Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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1. Introduction
The Rickettsiales are an order within α-proteobacteria that comprises obligate intracellular endosymbionts of arthropods and mammals. Some authors have proposed three pathogenic genera of Rickettsiales: (1) Rickettsiaceae; (2) Bartonellaceae; and (3) Anaplasmataceae [1].
More recently, taxonomy of Rickettsiales has changed based on molecular systematics, phylogenomics, and bioinformatics studies. Today, four taxonomic families are recognized: Anaplasmataceae, Rickettsiaceae, Ca. Midichloriaceae, and Holosporaceae, with Rickettsiaceae being the most well-known group for they are human and animal pathogens [1, 2].
Rickettsiaceae family comprises a large and extremely diverse group of strictly intracellular Gram-negative rod-shaped, non-sporulating, coccoid, and small bacteria. Many of them are obligate intracellular parasites that can infect eukaryotic organisms, including animals and man, through arthropod bites and can cause from mild to severe and even fatal diseases such as epidemic typhus and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) [1, 3]. This family comprises exclusively two genera: Rickettsia and Orientia. Both genera contain many known and potential pathogens considered as causative agents of emerging and re-emerging human and animals diseases [1]. Genome size of bacteria of Rickettsiaceae are typically small (0.8–2.3 Mbp) mainly due to reductive evolution [4].
These genomes contain split genes, gene remnants, and pseudogenes because of different steps of the genome degradation process. In Rickettsia, genomics has revealed extreme genome reduction and massive gene loss compared to less virulent or endosymbiotic species [5].
The Rickettsiaceae family has 42 species, 2 belonging to the genus Orientia that have been sequenced, and 40 species of the genus Rickettsia of which 37 genomes has been sequenced.
This wealth of information reveals a large field of study in comparative genomics to understand the evolution from a free-living to an intracellular or endosymbiotic lifestyle.
Adaptation to intracellular or endosymbiont lifestyle of the family Rickettsiaceae is based on the genome degradation process as reducing genes. Additionally, to about 2135 [6] gene remnants and pseudogenes (1622), split genes, and horizontal transfer to other bacterial groups have also been observed. In fact, at least three events in Orientia received external genes and Rickettsia spp. in six occasions [6].
The generation of de novo genes in 17 cases of Rickettsia species has been reported, and at least two of them are functional [6]. Rickettsia spp. contain gene families, selfish DNA, repeat palindromic elements, genes encoding eukaryotic-like motifs, large fraction of high conserved non-coding DNA, and large fraction of mobile genetic elements (MGEs), including plasmids [5].
The study of the dynamics of genomes evolution of the family Rickettsiaceae with regard to new “omics” sciences are driven to understand this extraordinary bacterial group with importance for human and veterinary medicine.
2. Rickettsia
2.1. Rickettsia evolution
Apparently, the clade Rickettsia diverged from Claudobacter 1650-2, 390 million years ago [7]. Then, the primarily lineages infecting arthropods emerged approximately 525–425 million years ago [5, 8]. The emerging of this group has been suggested approximately 150 million years ago after several transitions from a likely free-living ancestor of Rickettsiales to an intracellular life. Nowadays, Rickettsia have been discovered in a different hosts as whiteflies, bruchid beetles, ladybird beetles, aphids, among others, which suggest that they are more common than expected [9–12].
The genus Rickettsia comprises pathogenic bacteria causing RMSF, Mediterranean spotted fever, epidemic typhus, and murine typhus [13]. Traditionally, Rickettsia was divided into spotted fever and typhus as major groups; however, based on molecular phylogenetic analyses now, it is classified into four groups: (1) ancestral, (2) typhus, (3) transitional, and (4) spotted fever (Figure 1). Based on whole genome sequence analysis transitional group was suggested, however, this grouping has generated some controversy based on genetic and genomic criteria and is not widely accepted [5, 14]. The controversy generated by these bacteria classification is because traditional classification methods used in bacteriology are hard to apply to Rickettsia spp.
Figure 1.
Phylogenetic approximation obtained from amino acid sequences with the online program PATRIC, with the default pipeline (www.patricbrc.org/).
2.2. Genomic of Rickettsia
With the use of genome sequence techniques and the characterization of genomic sequences of microorganisms without the need of cultivation, the Rickettsiaceae diversity has been explored. Today, 79 genomic sequences of Rickettsia and 11 Orientia strains are known (Table 1).
Table 1.
Rickettsiaceae family genomes data reported on img.jgi.doe.gov.
The availability of complete genome sequences of different Rickettsia species led to perform comparative genomic approaches in order to understand bacterial evolution and pathogenesis [5]. Genome reduction is a trait observed in Rickettsia species, the gene loss has been an important and ongoing process in evolution of these bacteria. Some intragenus variations in size genome and gene content observed in Rickettsia are the consequences of the large diversity of host and infection strategies that these bacteria have developed [5].
The Rickettsia genomes exhibit a high degree of synteny punctuated by distinctive chromosome inversions, which goes diminishing as the phylogenetic relationship it is narrower (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Comparison of pairwise syntenic dot plots of the nucleotide sequences: (A) Rickettsia rickettsii Arizona vs. R. akari; (B) R. rickettsii vs. R. canadensis CA410; (C) R. rickettsii vs. R. typhi Wilmington; and (D) Orientia chuto Fuller vs. O. tsutsugamushi Sido.
In general, the genus Rickettsia maintains GC content, rRNA, tRNA, and pseudogenes, with only some exceptions (Table 1). The aggregate characteristics (number, length, composition, and repeat identity) of tandem repeat sequences of Rickettsia which often exhibit recent and rapid divergence between closely related strains and species, are very conserved [15].
2.2.1. Plasmids in Rickettsia
The gene acquisition and gene loss are the major mechanism of adaptation interactions between bacteria and their host, in either the pathogenic or endosymbiotic lifestyle of Rickettsiales and other bacteria. To accomplish this process the preferential vehicle are the plasmids, that encompass very large genetic regions, even more than 100 kilobases (kb) including several set of genes. Their frequent integration at or near tRNA loci suggests that many of them were introduced into bacterial genomes via phage-mediated transfer events. In pathogenicity, they are called “pathogenic islands” and in endosymbionts “symbiotic islands.” Recently, the dogma that plasmids are not present in Rickettsiaceae was refuted, with the pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and Southern blot analyses of DNAs in different species that suggests that they may be widespread in the genus. Plasmid existence in spite of pressure exerted by reductive genome evolution suggests an important role in rickettsial biology [18].
In the most relevant study of plasmids in Rickettsia with 26 species, the authors found that 11 species had 1 to 4 plasmid(s) with a size ranging from 12 to 83 kb, and contained 15 to 85 genes. They elucidated that pRICO, the last common ancestor of the current rickettsial plasmids, was vertically inherited mainly from Rickettsia/Orientia chromosomes and diverged vertically into a single or multiple plasmid(s) in the species [3].
Out of 747 protein-coding genes, 65% were full-length genes and 35% were partially degraded. Degradation levels varied among plasmids, ranging from 16 to 40% in larger plasmids (size >47 kbp) and 44 to 59% in smaller plasmids [3].
It has been observed that plasmids are lost during long-term serial passage in cultured cells, which complicate studies of ancestry to elucidate a single or multiple ancestors. Nevertheless plasmids clustered into four putative groups (I–IV) (Figure 3): group I included four large and three small plasmids of five species: pRra2 in R. raoultii, pRhe in R. helvetica, pRfe, pRfeI1, and pdRfe in R. felis, pRam32 in Candidatus R. amblyomii, and pRau in R. rhipicephalii; group II clustered two large and four small plasmids belonging to five species: pReis1 and pReis2 in R. endosymbiont of Ixodes, pRaf in R. africae, pRam23 in C. R. amblyomii, pRmo in R. monacensis, and pRpe in R. peacokii; group III contain five small plasmids of four species: pRam18 in C. R. amblyomii, pRrh in R. rhipicephalii, pRra1 in R. raoultii and pRma and pRmaB in R. massiliae; and group IV gathered one large and one small plasmids from two species: pReis3 in R. endosymbiont of Ixodes and pRra3 in R. raoultii. At inter-species level, plasmids of the same group showed variable sequence conservations [6].
Figure 3.
Evolutionary events that shaped rickettsial plasmids. Plasmid supertree obtained from 10 genes of Rickettsia and Orientia species. The genes used were hsp, dnaA, sca12, transposase 1 and 2, phospholipase, traD, leucine repeat, helix-turn-helix, and thymidylate kinase. Figure based on [3].
Rickettsia plasmids are a mirror of the evolutionary history of this bacterial group involving reductive processes, duplication events, and horizontal acquisition of genes necessary to adapt to an intracellular lifestyle in eukaryotes. It is now necessary to determine their distribution, evolution, and their role in host adaptation and virulence [16].
2.2.2. Gene loss and evolution of Rickettsia
The mechanism of gene loss it has been a fairly widespread strategy in the evolution of the Rickettsiales genomes, and was discovered in the Rickettsia endosymbiont Ixodes scapularis (REIS). It was found that proliferation of mobile genetic elements, in particular, an integrative conjugative element RAGE (for Rickettsiales Amplified Genetic Element) is present in chromosome and plasmids [6].
REIS encodes nine conserved RAGEs that include F-like type IV secretion systems similar to other in Rickettsia genomes. These comprise 35% of the total genome, making REIS one of the most plastic and repetitive bacterial mobile elements. The presence of REIS provides the most convincing evidence that conserved rickettsial genes associated with an intracellular lifestyle were acquired via MGEs, especially the RAGE. This, probably through a continuum of genomic invasions, provides insights about the origin of mechanisms of rickettsial pathogenicity [17].
The RAGEs are the fusion of tra-like family genes that encoding the conjugal transfer protein. Inserted genes can be found between traA and traD genes. We present a phylogeny with 60 sequences of traD genes of 16 genomes species (Figure 4), including ancestral, transitional, and spotted fever group.
Figure 4.
The evolutionary history of gen TraD was inferred by using MEGA7 using ML method and GTR model, with the highest log likelihood (−237.1216). The analysis involved 60 nucleotide sequences from genomes of the IMG (img.jgi.doe.gov) of 16 species and tree outgroup from NCBI.
Rickettsia spp. share 1027 genes that probably were vertically transferred from “proto-Rickettsia” R. bellii maintained all these genes and other species lost a large part of them, like R. prowazekii and R. typhi (128 lost genes). It is well supported that differential gene loss contributes to creation of new rickettsial species [6].
In conclusion, the loss of regulatory genes causes an increase of virulence in rickettsial species in ticks and mammals, and the tra operon is presumably involved [18].
