are eye, mucous membrane, and skin irritation and sensitization particularly to oils containing aldehydes and phenols. Despite all, no well-defined studies have proved that these EOs are harmful, but this deserves more detailed studies.
\nNepal is an agrarian country and 60.4% of its population is dependent on agriculture and it contributes to 26.8% of national GDP [1, 2]. Commercialization of agriculture is needed to accelerate the economic growth in the country, which is largely subsistence type. Since Nepal has entered World Trade Organization (WTO) as a member country in 2004, it is necessary to exploit the globalized trade for the nation [3]. Most of the people who are engaged in agriculture are rural dwellings and they are the prime driver of the agriculture of the country, Nepal. However, the commercialization of agriculture demands high-value inputs, which are often associated with higher use of improved, and hybrid cultivars, machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
Pesticides are those chemical substances that are used to control pests of an agricultural and urban setting. These substances include fungicides, insecticides, rodenticides, herbicides, molluscicides, nematicides, miticides, avicides, etc. Insecticides are used for a very long time to deter, minimize, and manage insect pests in an agricultural field, forest land, and in human settlements. In agricultural crop production only, insects and other pests cause around 35% yield decline [4].
The role of insecticides to reduce the insect pests attack on various crops, damage to the health of humans and livestock is crucial. Due to the advantage of the rapid action of these chemicals over target organisms, these are widely being used all over the world. Nepal could not be an exception regarding the use of chemical insecticides. Insecticides encompass a broad range of chemicals that are toxic not only to insects but also to other organisms. These chemicals often lead to pesticide resistance, the resurgence of insect pests, and the decline of beneficial organisms, along with the detrimental impact on human health and the environment [5]. Unscientific use of pesticides is of major concern to the farmers of the developing countries and Nepal could not be the exception, which further exacerbates the situation.
Phytophagous insects only do the damage to grown crops, on average of 35–40%. Sometimes, it exceeds more than that based on the severity of the pest [6]. Commercial growers mainly depend on various insecticides to get rid of the various insect pests. But, the exact amount of import of these insecticides, their use, and the effect on human health and the environment is of major concern to Nepalese agriculture [7].
A rigorous and thorough study was done to collect and synthesize information on the topic of the review. Different research papers, review articles, reports, governmental websites, and their publications were studied and screened for data compilations. Gathered data were coded in the MS-Excel and subsequent tabulation and column graphs were generated.
The use of insecticides started in Nepal in early 1950s with intention of control of malaria, especially to eradicate the disease transmitted by mosquitoes for the Gandaki Hydropower Project [8]. First introduced chemicals to Nepal were Paris green, gramaxone, nicotine sulfates, Dichloro-diphenyl –trichloroethane (DDT), and these all were brought from the USA. These chemicals were followed by other organochlorines, organophosphates, carbamates, and synthetic pyrethroids [8, 9]. In the agricultural field, pesticides were started to use in the early sixties. This is the era of the green revolution where farmers were instructed to get maximum yield from a crop by using higher inputs such as improved seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, etc. Until that period, farmers were unaware of the chemicals and insecticides to manage the various insect pests of agricultural crops. At the time, farmers have a preference over broad-spectrum pesticides due to the effective work to knock down the pests [10]. Nepal does not produce any insecticides till now but imported primarily from six countries, that is, India, China, Malaysia, Singapore, Italy, and Japan [3]. Till now, 54 types of insecticides were introduced to Nepal with 14 bio-pesticides, which are depicted in Tables 1 and 2. Organochlorines and some other highly toxic chemical pesticides were banned in Nepal, which are shown in Table 3. Insecticides were registered in 1787 commercial names by Plant Quarantine and Pesticide Management Center (PQPMC) under the Department of Agriculture, Nepal. In Nepal, there are altogether 16,110 retailers, 5 pesticide formulators, 37 pesticide applicators, and 286 pesticide importers [11]. Traders of pesticides are mainly concentrated in the commercial agricultural areas such as in plain regions, in the valley, and in and around the major cities of the country. Still, pesticide business has not penetrated the mid-hills, hills, and larger rural areas of the country.
S. No. | Insecticide chemical group (in use) | Common names |
---|---|---|
1 | Organophosphate | Acephate, Azamethiphos, Chlorantraniliprole, Chlorpyrifos, Dimethoate, Ethion, Malathion, Phenthoate, Profenofos, Quinalphos, Temephos |
2 | Carbamates | Propoxur, Thiodicarb |
3 | Synthetic pyrethroids | Cypermethrin, Permthrin, Alphacypermethrin, Alphamethrin, Bifenthrin, Beta-cyfluthrin, Cyfluthrin, Etofenprox, Fenvalerate, Flumethrin, Lambda Cyhalothrin |
4 | Nicotinoid | Acetamiprid, Dinotefuran, Imidacloprid, Nitenpyram, Thiacloprid, Thiamethoxam |
5 | Avermectin | Abamectin, Emamectin benzoate |
6 | Methyl | Amitrazz |
7 | Organic thiophosphate | Azamethiphos |
8 | Nereistoxin analogue | Cartap hydrochloride |
9 | Halogenated pyrroles | Chlorfenapyr |
10 | Thioureas | Diafenthiuron |
11 | Benzoylurea | Diflubenzuron |
12 | Pyrazole | Fipronil |
13 | Pyridine compound | Flonicamid, Pymetrozin |
14 | Diamide | Flubendiamide |
15 | Isoxazoline | Fluralaner |
16 | Oxadiazine | Indoxacarb |
17 | Spinosyns | Spinosad |
18 | Tetronic acid | Spriomesifen |
19 | Tetramic acid | Spriotetreamat |
20 | Insect growth regulator | Novaluron, Lufenuron, Cyromazine, Chlorfluazuron, Buprofezin |
21 | Dazomet | — |
Registered pesticides in Nepal till 14 July, 2020.
S. No. | Common name | Origin |
---|---|---|
1 | Neem based | |
2 | Bacteria | |
3 | Bacteria | |
4 | Bacteria | |
5 | Bacteria | |
6 | Fungus | |
7 | Fungus | |
8 | Fungus | |
9 | Fungus | |
10 | Fungus | |
11 | Fungus | |
12 | Fungus | |
13 | Nematode | |
14 | Nuclear polyhedrosis virus | Virus |
List of bio-pesticides registered in Nepal.
S. No. | Banned pesticides | Decision year | S. No. | Banned pesticides | Decision year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | DDT | 2001 | 13 | Monocrotophus | 2006 |
2 | BHC | 2001 | 14 | Methyl Parathion | 2006 |
3 | Aldrin | 2001 | 15 | Endosulphan | 2012 |
4 | Dieldrin | 2001 | 16 | Phorate | 2015 |
5 | Endrin | 2001 | 17 | Carbofuran | 2019 |
6 | Heptachlor | 2001 | 18 | Dichlorvos | 2019 |
7 | Chlordane | 2001 | 19 | Triazophos | 2019 |
8 | Mirex | 2001 | 20 | Carbaryl | 2019 |
9 | Phosphamidon | 2001 | 21 | Benomyl | 2019 |
10 | Organo Murcuric Fungicides | 2001 | 22 | Carbosulphan | 2019 |
11 | Lindane | 2001 | 23 | Dicofol | 2019 |
12 | Toxapheone | 2001 | 24 | Aluminium Phosphide 56% | 2019 |
Banned pesticides in Nepal.
In average, consumption of pesticide inactive ingredient is very low, that is, 0.396 kg/ha compared to other countries such as India (0. 481 kg/ha), China (2.0–2.5 kg/ha), Japan (10.8 kg/ha), Europe (1.9 kg/ha) and USA (1.5 kg/ha) [12]. But, in highly commercial agricultural areas have much higher use of pesticides than the national average.
Since insecticides are imported highly from foreign countries based on higher demand, farmers are using those chemicals in their fields injudiciously. Comparatively use of insecticides and other pesticides used in Nepal are lower than in developed countries, but the real problem is in the commercial pocket areas where growers are using exceedingly higher than they needed. There is a wider perception to the farmers that they have got the only chemical measures to control insect pests. Lack of awareness and knowledge of farmers, lack of alternatives of insect pests’ management other than chemicals, lack of governmental regulation and monitoring policies and actions for pesticide use are some of the reasons for improper and excessive use of insecticides in Nepal [13]. Insecticide use is reported much higher in vegetables compared to cereal crops and others. Since the vegetable growers are commercial, they tend to use insecticides more often. One study reported that more than 85% of insecticides imported were used in vegetable crops to deter various insect pests and oftentimes farmers are using insecticides even the insects are not at a damaging level. It is reported that a higher concentration of insecticides residues, that is, Cypermethrin than the permissible limit was detected in tomato and brinjal. The same study also showed that the concentration of Deltamethrin was higher in cowpea and was followed by cauliflower, tomato, and brinjal [14]. The residues of carbamate and organophosphate group of insecticides were observed in the vegetables sampled from the leading vegetable market of Nepal located in the heart of the capital city, Kathmandu. Tomato and cowpea were having higher residues of insecticides and these were grown in the commercial pocket of vegetables of Nepal, that is, Sarlahi and Kavre districts. The same study has revealed that 21.38% of tomato samples and 18.75% of cowpea samples were of sub-standard quality among the samples which were tested positive in pesticide residue analysis using the reagent kit method were [15]. The trend of insecticide use is increasing in Nepal by 10–20% per year and this signifies the prevailing crisis of Nepalese agriculture not only in terms of economic losses but also of associated detrimental effects [16].