2.2.3. Phylogeny and taxonomy of Rickettsia
The taxonomy of Rickettsia was historically based on the phenotypic criteria, the phylogenetic approaches with gene 16S rRNA defined three groups typhus group (TG) which includes: R. prowazekii and R. typhi; classic spotted fever group (SFG), which includes a large collection of mostly tick-borne rickettsials; and an ancestral group (AG), which included R. bellii and R. canadensis [19], even thus they remain unresolved clades at species level.
Other evolutionary gen reconstructions are inconsistent when using different portions of the genome [20]. An analysis based on the whole genome sequence analysis (WGSA) allows emerging of transitional group (TRG) consisting of Rickettsia felis which was primarily associated with Ctenocephalides felis and the sister group to the neighboring: R. akari [19, 20].
In different studies of Rickettsia using WGSA, we can observe resolved trees with single topology, which is supported by multiple sources of phylogenetic signal, which describes the evolutionary history of the core genome [20].
Unfortunately, we cannot have always the powerful tool of WGSA, so the search of new molecular markers is necessary to provide a well-supported phylogenetic approach, at least at species level. As we can see in Figure 5, a reliable phylogeny can be obtained using several sequences of all Rickettsia species and the conserved gen rpoB, offering high-resolution clades at species level.
Figure 5.
rpoB Phylogeny of Rickettsia and Orientia was inferred by using MEGA7 using ML method and GTR model, with the highest log likelihood (−14425.5668). The analysis involved 87 nucleotide sequences obtained from genomes of the IMG site img.jgi.doe.gov. There were a total of 2721 positions in the final dataset.
2.2.4. Comparative genomics of Rickettsia
In the existing 82 sequenced genomes of Rickettsia species, 77 belong to 37 species and 5 in Candidatus status. In general, the genomes size is constant, between 0.8 and 2.3 Gb; and the average size is 1.3 Gb.
The genomes shows 865 genes as minimum and a maximum of 2634 genes, the average is 1360 genes; the GC content is very constant among genomes with 33%. Only four genomes have pseudogenes and the average of horizontal gene transfer is 2.87% (Table 1). The presence of conjugative elements in some of these genomes correlates with an increased number of transposons, breakpoints, and a general breakdown in genome synteny, which is very conserved in nearby groups, with some inversions. However, as they move away phylogenetically, more inversions are observed and still synteny is conserved (Figure 2).
The genomic and metabolic impairment of Rickettsia genomes is mainly due to population bottlenecks in free live style and genome size reduction is related to the gene loss, split genes, and pseudogene formation during endosymbiosis. The presence of plasmids and their sporadically integration into the chromosome leading to emergence of pathogenicity and loss of regulation are also factors that influence in Rickettsia genomes variability [5].
When comparing synteny between Rickettsia rickettsii, member of spotted fever group, and R. felis, member of transitional group, (Figure 6) a panoramic view of the genome dynamics at large scale can be observed. A point cut of 100 pb events shows a significant difference respect to 1000 pb. This difference is also observed in the gen itself and the alignment with the Vista tool in the IMG site (img.jgi.doe.gov/cgi-bin/w/main.cgi?section=Vista&page=vista).
Figure 6.
Genomic rearrangements with different cutoff: (A) 100 bp; (B) 1000 pb.
The comparative genomic studies reveal the relation between small size and more virulent species strains, this fact supports Rickettsia virulence and is the result of a reduction genome ongoing process. The reconstructions of inactive genes revealed that deletions strongly predominate over insertions with an excess of GC-to-AT substitutions, which explain the low GC content (32% in genome average) [21].
3. Orientia
This genus comprises Orientia tsutsugamushi, the causative agent of scrub typhus or Tsutsugamushi disease, and the novel species Orientia chuto identified in Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates [22, 23]. Humans are the final host of the bacteria and the symptoms include a simple febrile illness to a life threatening fatal infection (meningitis, eschar, disseminated intravascular coagulation) and complicated with dysfunction in several organs [24].
O. tsutsugamushi is widely spread in the Asia-Pacific region comprising Siberia, Japan, Korea, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Philippines, the Kamchatka Peninsula in the east, Pakistan in the west, and down to Australia in the south [22, 25].
These bacteria are an obligate intracellular Gram-negative rod-shaped and its vector is Leptotrombidium spp. species mite populations, where vertically is maintained. Transmission to humans occurs by the bite of infected larval-stages mites called chiggers [26]. Although, some other vectors have been reported, including ticks of rodents from different geographic origins [27, 28]. Vertical or transovarial transmission of Orientia spp. would be essential to the maintenance of the infection due to mites have a role as vectors and reservoir [25].
In the recent years, a dramatic variation in phenotypes and genotypes of O. tsutsugamushi has been observed in humans, animal host, and vector mites using immunological and molecular methods [25].
3.1. Genotyping of Orientia
Strain classification of Orientia and serotyping were performed based on the immunodominant 56 kDa type-specific antigen (TSA) located on the surface of the bacteria [29].
With this method, three antigenic prototypes were primarily described: Karp, Kato, and Gilliam; and then many more variations of different serotypes were described in several countries [30, 31]. As primary attempts, genotyping was made by sing RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) to identify unique isolates or directly by sequence analysis of the TSA gene by PCR. A comparison between nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) of 56-kDa antigen gene, the most used molecular technique for confirmation of scrub typhus and genotyping of O. tsutsugamushi, and single-step conventional PCR (cPCR) revealed that nPCR products have more variation among strains than cPCR, which emphasizes cPCR advantages [32, 33].
The antigenic variation of the strains Karp, Kato, and Gilliam, subsequent strains, and recently isolates discovered depends on the diversity of the TSA located on the surface of O. tsutsugamushi [34].
Genome of O. tsutsugamushi strain Boryong has 2,217,051 bp, with 2179 potential protein-coding sequences and 963 sequences of fragmented genes, which represent a coding capacity of only 49.6%. A core genome is composed of 512 genes that share with seven Rickettsia species (Figure 7). The fragmented regions have a significant interest since they correspond to repeated DNA regions distributed throughout the whole genome. The absent of collinearity with other Rickettsia genomes and the no systematic pattern in the GC plot suggest that the genome has been extensively shuffled [35].
Figure 7.
The mapping of different regions in the circular genome of O. tsutsugamushi. Figure reproduced from [35].
3.2. Comparative genomics
Nakayama et al. [36] compared two genomes of O. tsutsugamushi: Boryong and Ikeda strains. Both genomes recently reported and isolated in Korea and Japan [35, 37]. In this comparative analysis, a phylogenetic relationship of O. tsutsugamushi strains was reconstructed using 11 conserved genes in O. tsutsugamushi and closely related Rickettsia species. The multilocus sequencing analysis of 10 O. tsutsugamushi strains representing each TSA subtype revealed the distribution of strain-specific sequences identified in Boryong or Ikeda among the O. tsutsugamushi strains.
The analysis revealed an extensive reductive genome evolution and a significant amplification of repetitive sequences. In fact, the repetitive sequences identified in Ikeda strain were classified in three types: (1) Integrative and conjugative element (ICE) named OT amplified genetic element (OtAGE); (2) Transposable elements (TE); and (3) Short repetitive sequences of unknown origin (short repeat). Both genomes of Orientia contain the same set of repetitive sequences, which have been amplified in both strains and caused an extensive genome shuffling. Additional to this, the existence of core genes set of family Rickettsiaceae is also highly conserved. It seems that the extensive genome rearrangements generated by repetitive sequences have occurred between the two strains, although the high complex and repeat-rich feature of the Orientia genomes and some genomics differences still have to be clarified [36].
3.3. Gene loss, gene gain, and evolution
Reductive evolution can be studied in members of Rickettsiales, because genome degradation is a process that occurs in members of this order. Gene loss has shaped the content of some Rickettsiales genomes, and horizontal gene transfer (HGT) has played an important role in the genome evolution of these bacteria [38].
An evolution study based on gene loss and HGT events in Rickettsia spp., Anaplasma spp. and Orientia spp. showed that three possible HGT event occurred from various organisms to Orientia and six events to Rickettsia spp., and three possible HGT event from Rickettsia and Orientia to other bacteria (Figure 8) [38].
Figure 8.
Probable gene gain events occurred in Rickettsia and Orientia. Orientia would have been gained genes from viruses, other bacteria and even archaea. Figure taken from [38].
Gene gain is a known event that has occurred throughout rickettsial evolution. In O. tsutsugamushi Ikeda one HGT event was identified and none in O. tsutsugamushi Boyrong. Many of the genes transferred by HGT were gained ancestrally, and include transposases and ankyrin repeat-containing proteins that appear to have been transferred from viruses and protist to Orientia species; the genes donated by Orientia were gained by Firmicutes spp., Bacteroidetes spp., and Gamma-proteobacteria spp. [38].
The whole genome analysis of O. tsutsugamushi Boryong has revealed the presence of type IV secretion system histidine kinases, SpoT, Tra, and ankyrin repeat- and tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) containing proteins. Histidine kinases are proteins that act as sensor and signal transduction in response to changes in the environment; SpoT family proteins have a role in the response to energy starvation; Tra family proteins participate in gene transfer between rickettsia and other bacteria [39].
In a shotgun proteomics analysis using SDS-PAGE and LC-MSMS, many expressed proteins and the protein profiles were identified. 584 out of 1152 proteins of O. tsutsugamushi were identified by trypsin and Lys-C digestion and LC-MSMS, which corresponds to 49.4% proteins, annotated on the genome of the bacteria. It seems that during evolution the obligate intracellular bacteria lacked some proteins of important function (i.e., metabolism) and conserved proteins that allow them to survive in the host cells [39].
4. Conclusions
Rickettsiaceae family comprises widely distributed and genomically diverse microorganisms. Genome analysis of the members of the family has revealed an extraordinary evolution process throughout the time driven by the constant interactions with host cells and other bacteria. Recently, genomics analyses have revealed the presence of core genes in this family, as well as genes encoding proteins with significant function in Orientia spp.
\n',keywords:"comparative genomics, Rickettsia, pathogens, reductive evolution",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59610.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59610.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59610",totalDownloads:1129,totalViews:246,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:2,impactScorePercentile:83,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 15th 2016",dateReviewed:"January 29th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 21st 2018",dateFinished:"February 27th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Recent advancements in genomes sequencing of members of Rickettsiaceae family have led to set a new landmark in the study of these microorganisms. Genomic analyses of Rickettsia and Orientia reveal a history of genome reduction because of the interaction with intermediate and final hosts; the evidence shows that this is an ongoing process. The gene loss, the gain, and loss of plasmids in such an easy way, among other significant processes are the evidence of the evolutionary history of this bacterial group involving reductive processes. In particular, the integrative conjugative element called REIS, was necessary in the process of adaption to an intracellular lifestyle in eukaryotes. We present a genomic focusing on Rickettsia and Orientia species, due to the animal and human importance. In this analysis, the genomic evidence shows that genomes have been extensively shuffled; however, the existence of core genes has also been conserved.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59610",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59610",book:{id:"5543",slug:"farm-animals-diseases-recent-omic-trends-and-new-strategies-of-treatment"},signatures:"Bernardo Sachman-Ruiz and Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda",authors:[{id:"195820",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernardo",middleName:null,surname:"Sachman-Ruiz",fullName:"Bernardo Sachman-Ruiz",slug:"bernardo-sachman-ruiz",email:"sachman.bernardo@inifap.gob.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Rickettsia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Rickettsia evolution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Genomic of Rickettsia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Plasmids in Rickettsia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. Gene loss and evolution of Rickettsia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3. Phylogeny and taxonomy of Rickettsia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4. Comparative genomics of Rickettsia",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Orientia",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. Genotyping of Orientia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2. Comparative genomics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3. Gene loss, gene gain, and evolution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gillespie J, Beier-Sexton M, Azad A. The Family Rickettsiaceae. In: Practical Handbook of Microbiology. Second Ed. [Internet] ed. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press; 2008;(April 2015). pp. 445-456. Available from: http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/9781420009330.ch28'},{id:"B2",body:'Martijn J, Schulz F, Zaremba-Niedzwiedzka K, Viklund J, Stepanauskas R, Andersson SGE, et al. 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The Orientia tsutsugamushi genome reveals massive proliferation of conjugative type IV secretion system and host-cell interaction genes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2007;104(19):7981-7986'},{id:"B36",body:'Nakayama K, Kurokawa K, Fukuhara M, Urakami H, Yamamoto S, Yamazaki K, et al. Genome comparison and phylogenetic analysis of Orientia tsutsugamushi strains. DNA Research: An International Journal for Rapid Publication of Reports on Genes and Genomes. 2010;17(5):281-291'},{id:"B37",body:'Nakayama K, Yamashita A, Kurokawa K, Morimoto T, Ogawa M, Fukuhara M, et al. The whole-genome sequencing of the obligate intracellular bacterium Orientia tsutsugamushi revealed massive gene amplification during reductive genome evolution. DNA Research. 2008;15(4):185-199'},{id:"B38",body:'Georgiades K, Merhej V, El Karkouri K, Raoult D, Pontarotti P. Gene gain and loss events in Rickettsia and Orientia species. Biology Direct. 2011;6:6'},{id:"B39",body:'Ogawa M, Shinkai-Ouchi F, Matsutani M, Uchiyama T, Hagiwara K, Hanada K, et al. Shotgun proteomics of Orientia tsutsugamushi. Clinical Microbiology and Infection [Internet]. 2009;15(Suppl. 2):239-240. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.02157.x'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bernardo Sachman-Ruiz",address:"sachman.bernardo@inifap.gob.mx",affiliation:'
Anaplasmosis Unit, National Center for Disciplinary Research in Veterinary Parasitology, CENID-PAVET, INIFAP, Jiutepec, Morelos, México
Anaplasmosis Unit, National Center for Disciplinary Research in Veterinary Parasitology, CENID-PAVET, INIFAP, Jiutepec, Morelos, México
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1. Introduction: health intended; fragmentation produced
As we share these insights, we are aware that engineering education varies across cultures. Any insights are likely limited to the things we have in common. So, we begin with making clear our point of view (POV), which is derived from being immersed in engineering education in the United States since 1981. This education system is theoretically intended as the means to a profession that is dedicated to serving the well-being of society above all other considerations [1]. This purported purpose of engineering was not the core of our engineering education and subsequent teaching. The core was math and science, by which we are referring to the schools of western scientific thought, taught in English and traced to Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, and Isaac Newton. Very briefly, as described by Capra and Luisi [2], Aquinas integrated scientific reason with faith, elevating what was scientific philosophy to God-given truth. The works of Bacon, Descartes and Newton served to produce an organized study of inanimate objects—changed only when acted on by force—and methods suitable for the study of such objects. Hidden in these paradigmatic shifts from philosophy to truth were assumptions and values that have functioned to shape our world as we know it today. Language is also relevant for its intimate coupling to our neurology [3]; like assumptions and values, its hidden structure unconsciously shapes our behavior [4, 5].
Our aspiration for engineering education, or all of education, is that of global health—societal and environmental, which we believe to be inextricably intertwined. However, at the moment of writing this, our country is reeling from what is apparently a systemic education gone wrong, writ large, and enabled by science and engineering. We ‘westerners’ imagine that our science and education support peaceful citizenship and democratic governance. Hundreds of years into this grand social experiment, the evidence suggests otherwise. Systemic patterns reveal our western education is most reliably producing fragmentation rather than health. In some ways, it is not surprising that a methodology of learning (“science”) that is based on fragmenting the whole into its constituent parts does not produce health, the root of which is Old English hælþ “wholeness, a being whole, sound or well’ [6]. As physicist David Bohm observed, “fragmentation is now very widespread, not only throughout society, but also in each individual; and this is leading to a kind of general confusion of the mind, which creates an endless series of problems and interferes with our clarity of perception so seriously as to prevent us from being able to solve most of them.” (p. 1, [7]).
What we did not account for in our social experiment with ‘western’ scientific education, was the effect that education would have on our selves. In a recent book, Henrich [8] documents the research that shows that brains and behavior of western-educated adults differ in dramatic ways from their global peers. Specifically, these individuals, which Henrich describes as western-educated, industrialized, rich and democratic (WEIRD), have a default tendency to focus on parts within a visual field, whereas their non-WEIRD peers see the whole. Unsurprisingly, WEIRD individuals tend to view the world with the analytical thinking of the reductionist science that is core to western and engineering education. Reductionism and its methods assume a world of objects, held separate from and independent of the observer; its aim is to prove or disprove hypotheses about cause and effect. Reductionism is useful for manipulating the physical world for predictable outcomes but is not fit for the purpose of working with living beings. What this means for WEIRD people is a tendency to see human behavior as caused by traits of the individual whereas their non-WEIRD peers are more likely to reason that peoples’ behavior is a reaction to the systemic conditions—a more holistic interpretation. WEIRD people tend to employ limited moral logics that rely on what are viewed as “autonomous” actions by individuals [9]. Non-WEIRD subjects draw on a multitude of moral logics that include autonomous action and presume ones’ inseparability from communities. In short, western education conditions people to see the world in a fragmented, rather than holistic way.
Henrich’s analysis of WEIRD subjects does not address the effects of the English language as the medium of WEIRD-ness. However, cognitive scientists recognize that language is neurologically embodied [5, 10]. For example, Lakoff and Johnson describe semantic frames in the English language which focus attention to what are considered salient features, causing unconscious entailments on peoples’ behavior [4]. Might the language of engineering, deriving from military roots in the U.S., subconsciously condition behavior? Even the basic syntax of English-- subject acts (on) object--is noteworthy as a mental model of change. The English syntax is both linear and self-assertive. In contrast, the meaning of Chinese characters change with context; one must be attentive to context to understand meaning. Learning from written Chinese characters is essentially a practice in attentiveness to context. These brain practices required by the language may contribute to the results seen in a test for analytical v. holistic logic: Sixty percent of people from English speaking countries like the U.S., U.K. and Australia used analytical logic whereas sixty to ninety percent of people from China (depending on region) used holistic logic [11]. This result suggests that one’s first language and its structure strongly condition one’s attention, with Chinese students practicing more holistic logics. There is a dramatic increase of Chinese college students studying in English speaking countries (i.e., U.S., U.K., Canada and Australia), from the early 2000’s on [12]. How do the logics of these Chinese students compare to their western-educated peers? This is an important question that the research literature in English does not yet seem to address.
Functional MRI studies of WEIRD subjects by Jack et al. [13, 14] point to patterns akin to what Henrich and others reported. They found that the neural networks active in reasoning about objects in the physical world have an antagonistic relationship between the activity regions that require social and moral reasoning (i.e., one’s relationship to the whole of society). When one is using the logics needed for working with objects, the neural circuitry that considers others, emotion and context, is inactive. The finding that different regions of the brain are accessed for different logics is not in itself surprising or problematic. However, in a follow up study by Jack et al. involving WEIRD subjects, they found moral concern and analytical reasoning to be inversely related [15]. In particular, people biased toward analytical reasoning were also inclined to draw upon these same dehumanized logics in situations that call for contextual, humanized reasoning, particularly when the situation involved ambiguity. Other studies involving western educated and non-western educated subjects have shown that priming subjects to use analytical reasoning results in less humane and less altruistic decisions [16, 17].
While some engineering curricula require general education, the engineering appetite for technical knowledge in the U.S. has had a magnetic pull on our attention as predicted by the sociologist, Jürgen Habermas. He suggested that knowledge and the methods for acquiring it are constituted by the purpose, whether that is to control the physical world (technical), to work with people (practical) or to liberate one from their thinking (emancipatory). These knowledge-constituent interests produce three types of sciences that hold different assumptions, Table 1. Habermas predicted that technical understanding would take on a life of its own in modern societies, becoming the sole means, even when it is not fit for purpose [18]. Examples of using technical approaches for issues that require practical approaches are high-stakes educational tests for ‘improving’ education and the increasing use of technology to police society. These approaches amplify rather than solve the problems.
Type of science:
Natural
Social
Critical
Frame and habits of mind
Positivist, Analytical
Constructivist, Hermeneutic
Deconstructivist, Emancipatory
Interest
Technical: Predictable outcome of practical skills for employment
Practical/Meaning: Intellectual development and communication
Liberation*: Enlightenment to enact conscious choices
Assumptions about reality (ontology)
Reductionist: simple cause & effect; reduce variation in experiments to validate
Constructivist: complicated; attempt to examine all variables to see cause & effect
Habermas’ types of sciences produced by his theorized knowledge-constitutive interests. From [19], adapted [20]. Used with permission.
Liberation indicates the process by which models and paradigms are revealed as such, introducing both consciousness and choice where they were artificially constrained.
These patterns are pointing to a simple principle that legacy engineering education does not account for: Learning/knowing alters our minds [21]; structure conditions behavior. Most significantly for education, our neurological structure conditions our attention and thought. These emerging findings are weak signals of a concerning pattern: engineering education based on a foundation of reductionist science contains the risk of educating professionals who are diminished in their ability to see, feel and reason in humane, holistic ways. From Bohm,
“…each individual human being has been fragmented into a large number of separate and conflicting compartments, according to his different desires, aims, ambitions, loyalties, psychological characteristics, etc., to such an extent that it is generally accepted that some degree of neurosis is inevitable, …the attempt to live according to the notion that the fragments are really separate is, in essence, what has led to the growing series of extremely urgent crises that [are] confronting us today…this way of life has brought about pollution, destruction of the balance of nature, over-population, world-wide economic and political disorder, and the creation of an overall environment that is neither physically nor mentally healthy for most of the people who have to live in it.” (p. 176 [7]).