It is reported that 25% of farmers of plain regions, 9% of mid-hills, and 7% of mountains use pesticides in their fields, and their usage in these ecological zones of Nepal is depicted inFigure 1 [17]. It is also reported that insecticides application is significantly higher in cotton and tea plantation in Nepal and it is worthwhile to mention that, compared to the cereal crops, use of insecticides and other pesticides is significantly higher in vegetables and other commercial/cash crops, as shown in Figure 2 [11]. In Kavrepalanchok district, near to the capital city, farmers were using insecticides 1–3 times whereas the same farmers were using 2–15 times in vegetables such as cabbage, potato, tomato, bitter gourd, cucumber, etc. It is even comparable to the share of pesticides in the production of various crops. Wheat has no pesticide application whereas, pesticide application in bitter gourd accounts for an 8.41% share in crop production [18] Farmers have reported the use of a cocktail spray of insecticides. Some farmers have also malpractice of dipping green vegetables in insecticide solutions such as malathion, mancozeb, etc. for a shiny and fresh look to fetch a good price in the market [12]. Farmers are very unaware and they hardly care for the waiting period to pick their harvest before they take it to the market. And, these products are purchased by the consumer and immediately taken for their food requirement and this makes the case more worsen [15].
Crop wise pesticide use (a. i. gm/ha) in Nepal (Source: PQPMC, 2021).
Ecological scenario of pesticide use in Nepal (Source: PQPMC, 2021).
Farmers of Nepal are very unaware of pesticide risk and it is the case of the area where people are engaged in conventional agriculture. In one survey conducted in Gaidahawa Rural Municipality of Rupandehi district, about 73% of the vegetable farmers have the practice of reusing the leftover pesticides. In the farmers’ field, researchers have reported that farmers have left the pesticide containers and packets in the open field, without thinking about the risk those containers possess [19]. Among the various pesticides reported in the area, chlorpyrifos was with higher concentration, that is, 177 μg/kg from the soil samples collected from three different depths of soil, that is, 0–5 cm, 15–20 cm, and 35–40 cm. DDT although banned in Nepal from 2001, its residues were found at all depths of the soil, which shows its persistent nature in the environment [19, 20]. The DDT mean concentration at 35–40 cm soil depth from the above-mentioned research area was found higher than 10 μg/kg, which is more than the threshold value for the safety of various soil organisms. Other insecticides such as Profenofos and imidacloprid were also found in the soil samples abundantly at different soil samples and found to be toxic to different soil organisms [19].
Insecticides can be used in a variety of forms, including liquid, concentrated, powder, dust, particle, aerosol, and fog, to control various insect pests of various crops. Those chemicals sprayed in a crop’s field will move and transfer to the environment via water, wind, and absorption. It can be transferred to long distances and in various forms. A large part of the most commonly used insecticides do not reach their target insect and may be affecting non-target organisms or polluting the environment. Non-target organisms include not only other insects, but also vertebrates such as wildlife, humans, and domestic animals. Insecticides can enter non-target habitats or ecosystems and affect non-target organisms [20]. Since food is a basic need and the practices of insecticide use do have a greater impact on human health. The most contaminated insecticides group, that is, carbamate and organophosphates are neurotoxic and are acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. These insecticides belong to the toxicity categories I and II. These are categorized under the most dangerous insecticides to the non-target organisms including humans and the environment [21]. These chemical insecticides may have contaminate on the environment such as soil, water (surface and ground), various flora and fauna, etc.