In short, a global engineering education at the emergence of Industry 5.0 must reframe engineering and develop a substantively new thinking as Einstein urged [22], lest we suffer a technology-enabled self-destruction.
2. Re-new thinking: embrace holism for engineering education
“A human being is a part of the whole, called by us ‘Universe,’ a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the rest— a kind of optical delusion of this consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole nature in its beauty.” (p. 20 [23]).
What Einstein asserts is that the nature of the Universe is whole. Wholeness or Health, is a non-separable condition that exists prior to us. The fragmentation in ‘western’ science can be traced to Eurocentric philosophies from the 13-16th centuries, as described by Capra and Luisi [2]. By 1926, the South African statesman Jan Smuts advocated a return to the ancient Greek philosophy that he called “holism”,
“the ultimate synthetic, ordering, organizing, regulative activity in the universe which accounts for all the structural groupings and synthesis in it, from the atom and the physico-chemical structures, [through] the cell and organisms, through Mind in animals, to Personality of man. The all-pervading and ever-increasing character of synthetic unity or wholeness in these structures leads to the concept of Holism as the fundamental activity underlying and co-ordinating all others, and to the view of the universe as a Holistic Universe.” (p. 317 [24]).
This notion of holism is not new; it has been embedded in indigenous cultures for centuries in many forms. For example, Native Americans like the Iroquois tribes believed that every decision should be made in consideration of how it will affect seven generations (i.e., 7 x 100 years) into the future, recognizing their present moment to be intertwined with a future one. They also viewed themselves as part of a web of life with nature as a collaborator, leading to a sustainable relationship with nature, prior to the genocide inflicted upon them by white men. As seen in such indigenous societies, adopting wholeness and health as the fundamental nature of reality opens onto a landscape of radically different interpretations, methods, practices and capacities.
Consider that our societal challenges, amplified by technology, are holistic in nature (e.g., anthropogenic climate change). They therefore require an engineering that is grounded in holism. In other words, reductionism is a mental model incommensurate with the phenomena it is attempting to address; by analogy, an engineer cannot incorrectly conceive of gravity as a force that operates parallel to the surface of the earth and expect a gravity-reliant design to function as planned. Even in cultures that are traditionally more holistic, such as the case for China, there is recent advocacy for holistic research approaches [25, 26, 27].
To be more effective in engineering, our challenge is to develop an organized practice of working with holism. Such a science would encompass and use reductionist knowledge when fit for purpose, but would expand our POV and methods in important ways. How would a holistic science differ from the legacy science? How would a holistic science provide benefit to society? We explore these questions in the following sections.
2.1 Holism paradigm v. fragmentation paradigm
If we take ‘science’ to be an organized study for the purpose of insight, a holistic science suggests a paradigm that radically differs from reductionist science. As can be seen in Table 2, the reductionist world view is one of separate objects that mechanistically interact; understanding comes through analyzing a system as simple, cause-and-effect interactions. A holistic world view embraces the whole of humanity and presumes unity, where forms arise though recursive interactions in the presence of energetic fields; understanding is inherently tentative and situational, producing heuristics. Reductionist principles are suitable for working with inanimate matter. They are not fit for working with living matter, humans or sentient beings. To point out the obvious, engineering to serve society inherently involves living beings.
Reductionism
Holism
Nature of reality
Separate objects, independent from one another, inanimate, consisting of fundamental building blocks
Inseparable, interconnected whole, animate, recursive patterns repeat at different scales (“fractal”)
Behavioral phenomena
Mechanistic: interaction by simple, generalizable cause-and-effect relationships (e.g., Force = mass x acceleration); predictable as the sum of the part-level interactions, often linear
Emergent: from an innumerable, recursive interaction among self-organizing components in the presence of fields; unpredictable with qualities that are not necessarily found in the parts—non-linear, cyclic
Lens of understanding
Equilibrium/stasis or time-independence Analysis– breaking down complicated into simple, quantifiable and verifiable principles
Non-equilibrium/order from chaos Synthesis and Apprehension – Combining theory, action and observation in an ever expanding perception of patterns reflected in weak signals
Table 2.
The ontological assumptions of reductionism and holism.
Paradigms have far-reaching consequences due to the profound and often invisible effects that mental models have on our expectations, thoughts and actions. For this reason, the pioneering systems thinker, Donella Meadows, identified “transcending paradigms” as the highest leverage intervention for systemic change [28]. Many of our present-day societal challenges—pollution, climate change, poverty, economic inequity, education inequity, and health crises, emerge from the whole and simply cannot be addressed through reductionist means. Engineering education based on holism holds the possibility of aiding our ability to more effectively address global challenges. What might such an engineering education produce?
While we cannot clearly see into what a future of engineering from holism might produce, viewing holism and reductionism through the lens of Aristotle’s causality, Figure 1, gives us a glimpse into a possible future. Aristotle, who assumed what we would now recognize as holism, modeled phenomena as emerging from the synthesis of four causalities: material, efficient, formal and final.
Figure 1.
Aristotle’s causality. The bottom half represents causality from the domain of the physical world, suitable to reductionism: material and efficient causes. The upper half is the domain of relationships that is suitable for holism.
The causality in the physical domain concerns matter (“material cause”) and techniques of shaping matter (“efficient cause”). The domain of relationships concerns structures that inform the phenomenon (“formal cause”) and the ultimate ends or intent of the phenomenon (“final cause”). Engineering education in the U.S. has largely been focused on the physical domain, giving rise to the engineered world we inhabit today. What might it look like to design an engineering education with a holistic causality? What if we situated engineering as a sociotechnical discipline? What changes might we make if we centered our purpose or final cause to serve societal well-being? How would we change informing structures like Advisory Boards, faculty hiring and retention criteria or student acceptance criteria? With a final cause of health, how might we address the structural discrimination (e.g, laws, policies, practices) against those who have historically been denied social and economic power, such as Black and Brown bodied humans? How might education develop the whole neurological structure of human intelligence, cognitive and somatic? Clearly, this holism paradigm as a POV, opens our attention, causing us to literally see, understand, and act in different ways.
2.2 The cell as living system archetype
Let us consider how we might gain insight from a holism foundation by using a bacteria cell as an archetype. That is, we use here a biological model to illustrate a holistic lens for working with systems for any science, technology, engineering and math discipline. This living system cannot be separated from the universe, although we might consider the cell wall a boundary that defines the system from its surroundings. The term system is conceptual and refers to a set of interacting parts with a shared purpose—in the cell’s case, the purpose is (presumably) living. At first glance, one might imagine that a living cell can be physically moved from its natural surroundings to a Petri dish. However, living requires the cell to exchange nutrients with its surroundings; in this way, we see that this living ‘system’ has an unbreakable connection with its ‘surroundings’. The cell is living through its ability to maintain and replicate the conditions for its living. In what might be described as elaborate dances between molecules, the cell metabolizes nutrients and eliminates wastes or even replicates itself as shown in Figure 2. This property is termed autopoiesis (‘self creation’) [29]. In this system archetype we see the following properties and behaviors:
Interconnectedness which entails a network of countless relationships;
Self-organization of the components through structural coupling in energetic fields;
Recursive patterns of action among self-organizing components, which lead to emergent phenomena that are not directly traceable to its parts, such as autopoiesis.
Figure 2.
Four stages of cell mitosis. A. Prophase B. Prometaphase C. Anaphase D. Telophase. By Roy van Heesbeen - Delta Vision Roy van Heesbeen, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mitosis.
The cell itself, viewed holistically, is an emergent form that is defined by its global, self-sustaining purpose. Using systems concepts, we view the cell as an open system, communicating across its boundary. This living organism provides insight as a metaphorical archetype for effectively working with systems. Its dynamically complex properties and behavior are fractal; the fractal nature of reality is captured in the aphorism by the microbiologist Albert Jan Kluyver, “From elephant to butyric acid bacterium—it is all the same.” [30].
As indicated in Figure 3, the recursive patterns that result in autopoiesis exist at the scale of a single cell, an ecosystem of organisms and social culture. Using a systems lens, one can identify fields at each scale within which structures interact in self-organizing and recursive ways. At the scale of an ecosystem, nutrients are exchanged by producers, consumers and decomposers. Together, they symbiotically maintain the life-giving status of the ecosystem. Within an organizational scale, the social and historical expectations, norms and states of being--such as anger, fear, joy, or relaxation--function to create social fields. One can also identify structural analogs to the cell archetype in social systems. From a holism POV, the system is ‘defined’ by a shared global property, such as ‘living’ (cell & ecosystem), or student learning (college). At the cell level, the cell-wall creates the boundary that separates the conceptual system from the surroundings. For a college, the shared goal is student learning. Other structural features of an organization are the values and beliefs that govern peoples’ behavior. In a social system, such as a college, these thought structures interact with the institutional structures of rules, policies, practices and identities to produce the phenomena of learning and enculturation.
Figure 3.
Fractal view of systems of different scales.
In using the cell as the archetype, we are not claiming identical features found at the cell scale and at the societal scale. We’re suggesting that the patterns of the cell provide insight for working with larger dynamically complex systems. The concept of a ‘system’ as being defined by a global intent is an example of a pattern that crosses scales: For the bacterium and organisms in the ecosystem, the shared intent is living; for something like a college, the shared intent is learning. Because of the fractal nature, working with dynamically complex phenomena would involve being attentive to structures, patterns of behavior, the quality of relationships and field conditions that might favor the emergence of one outcome over another.
What would be the appropriate scientific methods? In the next section, we will describe the relationship between methods and outcomes and suggest a holistic practice to account for this relationship.
2.3 Autopoiesis in scientific methodologies: knowledge informs the mind
As we consider the cell as an archetypal system for holistic science, one is likely to notice that there remains a great deal of unresolved mystery. What is causing these cells to undergo changes? Why exactly is it alive? What exactly is causing cells to differentiate in the emergence of a complex organism? Simply put, we do not know. Yet these questions highlight an essential difference in legacy science compared to a holistic science: reductionist science aims to answer questions, holistic science prioritizes achieving intended outcomes. Heuristic understanding occurs as a by-product in a holistic science, but it is secondary. In this way, holistic science is more aligned with engineering than reductionist science.