Since the import of pesticides including insecticides is increasing every year. The import of pesticides in the year 2013/14 was 454 tons but now, in the year 2019/20, import has been increased to 681 tons as shown in Figure 3 [11]. The residues of those chemicals on the soil and water are accumulating every year. One research has highlighted the moderate risk of cancer to the public where the soil is contaminated with organochlorine residues such as DDT and endosulfan [22]. This signifies not only the impending to the human health but also to the rich flora and fauna of the country itself. This sort of unsustainable practices in agriculture could be the cause of the loss of rich fauna which includes 17,097 species [23]. Various biotas inhabiting the soil such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, earthworms, soil-inhabiting insects, and other arthropods with the presence of other organisms help to maintain the quality of soil and provide major ecosystem services for maintaining soil health and ultimately the quality of food production. The malpractices of insecticides along with other hazardous pesticides could have a detrimental effect on those organisms and ultimately deteriorate the quality and quantity of food production [19]. Another research conducted at Biratnagar of Nepal reported the presence of DDT and endosulfan in soil. The research also suggested that the use of DDT is still ongoing in the region but endosulfan residues were of past use [22].
Scenario of yearly pesticide import into Nepal (Source: PQPMC, 2021).
These insecticides exposure to humans causes detrimental health defects such as hormonal imbalance, immune suppression, lower intelligence, reproductive anomaly, damage on kidney, liver, neural regions, and cancer. Farmworkers who have also exposure to insecticides get the symptoms of headache, drowsiness, dizziness, skin irritation, muscular twitching, respiratory discomfort, etc. [24, 25].
It is reported that the estimated health cost of the pesticide user individual who has got exposure to pesticides is Nepalese Rupee (NPR) 287. Of the total household expenditure, pesticide-induced health costs take 0.2% of annual household expenditure and 10.32% of annual health care expenditure [26].
More than the optimal concentration of insecticides also has unprecedented results human health and their expenditure on health care. One unit increase in insecticide concentration, that is, by 1 ml/L of water, would cause increased sickness cases by 6.8% and health costs by nearly NPR 30. Similarly, more hours of insecticide or any other pesticides application would bring unintended results to the health of the farmers and their expenditure [26].
It is also upsetting to mention the intentional or suicidal attempts of pesticide poisoning are common in Nepal. Most of the time, insecticides; mainly organophosphate are used by suicidal attempters. The most commonly used insecticides for self-pesticide poisoning were methyl parathion, dichlorvos, aluminum phosphide, and zinc phosphide [27].
It is speculated that the insecticide reduction will cause a decline in the yield of the crops. But, it is not the case of the countries which are following a reduction in pesticide use because of their focus on the ecology of pests and agro-ecosystem. In that scenario, their production has been affected as speculated. Sweden has reduced pesticide use by 68% and public health poisonings by 77%. Their cutoff to the pesticides did not cause increased crop losses by the various pest species including insects. Indonesia also has reduced pesticide use by 65% and on the contrary, their production of rice has increased by 12%. India is also practicing the same and reducing the use significantly over the past years. But, Nepal is doing the opposite [25]. We are quite increasing the pesticide use for the sake of higher production, but, we are not aware of the fact that we are using unwarranted pesticides. Farmers, the ones who are not trained with the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices, are spraying the chemical pesticides more often than the ones who are trained. It is found that the trained farmers are spraying the pesticides 2.7 more times than the optimal whereas; the ones who are not trained are spraying 4.4 times of control [27]. This suggests the need of organizing community-based IPM training and environmental awareness programs about harmful effects of pesticides and sharing the know-how of insect pest management other than chemicals. It is also reported that Nepalese farmers are willing to pay higher prices (53–79%) than the current pesticide costs to mitigate the detrimental effect on their health and environment, and this clearly shows that they are willing to adopt alternative measures of pest management. But, the IPM programs of Nepal do have a contribution to the reduction of pesticide use but do not have a significant contribution to the reduction of health damages associated with the pesticides [25].
For the first time in Nepal’s history, the pesticide act was enacted in 1991, regulations were approved in 1993, and pesticide board was formulated in 1994 [18, 28]. Currently, Pesticides Management Act, 2019 was enacted which provisioned registration of bio-pesticides and also included the provision of facilitating warehouses for storing the date expire, band, and obsoleted pesticides in seven provinces of Nepal. It also included the provision of bringing back the pesticides which are spoiled, banned, or obsolete pesticides. It also included the provincial pesticide committee. Punishment was also provisioned in the act and upon defiance of these laws minimum of 25 thousand Nepalese Rupee (NPR) penalty, one-month prison, and maximum 200 thousand NRS penalty, and one-year prison was provisioned. Overall, the pesticide act regulates the manufacture, import, sale, transport, distribution, and use of pesticides in the country. This enabled the registration of pesticides, monitoring and inspection of pesticides, registration of importers and traders, and banning of highly toxic pesticides to minimize the exposure to humans, livestock, and other associated environmental components [29]. But, there is a great scope for proper inaction of law so that the widespread misuse of chemical pesticides in the country either by the importers, traders, and applicators could be minimized greatly. Since Nepal shares an open border with India, there are unintended pesticide imports to the country and many of them are more toxic, banned, and unregistered. Tracking the trade with India is oftentimes difficult since a porous border gives the opportunity to the persons who are involved in illegal trades.