Holism recognizes that final cause has powerful and lasting ramifications; it functions as a seed out of which the tree and subsequent fruit arise. We can see the influence of final causality in the methods of reductionist science. They can be traced to Sir Francis Bacon, an English aristocrat and father of the empirical science method. Bacon advocated torture as a means to reveal truth [31]. He conceived of Nature as a female who hid her secrets from men, maintaining that “nature itself is something to be vexed and tortured, and that, once vexed and tortured, it will continue [as] the compliant slave of man” [32]. Bacon envisioned a utopian society, his formal causality, “for the Interpreting of Nature, and the Producing of Great and Marvelous Workes (sic) for the Benefit of Men” [33]. It was no doubt that his final cause of benefiting “man/men” was a reference to males of means, as women were often treated as property in 17th century England, a 14-year old version of which Bacon acquired as a wife at his age of 45 years [33]. Bacon represented an ethic where knowledge meant power and the interest of powerful men were deemed valuable by virtue of their (presumed) God-given superior social status. Bacon’s cultural milieu, identity and position in society established a scientific practice that does not include questions about who defines the research questions and methods, whether they are socially just, or whether they are humane. Furthermore, Bacon’s ideologies were influential in establishing thought in the U.S. which contributed to racists, sexist and inhumane ‘scientific’ practices; Bacon’s ethics persist in U.S. science cultures through discriminatory practices and structures [34, 35]. For example, medical scientists in the U.S. abused African Americans for the sake of benefiting others [36, 37, 38], a rationale often used in cases of non-consensual experimentation on humans [39, 40, 41]. Such ideologies produced a biased ‘science’ [42] and scientists who believed that science cannot be an activity relegated to the “socially inferior” [38]; this assertion implies the reductionist fallacy that a condition that exists only in relationship to the whole (society), such as poverty, is explained by some inherent ‘trait’ of the individual. A science of holism would instead recognize any so-called “inferior” social condition in the U.S. as emerging from the historic, systemic effects of genocide, slavery, colonialism and legalized discrimination (e.g., see [43, 44]).
These reductionist patterns of thought and behavior ironically suggest an ontology of holism. Specifically, the condition of non-separability includes the observer as causal to what is ‘observed.’ Seeing co-arises with knowing so that the mind of the observer is literally informed, meaning that it has been physically formed, by knowledge. In other words, knowing is an autopoietic activity. From the POV of holism, it is not surprising that a view of the world as separate objects that will reveal their truths when tortured produces objectifying science, behaviors and conclusions.
In a holistic science, rather than attempt to eliminate distortion introduced by the observer, one accounts for it by holding a disposition of recursive inquiry throughout (p. 23 [45]), asking four essential questions: How do we know our understandings are accurate? How do we know whether our practice makes sense? How do we know whether we are acting morally right and appropriate in the circumstances? How do we know we are not self-deceptive in our responses?
3. Holistic science in action: navigating to shared aims
As mentioned, holistic science is concerned with achieving the intended aims. In this way, a holistic science is a theory in action which might be better described by the word praxis. It is more akin to the situational navigation used by ancient cultures in navigating across open bodies of water. In order to do so, they were attentive to nuanced changes in their environment, such as the direction and quality of wind, features in and on the water, the appearance of the night sky. In response to these signals, they continually adjusted their course so they might arrive at their destination. If one were conducting a traditional laboratory experiment, changing course during the experiment would most certainly ruin one’s ability to validate the hypothesis. And, a holistic praxis, which would be more suited to working in human systems, would be more concerned with serving the shared human goals and less concerned, or not at all concerned with proving cause-and-effect. Methodologies like Critical Emancipatory Action Research, or Participatory Action Research, are holistic praxes. These social science approaches share the assumptions about the holistic, inseparable nature of reality, and purpose [46] as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Contrast of social science research approaches. Critical emancipatory action research is a collective form of action research. The numbers should be listed in sequential order.
Participatory action methods are aimed at collectively achieving a social purpose and often used in community-based social change efforts or co-design. We submit that the assumptions and aims of the participatory action methods are more strongly aligned with those of engineering.
The conception of how change takes place when working in a social system starkly contrasts with reductionism. From reductionism, Newton’s laws of motion condition us to believe that force must be applied to induce change (“An object in motion stays in motion unless it is acted on by a force.”); Newton’s laws are certainly useful in working with non-living matter. However, using force on people raises ethical dilemmas. Returning to the cell as a system archetype, the cause of action is mysterious, yet governed by the quality of relationships, structures and fields (Table 3).
As an educator, the notion that the quality of relationships, structures and fields condition change is easy to see. For example, imagine that learning is the change, a classroom the setting. Imagine that a human we call “student’ is living remotely to their college. They lack the infrastructure for a stable, high-speed interconnection, yet the instructor has mandated “engagement” through synchronous course dialog. Imagine that the human we call “student” is in a social field of threat and fear because of the systemic conditions of a global pandemic and insufficient internet. In this scenario, it is perhaps obvious that the quality of the learning will be conditioned by the quality of connectedness, structures and fields.
What is less obvious is the profound shaping produced by the hidden value systems in our science.
3.1 Hidden values live in the science of engineering education
As alluded to in the history of Francis Bacon, the value system of any science is embedded in its methods. As illustrated in Figure 5, the values that give rise to thought structures within the reductionist and holistic POV are quite different. Figure 5 invites us to see engineering education as a whole, arising from the force field produced by hidden values that instantiate thought structures and subsequent patterns of behavior.
Figure 5.
Reductionist and holistic values and thinking. The metaphor of an iceberg is in the background. Holism, while pictured for contrast on the right, encompasses the left and right areas of the figure. Adapted from [2, 48, 49].
Figure 5 uses an iceberg as a metaphorical backdrop to call our attention to dynamic systemic patterns. Briefly, the inseparable coupling of gravity, the structure of the water molecule and the thermal conditions produce a buoyancy force that causes ~10% of the iceberg volume to protrude. The tip is symptomatic of dynamics that are hidden beneath the surface. One could destroy the tip (i.e., metaphorically address the symptoms) but it will be reproduced through the systemic dynamics: the gravitational field’s coupling relationship with the H2O structures. Metaphorically, values play the role of gravity in the phenomenon that produces the tip of the iceberg; thought structures are like the water molecule structure; the patterns of behavior are like the buoyancy that results from water expanding upon freezing; the symptomatic events that emerge from the whole represent the tip. Our legacy engineering education has left us with symptoms of anthropogenic climate catastrophe, social injustice, stark inequities, political volatility and environmental degradation. We propose that an engineering education based on holism would instead produce Health.
What would an engineering education based on holism look like? We invite the global community to begin the creative process of answering that question. We offer a few thoughts, based on the principle that an autopoietic process will produce itself. In other words, the educational means of achieving the ends of health/wholeness must also have the quality of wholeness/health.
We first point out that holism includes reductionism. Reductionist science has value and we would first need to reflect on what we might conserve from our legacy methods. An ideal holistic engineering education would be balanced in its values and methods, producing discernment for choosing the methods that are fit for the purpose at hand. The value system in a Holism stance is captured in this simple imperative: Honor the whole. Here, the emphasis is on the whole, not just its parts. Similarly, an engineering education based on holism would embrace diversity in all its forms, not privileging one way of being over others, but dignifying all in an ethic of mutual respect. Such an education would honor the whole person as well, embracing emotions as natural and essential to meaningful learning, rather than something to suppress.
Some who feel strongly aligned with legacy science might argue that thought and emotion are separate realms with science falling within the domain of ‘reason’. This logic is ironic on at least two counts. The first is that this view originated with Descartes. He deduced his idea to separate the intellect from intuition through dreaming [47], a highly irrational phenomenon. Secondly, from the second law of thermodynamics, we see that the spontaneous direction of change in the universe is in the direction of increasing diversity of states of being. Another way of looking at this second law principle is to conclude that where a lack of diversity exists, one can be assured that energy is being exerted to make that happen. While we are speaking in metaphor, the reader can readily test the clarity of this metaphor; do emotions arise spontaneously? (Here we are treating the different emotions as different states of being) Does it take energy, chemical or otherwise, to maintain a single emotional state? The same tests can be applied to other social systems. Let us say engineering education programs are somewhat uniform in their developmental outcomes; are there energetic forcing functions that produce such uniformity or is this uniformity occurring spontaneously? From these simple tests for coherence, we can see that a fragmented view is neither grounded in nor consistent with its own science; fragmentation is socially-constructed.
An engineering education derived from holism would be attentive to the quality of relationships in the learning environment. By relationships, we refer to the nature of what connects people: a holistic education would invite people to connect through purposes that transcend self-assertive interests. In the face of conflict people would turn to their shared purpose, larger than their self-interests, to resolve issues. One who viewed the world and work of an engineer as dynamically complex would expect conflict (“chaos”) as a natural part of the process, rather than something to be eliminated. In other words, engineers would embrace the messy process of collaboration in social and political settings as a central and essential activity.
An engineering education that recognized the truth of holism would be attentive to the quality of structures that condition the learning. For example, the rise of academic capitalism [50] in the U.S. has institutionalized standardized testing for college entrance [51]. Because the standardized test was developed to validate a theory of white supremacy, this college entrance structure has produced structural discrimination against non-white populations. In the U.S., the engineering profession is depleted of diversity in perspectives by structural barriers at different scales: familial, classroom, institutional, regional, societal, and historical. To honor the whole of our collective humanity, an engineering education would do the painstaking work of revisioning just and equitable educational structures, policies and practices.
The work of revisioning just and equitable structures must recognize the fallacy of framing engineering as totally objective, meritocratic and free of social influences. This framing has been challenged by Cech and others in noting a Eurocentic discipline that fails to recognize the influence of race and gender on epistemologies and practice [52, 53, 54]. From the POV of holism, the framing is not a fact, it is an artifact: the autopoietic result of legacy science’s originating mental models.
Honoring the whole would translate to honoring the whole of our humanity, recognizing the Descartes fallacy of “thinking” as primary. What we are learning from neuroscientists is that human intelligence is distributed throughout the body, rather than centrally controlled from the cerebral cortex as once believed. That is, the structure of our whole intelligence includes bodily sensations, often outside our conscious awareness. Feelings, presumed irrelevant to engineering curricula, are now recognized as essential to learning [55]. It is perhaps obvious that emotions are essential to empathy and moral reasoning; they are what humanizes us. A holistic engineering education would cultivate our ability to constructively work with our whole intelligence, managing our neurological states of being and honoring ways of knowing that include intuition, artistic expression and the lived experience. Of critical importance is cultivating our appetite for beauty. As Maxine Greene has taught us, beauty feeds the social imagination necessary to envision just alternatives to the world we have [56]. Given the autopoietic nature of our minds, the value of putting our attention on beauty is the possibility of generating beauty.
Finally, an engineering education from holism would develop skillful means in working with social fields. The notion of social fields was proposed by Lewin in his work with Holocaust survivors [57]. In his treatise, he used the analog and mathematics of electromagnetism to describe social fields—conceived as an energetic force that produced action at a distance—using reductionist concepts. However, the concept of an energetic social field can easily be seen in phenomena like social contagion or mob mentality. Additionally, the activity of mirror neural networks [58, 59] from a holistic POV confirms that shared, visceral human experiences can co-arise through observing another person; a witness can mirror the same neurological activation as if they were engaged in the observed activity. In terms of learning, a holistic engineering education would recognize how the quality of the social field conditions the ability for learning. For example, recent findings reveal the wide scale prevalence of trauma in the young adult population in the U.S. [60]. Such adverse childhood experiences become neurologically embodied, compromising peoples’ ability to self-regulate and remain calm—the only state in which one can integrate new knowledge [61], Figure 6. Trauma effectively shrinks our “window of tolerance” for distress. An engineering education from holism would support learners’ ability to manage their neurological state of being and metabolize adaptations that displace us from learning.