Nepal is also a signatory country for WHO and follows the rules, regulations, and treaties proposed by them. Recently as directed by WHO, the country has banned 1a and 1b types of extremely hazardous pesticides. As a responsible member, Nepal has signed international treaties like the Basal convention, Stockholm convention, and Rotterdam convention, which have aimed to minimize the use of persistent and toxic pesticides [3].
Since Nepali farmers do not have much more information and knowledge about the methods of pest management other than chemicals. But, the Nepal Government and Department of Agriculture have started to prioritize the IPM program. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that aims to combine various techniques of pest management such as mechanical, physical, cultural, biological, and chemical to minimize the risks possessed by the pest in a given ecosystem [30]. IPM always considers the use of chemicals as a last resort and before using chemicals, it seeks out all the possible alternatives for insect pest management.
Since 1999, the Nepalese government has used the Farmer Field School approach to strengthen farmers for cultivating healthy crops with decisions based on an understanding of the field agroecosystem with having eyes on beneficial organisms such as predators and parasites of insect pests. A Farmer Field School, also known as a school without walls, is a school that teaches basic agroecology and crop management skills. A group of farmers gathers in one of their own fields to observe, discuss, record, and analyze real-world field problems from crop planting to harvest. This field school is based on the concept of “learning by doing” rather than “seeing is believing”. The FFS was specially designed for farmers to learn and adopt IPM practices to their diverse and ever-changing ecological conditions [31]. Several crop season-long FFS have been organized in Nepal in recent years to provide knowledge and know-how on IPM to vegetable farmers in the hope of reducing their use of pesticides [32].
IPM farmer’s field schools in the country have positive impacts on the farmers for using a lesser amount of pesticides. This was evident in the Bhaktapur district of the country, which is also well known for commercial vegetable production, and seasonal and off-seasonal vegetables are produced here. As reported, farmers were using a significantly higher amount of pesticides where mean active ingredient (a.i.) of fungicides and insecticides were 2373 and 1963 g respectively and on average use of pesticide use was 2011 g a.i./ha. Among the used pesticides to cruciferous vegetables, the share of insecticides was more, that is, 76% which was followed by fungicides (19%) and unknown were 5%. The participants of IPM farmer’s field school had reduced significantly lower amounts of pesticides compared to non-participants. It was reported the 36% lesser amount of pesticides due to the effect of participation of IPM farmer’s field school [32]. In another report, pesticide application by the farmers was decreased by 40% upon participation in farmer’s field school [33]. This obviously shows the importance of these programs organized by governmental institutions.
Bio-pesticide could be a viable alternatives for Nepalese farmers since it will not be toxic to humans, other organisms, and the environment at large. There are altogether 14 registered bio-pesticides in Nepal which are effective to manage various insect pests and in some instances, other pests too of various crops. In Nepal, the use of bio-pesticides started commercially roughly after 2000. The share of bio-pesticides in the year 2019/20 is 0.005% of the total quantity of pesticides imported and used. This shows the predominantly higher use of conventional pesticides compared to commercial bio-pesticides. But, the use of locally available plant resources for pest control is a long practiced tradition of the farmers of Nepal. Many plants possess pesticide properties and these are all available all around the country. Three hundred and twenty four species of botanicals are found in Nepal only and among them, 23 species have special importance to the farming community of Nepal. The most common plants used as pesticides are as follows: Neem (
Although Nepal shares larger scope of isolation of different micro-organisms from the soil of Nepal, it offers only the formulation of two funguses, that is,
Nepal, an agrarian country located in Southeast Asia is going to face unprecedented changes in human health, environment, and ecosystems due to more use of insecticides to deter insect pests in the farmer’s field. Large amounts of insecticides are imported from foreign countries. These chemicals certainly have negative impacts on the farming community and the environment at large. The situation seems even worse because of a lack of knowledge and skills related to the safety aspects of the farming community about the use of insecticides and its negative effects not only to the consumers but on them too. Many researches have confirmed the presence of undesirable residues of insecticides in vegetables, fruits, and other agricultural commodities. Incidences of human diseases such as immune dysfunction, kidney failure, cancer, etc. are also increasing in the country which somehow has a direct or indirect relation to the more use of insecticides in the field. Because farmer knowledge and behavior can reduce the ecological risk of pesticides, programs such as IPM training and farmer’s field school (FFS), etc. could be determined to change the status quo. Prioritizing the botanicals by the Nepal government and its respective agricultural agencies to the area where there is no practice of using conventional pesticides has special significance to protect the health of humans, various flora and fauna, and the environment.
The author wishes to appreciate the contribution of all the individuals and organizations who are constantly working on pesticides, their residues, effects, and mitigation in Nepal, and who has helped the author directly and indirectly in preparing this manuscript.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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To deal with these issues, the zero energy building emerges to bring constructive developments through the construction industry. The concept of zero energy building is to develop a structural building which can generate its own required energy and have zero negative effects. The energy will be enough to fulfill all the requirements of the building operations and can save natural quarries. By increasing the numbers of zero energy buildings, major reforms can be brought in the construction industry and thus stabilizing the economy and the climate.",book:{id:"8783",slug:"sustainable-sewage-sludge-management-and-resource-efficiency",title:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",fullTitle:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency"},signatures:"Wesam Salah Alaloul and Muhammad Ali Musarat",authors:[{id:"316063",title:"Dr.",name:"Wesam Salah",middleName:null,surname:"Alaloul",slug:"wesam-salah-alaloul",fullName:"Wesam Salah Alaloul"},{id:"325916",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ali Musarat",slug:"muhammad-ali-musarat",fullName:"Muhammad Ali Musarat"}]},{id:"72862",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93236",title:"Pre-treatment Technologies to Enhance Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"pre-treatment-technologies-to-enhance-anaerobic-digestion",totalDownloads:688,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Sustainable energy production is the major priority in the world due to global warming, climate change, and fossil fuels depletion. Anaerobic digestion (AD) of sludge is the sustainable process producing the energy and minimizing the fossil fuel usage. However, conventional AD of sludge is not sustainable since it takes longer time for digestion which increases the energy input and greenhouse emissions. Therefore, pretreatment technologies have emerged to enhance methane production and thus the energy output from the AD process. In this chapter, pre-treatment technologies adopted mainly physical, chemical, thermal, and other advanced processes to enhance methane production in the last decade are elaborated. In addition, energy balance of the process and the feasibility of the pre-treatment technologies and their current status are discussed.",book:{id:"8783",slug:"sustainable-sewage-sludge-management-and-resource-efficiency",title:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",fullTitle:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency"},signatures:"Sridhar Pilli, Ashutosh Kumar Pandey, Ankur Katiyar, Kritika Pandey and Rajeshwar Dayal Tyagi",authors:[{id:"314309",title:"Dr.",name:"Sridhar",middleName:null,surname:"Pilli",slug:"sridhar-pilli",fullName:"Sridhar Pilli"},{id:"322782",title:"Mr.",name:"Ashutosh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"ashutosh-kumar-pandey",fullName:"Ashutosh Kumar Pandey"},{id:"322785",title:"Mr.",name:"Ankur",middleName:null,surname:"Katiyar",slug:"ankur-katiyar",fullName:"Ankur Katiyar"},{id:"322787",title:"Mr.",name:"Kritika",middleName:null,surname:"Pandey",slug:"kritika-pandey",fullName:"Kritika Pandey"},{id:"322788",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajeshwar Dayal",middleName:null,surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeshwar-dayal-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeshwar Dayal Tyagi"}]},{id:"71641",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90837",title:"Solid Waste Management: Current Scenario and Challenges in Bengaluru",slug:"solid-waste-management-current-scenario-and-challenges-in-bengaluru",totalDownloads:1513,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) has become one of the significant environmental issues, particularly in developing countries. Bengaluru, the state capital of Karnataka, is one of the fastest growing cities in Asia. The Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) with an area of 2190 km2 and a population of about 10.18 million generates around 5000 metric tons per day of solid waste at an average generation rate of 0.5 kg per capita per day (kg/capita/d). Presently, Bengaluru City is facing significant problems due to existing disposal practices of generated waste, incurring high cost due to lack of proper infrastructural facilities; also, the open dumping in the expanding zone of the city poses severe problems to the structures constructed on these old dumps. In the meantime, groundwater quality deteriorated due to improper leachate management. Intending to assess the possible impacts on the water environment and suggest a better waste management strategy, the present paper discusses the potential for handling the wastes, thereby reducing the amount of waste to be transported to the landfill. If this waste is used for energy and nutrient recovery, decentralization could also become commercially viable and address the technology-wise deficiencies in the existing MSWM system of Bengaluru City.",book:{id:"8783",slug:"sustainable-sewage-sludge-management-and-resource-efficiency",title:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",fullTitle:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency"},signatures:"B.P. Naveen and P.V. Sivapullaiah",authors:[{id:"152840",title:"Prof.",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sivapullaiah",slug:"p.v.