Figure 6.
Nerve activation states from polyvagal theory. (Adapted from [61, 64]). The vertical axis represents the level of nervous system arousal, which naturally varies. One is able to self-regulate natural variations in arousal state within the window of tolerance. Chronic stress diminishes one’s resilience (i.e., effectively shrinks the window of tolerance).
3.2 Preliminaries: where do we start?
In a world of urgency, we ironically feel our first action is to pause and reflect. If learning is an autopoietic action, we who have been conditioned through a western education may first need to unlearn. At minimum we will need to expand our ability to sense beyond what is presently available to us. The danger is that any action we take from our present condition will arise from the structures of our western education and thereby worsen the situation. So, our first need is to renounce the primacy of thought and cultivate a holistic neurological intelligence that includes abilities to sense and integrate our feelings. Perhaps coincident with unlearning the hidden dynamics of reductionism, we will need to apprehend the language and methods of holism. Engineering classrooms, as evidenced by syllabi, can draw on semantic frames which foster social fields of fear in classrooms [62]. We will need to re-language engineering if we desire safe social fields.
Another task is to identify what to conserve from reductionism. What balance of competencies are relevant for engineers to be humane and effective in a world of dynamic complexity? Surely reductionist science is important and applicable. What concepts do we preserve in a holistic engineering education? We, as an engineering community, need to do the difficult work to unlearn, rethink and learn. As educators, learning the skillful means of managing our neurological states of being would benefit ourselves and the people we call ‘students.’ Chari and Singh have developed such neuroscience-grounded training [63]. We have field-tested their methods in a recent online course; we and our students experienced their practices as significantly aiding our learning.
Within this new direction of holistic learning, we will also need to generate new methods for understanding our effectiveness. There are those who are skilled at working with managing change through holism [65]. However, the challenge for us disciples of reductionist science is to suspend judgment that arises from our unexamined mental models. A helpful heuristic is to notice when we react with strong emotions in the context of academic questions. That is an opportunity to reflect on the four essential questions: How do we know our understandings are accurate? How do we know whether our practice makes sense? How do we know whether we are acting morally right and appropriate in the circumstances? How do we know we are not self-deceptive in our responses?
3.3 A notional proposal for a holistic engineering learning method
We have laid out the case for a method of learning engineering grounded in a holistic world view. This means that any engineering curriculum would recognize its relationship to its local history and culture. At the same time, we imagine that engineering learning methods across cultures share some learning outcomes. Such outcomes, as we are suggesting in Section 3.2, would reflect not only the reductionist threshold capacities that the engineering community desires to preserve, but include those that are relevant to living in a dynamically complex world that is far from equilibrium. Such a systemic state, as Prigogine and Nicolis [66] have recognized, does not behave in linear ways, where the outcomes are predictable extensions of a plan; systems far from equilibrium are characterized by emergent, spontaneous changes of state which are non-linear, neither predictable nor sourced in the synthesis of the systems components [66]. Such state changes, while not predictable in the conventional meaning of the word, represent outcomes produced by the emergent conditions. The operative question in such systems becomes: What conditions favor the outcomes that we desire?
As a notional proposal, we suggest the threshold technical capacities and holistic enrichments for an engineering education grounded in holism as listed in Table 4. The detailed experience of a program based on these capacities is out-of-scope for this chapter, but available in a pending publication by the authors. However, we provide concrete example below. Table 4 focuses on technical knowledge thresholds (“Reductionist technical content”) that fall in the category of technical interests (Table 1). It also includes what we conceive of as enrichments (“Enriched by Holism”) to support liberal and practical interests (Table 1). We acknowledge that Table 4 is not comprehensive and omits many practical interests that we touch upon in our example below.
Reductionism
Holism
Governing principles of change
Magnitude and nature of applied force
The quality of relationships, structures and fields
Change metaphor
Leverage
Transformation (e.g. chemical reaction)
Table 3.
The nature of change from the POV of reductionism and holism.
Reductionist technical content preserved
Enriched by Holism
Energetics
The first and second laws of thermodynamics and their implications Newton’s laws of linear and rotational motion applied to simple rigid bodies, Basic static and dynamic concepts and relationships
Power and energy flow within, between, among people and the planet (anthropogenic climate dynamics). Conceptual understanding of force as a change mechanism in social and political systems (past, present and future).
Action in fields
Elementary chemical reactions near equilibrium conditions Basic electrostatic and electrodynamic concepts and relationships
Far-from equilibrium dynamics (state changes, emergence, dynamic complexity). Emergence in the presence of force fields (social, political); self-organization, structural coupling of outcomes to systems behavior.
Flow
One-dimensional flow of charge and thermal energy (steady and transient states) Control through sensing and feedback
Neurological basis of sensing (perception, reception, interoception, proprioception). Reflection, dialog and narrative in support of participatory, systems transformation. Managing one’s attention and state of being. Making conscious choices.
Measurement
Math (curated competencies from: algebra, calculus, linear systems, statistics)
Ontological and epistemic boundaries of quantitative and qualitative data. Dynamic complexity (concept of strange attractor, curated systems behavior and properties of scale, scope, resilience).
Aliveness
Biology (curated set of principles about the structure and function of organisms, and ecosystems; metabolism, immune response).
Living systems dynamics (autopoiesis, recursion, self-organization, emergence, structural coupling). Threshold conditions for thriving (well-ness, fairness, whole person and community development). Art, joy and beauty as basis for creativity that is just and equitable.
Table 4.
Proposed threshold holistic engineering capacities, grouped into themes.
As stated, we would expect engineering education grounded in holism to reflect the rich diversity and cultural heritage that exists on the planet. However, to illustrate a practical example, consider this vignette of an example of an engineering learning method in the north eastern United States. It takes the form of a four-year experience.
The central tenets of this holistic learning method include:
everyone (students, faculty, staff, administrators) is a learner,
everyone is an educator,
we are not separate from the systems imagine: we are part of an interconnected web of relationships,
we are always practicing something in a recursive loop of theories, action and learning in the spirit of Critical emancipatory action research, Figure 4.
These tenets translate to a culture of mutual respect. Everyone is valuable and worthy of dignity, regardless of formal role. In a holism model, a community mantra might be, “Honor the whole.” As a community member, one would feel a sense of care and responsibility for one another’s well-being.
The faculty create the least structure required for learning. Of course, this would vary from institution to institution, but what is shared as humans is our innate motion toward learning when it is personally meaningful, it interests us and we can discover with a sense of psychological, emotional, academic and physical safety. The traditional “grading” system might be replaced with developmental milestones and reflection.
In this model, there would likely be an agreed-upon time where the parties convene to co-learn (i.e., a “class”), however, the primary means of learning would be collaborative (i.e., shared power), support self-organization, self-directed learning and peer-to-peer learning. The institutional schedule would structure blocks of time to accommodate collaborative project teams that transgress traditional boundaries.
Imagine that the curriculum was organized around the holistic themes of Table 4: Energetics, Actions in fields, Flow, Measurement, Aliveness and Flow. Over the four years, the curriculum would involve broader and deeper applications of these revisited themes considered at different scales. That is, we might conceive of ourselves as centered at the core of several interpenetrating systems, from most personal (the smallest scale) to transcendent (the whole): self, family, institutional, societal, historical and perhaps spiritual.
As a contextual backdrop, the present U.S. culture is simultaneously alive with the hope of freedom and toxified by its foundational history of genocide of indigenous people, enslavement of Black and Asian people, and violence against women. The myriad violences committed in building our nation have autopoietically reproduced through implicit cultural biases against people of color and women; such biases frequently escalate to lethal violence, such as the pattern of targeting Black men, women and children by law-enforcement agents, fragmenting our communities. A holistic engineering education in the U.S. historical culture could be organized around building the capacities listed in Table 4 for the purpose of dissolving and healing these cultural dynamics while growing the Aliveness that we aspire to.
In the first year, among the many activities, learners would build capacities to access their whole neurology through such practices as mindfulness, meditation, yoga, martial arts or spiritual expression. Simultaneously, they would be learning about sensing, instrumentation and measurement by building electronic circuits. These human-centered and technological activities would be integrated to communicate the value in one’s whole development. Such an integration of the fragmented Western so-called “mind”—abstract, cognitive thought—and so-called “body”—somatic sensations and feelings—would autopoietically produce holistic solutions.
They might also engage in learning history of the region and country, mapping the autopoietic results of these events as institutional structures, policies and practices at different scales: personal, social, regional, nation state, planetary. Simultaneously students would apply mathematics to simulate dynamic systems behavior through computer modeling. Using reflective dialog, they would make meaning together of systemic patterns, perhaps metabolizing residual effects in cases where their lives have been adversely affected.
They might develop their identity through weaving a story of their past, present and future selves in an engineered world. The sharing of these oral histories would be a celebrated community tradition. While developing their narratives of personal power, they would learn about power and energy viewed from the laws of thermodynamics. They would also learn how force works together with motion, equilibrium or stasis through Newton’s laws of motion. Artistic expression, dance, music or theater would be practiced and celebrated with joy. Such activities serve to enrich their vision of who they are becoming and the influence they aspire to have in the world.
The theme of Aliveness could be addressed by studying Nature’s designs. In addition to the basic concepts of chemistry and biology, students would learn the principles of autopoiesis and structural coupling. As an introduction to design, learners would be trained on the use of available prototyping tools so they can design a nature-inspired “Hopper.” They would also draw connections between structural coupling in autopoiesis and inequities in our country’s economic, health and environmental patterns. During this time, computational skills would be developed to analyze data.
In the following years, learners would return to the holistic themes of Energetics, Action in fields, Flow, Measurement and Aliveness. They may also expand their view and application of ideas to larger social scales. The learning might take the form of project-based learning in collaborative partnership with regional communities. For example, along with learning about energy and heat transfer, they could create data-based stock and flow maps of energy at institutional, regional and planetary scales. Such maps could serve as the basis to co-design highly-leveraged interventions for carbon-negative systems with community partners. Or, they may partner to co-develop technologies appropriate to the community setting. What is important in these later years is the process of collaborative discovery in the world outside of the campus.
The curriculum could include partnerships where learners live together situated on a site to demonstrate sustainable communities. They would continue embodied practices and learning related to Energetics, Action in fields, Flow, Measurement and Aliveness. They can deepen their technical knowledge around feedback and controls as they consider how these can be used to provide needed renewable power. Again, such questions of renewable power would be undertaken in metaphorical ways at different scales: self, family, institutions, community, society, history and future. On such demonstration sites, they could also deepen their practices by collaboratively working with regional partners to co-design carbon neutral exchanges of goods and services aimed at creating meaningful livelihood for those experiencing low income.