-sivapullaiah",fullName:"P.V. Sivapullaiah"},{id:"313545",title:"Dr.",name:"B.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Naveen",slug:"b.p.-naveen",fullName:"B.P. Naveen"}]},{id:"74077",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94538",title:"Impact of Climate Change on Life",slug:"impact-of-climate-change-on-life",totalDownloads:1221,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Climate is changing in an accelerating pace. Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The global mean temperatures may increase up to 5.4°C by 2100. Climate change is mainly caused by humans, especially through increased greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change is recognized as a serious threat to ecosystem, biodiversity, and health. It is associated with alterations in the physical environment of the planet Earth. Climate change affects life around the globe. It impacts plants and animals, with consequences for the survival of the species. In humans, climate change has multiple deleterious consequences. Climate change creates water and food insecurity, increased morbidity/mortality, and population movement. Vulnerable populations (e.g., children, elderly, indigenous, and poor) are disproportionately affected. Personalized adaptation to the consequences of climate change and preventive measures are key challenges for the society. Policymakers must implement the appropriate strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations.",book:{id:"9664",slug:"environmental-issues-and-sustainable-development",title:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",authors:[{id:"313921",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan M.",middleName:null,surname:"Heshmati",slug:"hassan-m.-heshmati",fullName:"Hassan M. Heshmati"}]},{id:"71033",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91190",title:"Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Sewage Sludge (Biosolid) Management Options",slug:"comparative-life-cycle-assessment-of-sewage-sludge-biosolid-management-options",totalDownloads:790,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Sludge formation during wastewater treatment is inevitable even with proper management and treatment. However, the proper treatment and disposal of sludge are still difficult in terms of cost of treatment, the presence of new pollutants, health problems, and public acceptance. Conventional disposal methods (e.g., storage, incineration) have raised concerns about legislative constraints and community perception that encourage the assessment of substitute sludge management options. Sludge management requires a systematic solution that combines environmental effectiveness, social acceptability, and economic affordability. Life cycle assessment is one of the most important tools to identify and compare the environmental impact of sludge treatment technologies to ensure sustainable sludge management. Increased production of sludge (biosolids) increases worldwide due to population growth, urban planning, and industrial developments. The sludge needs to be properly treated and environmentally managed to reduce the negative effects of its application or disposal. This chapter deals with the application of biosolids or sewage sludge, together with possible resources for sustainable development. In this section, the life cycle assessments of sludge treatment methods were also investigated and found that sludge treatment techniques lead to major environmental impact categories such as global warming potential, human toxicity, acidification potential, and resource consumption.",book:{id:"8783",slug:"sustainable-sewage-sludge-management-and-resource-efficiency",title:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",fullTitle:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency"},signatures:"Başak Kiliç Taşeli",authors:[{id:"302014",title:"Prof.",name:"Başak",middleName:null,surname:"Kılıç Taşeli",slug:"basak-kilic-taseli",fullName:"Başak Kılıç Taşeli"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74077",title:"Impact of Climate Change on Life",slug:"impact-of-climate-change-on-life",totalDownloads:1221,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Climate is changing in an accelerating pace. Climate change occurs as a result of an imbalance between incoming and outgoing radiation in the atmosphere. The global mean temperatures may increase up to 5.4°C by 2100. Climate change is mainly caused by humans, especially through increased greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change is recognized as a serious threat to ecosystem, biodiversity, and health. It is associated with alterations in the physical environment of the planet Earth. Climate change affects life around the globe. It impacts plants and animals, with consequences for the survival of the species. In humans, climate change has multiple deleterious consequences. Climate change creates water and food insecurity, increased morbidity/mortality, and population movement. Vulnerable populations (e.g., children, elderly, indigenous, and poor) are disproportionately affected. Personalized adaptation to the consequences of climate change and preventive measures are key challenges for the society. Policymakers must implement the appropriate strategies, especially in the vulnerable populations.",book:{id:"9664",slug:"environmental-issues-and-sustainable-development",title:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",authors:[{id:"313921",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan M.",middleName:null,surname:"Heshmati",slug:"hassan-m.