In this section, we have offered a glimpse into what learning engineering from holism might look like. In its essence, we have offered a vision of learning that is itself, autopoietic. That is, we have described a living, learning organization situated in the U.S. that sustains itself through a recursive return to global themes of Energetics, Action in fields, Flow, Measurement and Aliveness, including themselves as part of the systems they study. Projects, co-created and chosen by learners, figure prominently in the curriculum as does collaboration across boundaries. Embodied practices and dialog play central roles in dissolving power inequities in the learning environment; they enable people to manage their state for better learning and collaboration. Later years expand the scale of co-learning to encompass regional partnerships; sites serve as living laboratories to demonstrate the viability of beneficial, just and equitable alternatives to our current systems.
While this description may seem unrealistic, it is a narrative derived from our institution’s myriad learning experiments over the last 20 years. The vision we describe above coheres to an explicit holistic model that was not a cohering principle of our institution’s past curriculum. However, we offer it as a glimpse into one incarnation that is possible, recognizing it as something singular to our context. From the point of view of holism, we would expect a diversity of expressions of engineering curricula, relevant to the regional situation.
4. Conclusions
Reductionist science and practices are fit for limited purpose and have indeed resulted in the remarkable technological advances we see in Industry 5.0. However, emerging global patterns underscore the fact that our legacy reductionist science is insufficient to meet the moment. Disturbingly, a confluence of findings from different fields point to the pattern of self-replication in learning. An attention fixated on technical ‘problems’ creates an existence filled with technical problems. As predicted by Bateson [67], and later documented by O’Neil [68], without a profound educational shift, legacy science and engineering is likely to lead to self-destruction by extending the power of technology, uninformed by our humanity. Our challenge is to heed Einstein’s imperative to adopt the paradigm of holism or face a future fraught with the increasing social, political, environmental dis-ease produced by fragmentation. Not only is holism more aligned with the nature of the universe, it more accurately describes the dynamically complex, sociotechnical realities that engineers work with. Its methods, drawing from existing social science praxes, are also more aligned in their assumptions and purpose to the profession of engineering. When we consider what a holistic engineering education might involve, we recognize that we can only see dimly. We have offered a working model organized around a recursive consideration of Energetics, Action in fields, Flow, Measurement and Aliveness. This proposed learning model, appropriate to our particular context, is only one of many incarnations of engineering education that we would expect to take form in a model of holism. There is a great deal of work to be done, yet we know that an engineering education for health/wholeness will itself honor the whole of ourselves and our societies. It will include reductionist science yet be attentive to the quality of relationships, structures and fields that condition what is learned. At minimum, an engineering education from holism will embrace our whole humanity, recovering our intrinsic motion toward beauty, joy, fairness and compassion—our vital humanizing qualities that are missing in our legacy engineering education.
Acknowledgments
We are profoundly grateful to the countless Black women in the U.S. who have tirelessly raised the collective consciousness of others. We also thank Michele Simone, Nicola Sochacka and Roger Burton for the generous gift of their thought partnership in editing this manuscript. We acknowledge and celebrate our creative Olin community--past present and future--in all that we have done to stretch in the direction of our better selves. This work was made possible in part by a grant from the Coalition for Life Transformative Education.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Declarations
The ideas in this chapter are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of the Coalition for Life Transformative Education.
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In this chapter, we will unfold the emerging scientific findings that serve as vectors, pointing to the same conclusion: the educational foundation that has brought about Industry 5.0 is causal to brain development that not only undermines our ability to address our emerging complex societal challenges, but biases us toward inhumane logic. We will outline a science of holism, the profoundly new thinking urged by Einstein. This science is rooted in nature’s ontology of dynamic complexity. An engineering education reflecting this new thinking will be described along with the novel developmental capacities afforded by it. 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Holistic science in action: navigating to shared aims",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Hidden values live in the science of engineering education",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Preliminaries: where do we start?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 A notional proposal for a holistic engineering learning method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'National Society of Professional Engineers [Internet]. Alexandria, VA: National Society of Professional Engineers; 2021. Ethics /Engineers’ Creed; 1957 [cited 2021 Jan 28]; Available from: https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics/engineers-creed'},{id:"B2",body:'Capra F, Luisi, PL. The systems view of life: A unifying vision. Cambridge University Press:2014'},{id:"B3",body:'Lakoff G. Explaining embodied cognition results. 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Replacing Syllabi with Pledges: Creating a Peace Frame for Learning. In 2018 World Engineering Education Forum-Global Engineering Deans Council (WEEF-GEDC) 2018 Nov 12 (pp. 1-4). IEEE'},{id:"B63",body:'Chari A, Singh, A. Embodying Your Curriculum [Internet]. Portland, OR: Embodying Your Curriculum; 2020 [cited 2021 Feb 01]. Available from: https://www.embodyingyourcurriculum.com/'},{id:"B64",body:'Ogden P, Minton K, Pain C. Trauma and the body: A sensorimotor approach to psychotherapy (Norton series on interpersonal neurobiology). WW Norton & Company; 2006 Oct 17. p. 27'},{id:"B65",body:'Snowden, D, Cognitive Edge Pte LTD. SenseMaker [Internet]. UK: The Cognitive Edge Pte LTD; 2020 [cited 2021 Feb 01]. Available from: https://sensemaker.cognitive-edge.com/'},{id:"B66",body:'Prigogine I, Nicolis G. Self-organisation in nonequilibrium systems: Towards a dynamics of complexity. In Hazewinkel M, Jurkovich R, Paelinck JHP. Bifurcation Analysis. Springer, Dordrecht; 1985. pp. 3-12'},{id:"B67",body:'Bateson, G. Mind and nature: A necessary unity. Toronto, Canada: Clarke, Irwin & Company, Limited; 1979'},{id:"B68",body:'O’Neil, C, Weapons of math destruction: How big data increases inequality and threatens democracy. New York: Crown Publishing Group; 2016'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Linda Vanasupa",address:"lvanasupa@olin.edu",affiliation:'
Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering, Needham, Massachusetts, USA
Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering, Needham, Massachusetts, USA
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The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"53225",doi:"10.5772/66396",title:"Radio Frequency Magnetron Sputter Deposition as a Tool for Surface Modification of Medical Implants",slug:"radio-frequency-magnetron-sputter-deposition-as-a-tool-for-surface-modification-of-medical-implants",totalDownloads:2252,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"The resent advances in radio frequency (RF)‐magnetron sputtering of hydroxyapatite films are reviewed and challenges posed. The principles underlying RF‐magnetron sputtering used to prepare calcium phosphate‐based, mainly hydroxyapatite coatings, are discussed in this chapter. The fundamental characteristic of the RF‐magnetron sputtering is an energy input into the growing film. In order to tailor the film properties, one has to adjust the energy input into the substrate depending on the desired film properties. The effect of different deposition control parameters, such as deposition time, substrate temperature, and substrate biasing on the hydroxyapatite (HA) film properties is discussed.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Roman Surmenev, Alina Vladescu, Maria Surmeneva, Anna Ivanova,\nMariana Braic, Irina Grubova and Cosmin Mihai Cotrut",authors:[{id:"193921",title:"Dr.",name:"Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Vladescu",slug:"alina-vladescu",fullName:"Alina Vladescu"},{id:"193922",title:"Prof.",name:"Roman",middleName:null,surname:"Surmenev",slug:"roman-surmenev",fullName:"Roman Surmenev"},{id:"193923",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Surmeneva",slug:"maria-surmeneva",fullName:"Maria Surmeneva"},{id:"193948",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Braic",slug:"mariana-braic",fullName:"Mariana Braic"},{id:"194047",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanova",slug:"anna-ivanova",fullName:"Anna Ivanova"},{id:"194048",title:"BSc.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Grubova",slug:"irina-grubova",fullName:"Irina Grubova"},{id:"196398",title:"Prof.",name:"Cosmin Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Cotrut",slug:"cosmin-mihai-cotrut",fullName:"Cosmin Mihai Cotrut"}]},{id:"53792",doi:"10.5772/67085",title:"Silver-Based Low-Emissivity Coating Technology for Energy- Saving Window Applications",slug:"silver-based-low-emissivity-coating-technology-for-energy-saving-window-applications",totalDownloads:3132,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Low-emissivity (low-E) technology is a unique and cost-effective solution to save energy in buildings for different climates. Its development combines advances in materials science, vacuum deposition, and optical design. In this chapter, we will review the fundamentals of energy saving window coatings, the history of its application, and the materials used. The current low-E coating technologies are overviewed, especially silver-based low-E technologies, which comprise more than 90% of the overall low-E market today. Further, the advanced understanding of generating high-quality silver thin films is discussed, which is at the heart of silver-based low-E product technology development. How the silver thin film electrical, optical, and emissivity properties are influenced by their microstructure, thickness, and by the materials on neighboring layers will be discussed from a theoretical and an experimental perspective.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Guowen Ding and César Clavero",authors:[{id:"195240",title:"Dr.",name:"Guowen",middleName:null,surname:"Ding",slug:"guowen-ding",fullName:"Guowen Ding"},{id:"197064",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Clavero",slug:"cesar-clavero",fullName:"Cesar Clavero"}]},{id:"52951",doi:"10.5772/66125",title:"Chemical Solution Deposition Technique of Thin-Film Ceramic Electrolytes for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells",slug:"chemical-solution-deposition-technique-of-thin-film-ceramic-electrolytes-for-solid-oxide-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:2392,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Chemical solution deposition (CSD) technique is recently gaining momentum for the fabrication of electrolyte materials for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) due to its cost-effectiveness, high yield, and simplicity of the process requirements. The advanced vacuum deposition techniques such as sputtering, atomic layer deposition (ALD), pulsed laser deposition (PLD), metallo-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) are lacking in scalability and cost-effectiveness. CSD technique includes a variety of approaches such as sol-gel process, chelate process, and metallo-organic decomposition. The present chapter discusses briefly about the evolution of CSD method and its subsequent entry to the field of SOFCs, various solution methods associated with different chemical compositions, film deposition techniques, chemical reactions, heat treatment strategies, nucleation and growth kinetics, associated defects, etc. Examples are cited to bring out the history dating back to the discovery of amorphous zirconia film through the successful fabrication of the crystalline fluorite-type films such as yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), scandia-doped ceria (SDC), and crystalline perovskite-type films such as yttria-doped barium zirconate (BZY) and yttria-doped barium cerate (BCY), to name a few.