-heshmati",fullName:"Hassan M. Heshmati"}]},{id:"39928",title:"Effect of Heat on Egg White Proteins",slug:"effect-of-heat-on-egg-white-proteins",totalDownloads:16041,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3565",slug:"international-conference-on-applied-life-sciences",title:"International Conference on Applied Life Sciences",fullTitle:"International Conference on Applied Life Sciences"},signatures:"Zoubida Akkouche, Lyes Aissat, Khodir Madani",authors:null},{id:"73585",title:"Treatment of Dairy Wastewaters: Evaluating Microbial Fuel Cell Tools and Mechanism",slug:"treatment-of-dairy-wastewaters-evaluating-microbial-fuel-cell-tools-and-mechanism",totalDownloads:747,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Pollution caused by chemical and dairy effluent is a major concern worldwide. Dairy wastewaters are the most challenging to treat because of the presence of various pollutants in them. The characteristics of effluent like temperature, color, pH, Dissolved Oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), dissolved solids, suspended solids, chloride, sulfate, oil, and grease depend solely on the volume of milk processed and the form of finished produce. It is difficult to select an efficient wastewater treatment method for the dairy wastewaters because of their selective nature in terms of pH, flow rate, volume, and suspended solids. Thus there exists a clear need for a technology or a combination of technologies that would efficiently treat the dairy wastewaters. This chapter explains the energy-generating microbial fuel cell or MFC technologies for dairy wastewaters treatment having different designs of MFCs, mechanism of action, different electrode materials, their surface modification, operational parameters, applications and outcomes delivered through the technology in reducing the COD, BOD, suspended solids and other residues present in the wastewaters. The chapter also elaborates on the availability of various natural low-cost anode materials which can be derived from agricultural wastes. The current chapter elaborates on MFC technology and its tools used for dairy wastewater treatment, providing useful insight for integrating it with existing conventional wastewater treatment methods to achieve the degradation of various dairy pollutants including emerging micropollutants.",book:{id:"9664",slug:"environmental-issues-and-sustainable-development",title:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development",fullTitle:"Environmental Issues and Sustainable Development"},signatures:"Aman Dongre, Monika Sogani, Kumar Sonu, Zainab Syed and Gopesh Sharma",authors:[{id:"317585",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Sogani",slug:"monika-sogani",fullName:"Monika Sogani"},{id:"317969",title:"Ms.",name:"Zainab",middleName:null,surname:"Syed",slug:"zainab-syed",fullName:"Zainab Syed"},{id:"317970",title:"Mr.",name:"Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Sonu",slug:"kumar-sonu",fullName:"Kumar Sonu"},{id:"317971",title:"Mr.",name:"Aman",middleName:null,surname:"Dongre",slug:"aman-dongre",fullName:"Aman Dongre"},{id:"328817",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Gopesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"gopesh-sharma",fullName:"Gopesh Sharma"}]},{id:"71641",title:"Solid Waste Management: Current Scenario and Challenges in Bengaluru",slug:"solid-waste-management-current-scenario-and-challenges-in-bengaluru",totalDownloads:1513,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) has become one of the significant environmental issues, particularly in developing countries. Bengaluru, the state capital of Karnataka, is one of the fastest growing cities in Asia. The Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) with an area of 2190 km2 and a population of about 10.18 million generates around 5000 metric tons per day of solid waste at an average generation rate of 0.5 kg per capita per day (kg/capita/d). Presently, Bengaluru City is facing significant problems due to existing disposal practices of generated waste, incurring high cost due to lack of proper infrastructural facilities; also, the open dumping in the expanding zone of the city poses severe problems to the structures constructed on these old dumps. In the meantime, groundwater quality deteriorated due to improper leachate management. Intending to assess the possible impacts on the water environment and suggest a better waste management strategy, the present paper discusses the potential for handling the wastes, thereby reducing the amount of waste to be transported to the landfill. If this waste is used for energy and nutrient recovery, decentralization could also become commercially viable and address the technology-wise deficiencies in the existing MSWM system of Bengaluru City.",book:{id:"8783",slug:"sustainable-sewage-sludge-management-and-resource-efficiency",title:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency",fullTitle:"Sustainable Sewage Sludge Management and Resource Efficiency"},signatures:"B.P. Naveen and P.V. Sivapullaiah",authors:[{id:"152840",title:"Prof.",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sivapullaiah",slug:"p.v.-sivapullaiah",fullName:"P.V. Sivapullaiah"},{id:"313545",title:"Dr.",name:"B.P.",middleName:null,surname:"Naveen",slug:"b.p.-naveen",fullName:"B.P. 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Even the mixed anaerobic/aerobic system leads to less sludge production than that of an exclusively aerobic system. 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Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"