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Mridula Biswas and Pei-Chen Su",authors:[{id:"193015",title:"Dr.",name:"Pei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Su",slug:"pei-chen-su",fullName:"Pei-Chen Su"},{id:"193328",title:"Dr.",name:"Mridula",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"mridula-biswas",fullName:"Mridula Biswas"}]},{id:"53336",doi:"10.5772/66476",title:"Molecular Precursor Method for Fabricating p-Type Cu2O and Metallic Cu Thin Films",slug:"molecular-precursor-method-for-fabricating-p-type-cu2o-and-metallic-cu-thin-films",totalDownloads:2360,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Functional thin films are used in various fields of our life. Many different methods are used to fabricate these films including physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical processes. The chemical processes can be used to manufacture thin films in a relatively cheap way, as compared to PVD methods. This chapter summarizes the procedures of the molecular precursor method (MPM), a chemical process, for fabrication of both metal oxide semiconductor Cu2O and metallic Cu thin films by utilizing Cu(II) complexes in coating solutions. The MPM, recently developed and reported by the present authors, represents a facile procedure for thin film fabrication of various metal oxides or phosphates. This method pertinent to the coordination chemistry and materials science including nanoscience and nanotechnology has provided various thin films of high quality. The MPM is based on the design of metal complexes in coating solutions with excellent stability, homogeneity, miscibility, coatability, etc., which are practical advantages. The metal oxides and phosphates are useful as the electron and/or ion conductors, semiconductors, dielectric materials, etc. This chapter will describe the principle and recent achievement, mainly on fabricating the p-type Cu2O and metallic Cu thin films of the MPM.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Hiroki Nagai and Mitsunobu Sato",authors:[{id:"148259",title:"Prof.",name:"Mitsunobu",middleName:null,surname:"Sato",slug:"mitsunobu-sato",fullName:"Mitsunobu Sato"},{id:"148920",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroki",middleName:null,surname:"Nagai",slug:"hiroki-nagai",fullName:"Hiroki Nagai"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52684",title:"Advance Deposition Techniques for Thin Film and Coating",slug:"advance-deposition-techniques-for-thin-film-and-coating",totalDownloads:7563,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:"Thin films have a great impact on the modern era of technology. Thin films are considered as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices, environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, and so on . The crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability. The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be deposited by the physical and chemical routes. In this chapter, we discuss some advance techniques and principles of thin-film depositions. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique, electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Asim Jilani, Mohamed Shaaban Abdel-wahab and Ahmed Hosny\nHammad",authors:[{id:"192377",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Jilani",slug:"asim-jilani",fullName:"Asim Jilani"},{id:"192972",title:"Dr.",name:"M.Sh",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Wahab",slug:"m.sh-abdel-wahab",fullName:"M.Sh Abdel-Wahab"},{id:"192973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"H",surname:"Hammad",slug:"ahmed-hammad",fullName:"Ahmed Hammad"}]},{id:"53792",title:"Silver-Based Low-Emissivity Coating Technology for Energy- Saving Window Applications",slug:"silver-based-low-emissivity-coating-technology-for-energy-saving-window-applications",totalDownloads:3132,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Low-emissivity (low-E) technology is a unique and cost-effective solution to save energy in buildings for different climates. Its development combines advances in materials science, vacuum deposition, and optical design. In this chapter, we will review the fundamentals of energy saving window coatings, the history of its application, and the materials used. The current low-E coating technologies are overviewed, especially silver-based low-E technologies, which comprise more than 90% of the overall low-E market today. Further, the advanced understanding of generating high-quality silver thin films is discussed, which is at the heart of silver-based low-E product technology development. How the silver thin film electrical, optical, and emissivity properties are influenced by their microstructure, thickness, and by the materials on neighboring layers will be discussed from a theoretical and an experimental perspective.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Guowen Ding and César Clavero",authors:[{id:"195240",title:"Dr.",name:"Guowen",middleName:null,surname:"Ding",slug:"guowen-ding",fullName:"Guowen Ding"},{id:"197064",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Clavero",slug:"cesar-clavero",fullName:"Cesar Clavero"}]},{id:"52908",title:"Smart Thermoresponsive Surfaces Based on pNIPAm Coatings and Laser Method for Biological Applications",slug:"smart-thermoresponsive-surfaces-based-on-pnipam-coatings-and-laser-method-for-biological-application",totalDownloads:1836,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Various applications within last decades such as bacterially resistant surfaces, soft robotics, drug delivery systems, sensors and tissue engineering are poised to feature the importance of the ability to control bio-interfacial interactions. An enhanced attention is dedicated to designing smart stimuli-responsive interfaces for DNA, drug delivery, protein and cell based applications. Within this context, the thermoresponsive materials, especially poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAm) have been intensively used in tissue engineering applications for a controlled detachment of proteins and cells with a minimum of invasive effect on protein and cell structural conformation. The properties of smart bio-interfaces can be controlled by its composition and polymer architecture. Therefore, appropriate methods for obtaining controlled coatings are necessary. Laser methods were successfully used in the last decades for obtaining controlled organic and inorganic coatings for various types of applications, from electronics to tissue engineering. Among these, Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation (MAPLE) technique bring us a step forward to other laser methods by avoiding damage and photochemical decomposition of materials. In this chapter we describe materials and approaches used for design of smart bio-interfaces aimed at controlling protein and cells behavior in vitro, focusing MAPLE method for tuning coatings characteristics in relation with biological response.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Laurentiu Rusen, Valentina Dinca, Cosmin Mustaciosu, Madalina\nIcriverzi, Livia Elena Sima, Anca Bonciu, Simona Brajnicov, Natalia\nMihailescu, Nicoleta Dumitrescu, Alexandru I. Popovici, Anca\nRoseanu and Maria Dinescu",authors:[{id:"32241",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dinescu",slug:"maria-dinescu",fullName:"Maria Dinescu"},{id:"176781",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinca",slug:"valentina-dinca",fullName:"Valentina Dinca"},{id:"176783",title:"Dr.",name:"Laurentiu",middleName:null,surname:"Rusen",slug:"laurentiu-rusen",fullName:"Laurentiu Rusen"},{id:"177680",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Anca",middleName:"Florina",surname:"Bonciu",slug:"anca-bonciu",fullName:"Anca Bonciu"},{id:"193439",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Madalina",middleName:null,surname:"Icriverzi",slug:"madalina-icriverzi",fullName:"Madalina Icriverzi"},{id:"193441",title:"Dr.",name:"Livia Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Sima",slug:"livia-elena-sima",fullName:"Livia Elena Sima"},{id:"193442",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Brajnicov",slug:"simona-brajnicov",fullName:"Simona Brajnicov"},{id:"193443",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nicoleta",middleName:"Luminita",surname:"Dumitrescu",slug:"nicoleta-dumitrescu",fullName:"Nicoleta Dumitrescu"},{id:"193444",title:"Dr.",name:"Cosmin",middleName:null,surname:"Mustaciosu",slug:"cosmin-mustaciosu",fullName:"Cosmin Mustaciosu"},{id:"193445",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Roseanu",slug:"anca-roseanu",fullName:"Anca Roseanu"},{id:"196184",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Serban",slug:"natalia-serban",fullName:"Natalia Serban"},{id:"198275",title:"Ms.",name:"A.I.",middleName:null,surname:"Popovici",slug:"a.i.-popovici",fullName:"A.I. Popovici"}]},{id:"52951",title:"Chemical Solution Deposition Technique of Thin-Film Ceramic Electrolytes for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells",slug:"chemical-solution-deposition-technique-of-thin-film-ceramic-electrolytes-for-solid-oxide-fuel-cells",totalDownloads:2392,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Chemical solution deposition (CSD) technique is recently gaining momentum for the fabrication of electrolyte materials for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) due to its cost-effectiveness, high yield, and simplicity of the process requirements. The advanced vacuum deposition techniques such as sputtering, atomic layer deposition (ALD), pulsed laser deposition (PLD), metallo-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) are lacking in scalability and cost-effectiveness. CSD technique includes a variety of approaches such as sol-gel process, chelate process, and metallo-organic decomposition. The present chapter discusses briefly about the evolution of CSD method and its subsequent entry to the field of SOFCs, various solution methods associated with different chemical compositions, film deposition techniques, chemical reactions, heat treatment strategies, nucleation and growth kinetics, associated defects, etc. Examples are cited to bring out the history dating back to the discovery of amorphous zirconia film through the successful fabrication of the crystalline fluorite-type films such as yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), scandia-doped ceria (SDC), and crystalline perovskite-type films such as yttria-doped barium zirconate (BZY) and yttria-doped barium cerate (BCY), to name a few.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Mridula Biswas and Pei-Chen Su",authors:[{id:"193015",title:"Dr.",name:"Pei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Su",slug:"pei-chen-su",fullName:"Pei-Chen Su"},{id:"193328",title:"Dr.",name:"Mridula",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"mridula-biswas",fullName:"Mridula Biswas"}]},{id:"53122",title:"Anomalous Rashba Effect of Bi Thin Film Studied by Spin-Resolved ARPES",slug:"anomalous-rashba-effect-of-bi-thin-film-studied-by-spin-resolved-arpes",totalDownloads:2099,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The Rashba effect is a momentum‐dependent splitting of spin bands in two‐dimensional systems such as surface, interface and heterostructure. The effect is caused by broken space‐inversion symmetry and spin‐orbit coupling and allows to manipulate and generate the spin by the electric fields, that is, without the magnetic field. It means that the devices applied to the Rashba effect have many advantages. Bismuth is known as a promising candidate to investigate the surface Rashba effect, and the spin structure of Bi surface has also been intensively discussed. However, it is unclear to what extent the so far believed simple vortical spin structure is adequate. To understand the surface properties of the Rashba system is particularly important when utilizing the Rashba effect to the spintronic devices, since it is desirable to control the spin polarization when developing new types of devices. In this chapter, we report that the surface spin states of the Bi thin film exhibit unusual characteristics unlike the conventional Rashba splitting by using a spin‐ and angle‐resolved photoemission spectroscopy measurement.",book:{id:"5541",slug:"modern-technologies-for-creating-the-thin-film-systems-and-coatings",title:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings",fullTitle:"Modern Technologies for Creating the Thin-film Systems and Coatings"},signatures:"Akari Takayama",authors:[{id:"192655",title:"Dr.",name:"Akari",middleName:null,surname:"Takayama",slug:"akari-takayama",fullName:"Akari Takayama"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"955",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:1,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 26th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:null,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:43,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81566",title:"New and Emerging Technologies for Integrative Ambulatory Autonomic Assessment and Intervention as a Catalyst in the Synergy of Remote Geocoded Biosensing, Algorithmic Networked Cloud Computing, Deep Learning, and Regenerative/Biomic Medicine: Further Real",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104092",signatures:"Robert L. Drury",slug:"new-and-emerging-technologies-for-integrative-ambulatory-autonomic-assessment-and-intervention-as-a-",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Autonomic Nervous System - Special Interest Topics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10835.jpg",subseries:{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"
\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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