These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6586",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sport Pedagogy - Recent Approach to Technical-Tactical Alphabetization",title:"Sport Pedagogy",subtitle:"Recent Approach to Technical-Tactical Alphabetization",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"There are several teaching sports approaches for school-age sports practitioners. However, relatively few models have a substantial theoretical and scientific foundation. In this sense, the present work aims to serve as an introduction on which to support the didactical process of a Non-Linear Pedagogy of games teaching, as described in the first chapter. A comparison between the traditional approach of sports teaching and the Teaching Games for Understanding model within the Slovak Republic context is exposed. Subsequently, experience in the Sport Education model in Finland is presented. Then, research regarding teachers' experiences with the Cooperative Learning model at different ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds is developed. Finally, an example of the Non-Linear Pedagogy program is used in Malaysia.",isbn:"978-1-78984-222-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-221-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-573-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71400",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"sport-pedagogy-recent-approach-to-technical-tactical-alphabetization",numberOfPages:88,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ecdd15ab29df9d59f4b4a46928b11ffe",bookSignature:"Jaime Serra-Olivares",publishedDate:"October 10th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6586.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5390,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:8,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 11th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 1st 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 20th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 19th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"221512",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Serra-Olivares",slug:"jaime-serra-olivares",fullName:"Jaime Serra-Olivares",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221512/images/6071_n.jpg",biography:"Postdoctoral Researcher in Sport Pedagogy at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). He received his BSc, MSc and PhD in 2007, 2009 and 2013, respectively (Murcia, Spain). He carried out his first Post-Doc study on Sport Pedagogy in Catholic University (Temuco, Chile) in 2015. He has published more than 30 scientific paper and conference proceedings and book chapters in the field of Sport Teaching, including Football Training, Tactical Knowledge assessment, Games-based approaches study, Representative task design, and Physical Education Pedagogy. He is the author of book entitled 'Assessment for Learning: Physical Education and Innovation in Teaching Procedures”. He is a member of several national and international societies such as LaLiga, and serves in the editorial board of many SCI-indexed journals on Sport Pedagogy.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Castile-La Mancha",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"265",title:"Education",slug:"social-sciences-education"}],chapters:[{id:"63706",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Need of a Change in the Pedagogical Planning and Programming at School-Age Sport Teaching",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81407",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-need-of-a-change-in-the-pedagogical-planning-and-programming-at-school-age-",totalDownloads:525,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jaime Serra-Olivares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63706",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63706",authors:[{id:"221512",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Serra-Olivares",slug:"jaime-serra-olivares",fullName:"Jaime Serra-Olivares"}],corrections:null},{id:"60020",title:"Tactical Preparation in Sport Games and Motivational Teaching of Sport Games Tactics in Physical Education Lessons and Training Units",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75204",slug:"tactical-preparation-in-sport-games-and-motivational-teaching-of-sport-games-tactics-in-physical-edu",totalDownloads:1601,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we deal with issues that are relevant to educational processes where the cultivation of game performance is a primary or parallel goal. Developmental tendencies in sport games focus not only on the content of the training process, its rationalization and optimization, but also on the content of teaching sport games, which recently have significantly influenced the preparation and preparedness of players and pupils in school physical education and in training process too. Didactic process in sport games is understood as a system of interactions (mutual relationships and mutual influence) among the main subsystems: pupils or players, teacher or coach, content and conditions with the intention to cultivate the game performance of individuals or team. Tactics, generally refers to a player’s system of acting, system of various alternatives of decision-making responses, which allows in a time-bounded concept of a goal realize player’s conduct and team’s conduct within the short-term relation. Chapter provides the comparison of traditional approach and approach of teaching games for understanding. Teaching tactics in physical education and training process is very important part of educational process and the motivation for learning is an integral part of whole activity.",signatures:"Pavol Peráček and Janka Peráčková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60020",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60020",authors:[{id:"236474",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",surname:"Peráček",slug:"pavol-peracek",fullName:"Pavol Peráček"},{id:"236479",title:"Prof.",name:"Janka",surname:"Peráčková",slug:"janka-perackova",fullName:"Janka Peráčková"}],corrections:null},{id:"59300",title:"Empowering Athletes with the Sport Education Model in Youth Soccer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74412",slug:"empowering-athletes-with-the-sport-education-model-in-youth-soccer",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Athlete empowerment accentuates giving athletes autonomy for decision-making with the clear purpose of offering them opportunities to make choices, be responsible, and develop higher levels of motivation. The focus in Sport Education is on placing the athlete in the center of the experience where the participant can become competent, literate, and enthusiastic as a result of participation. This is in line with the nonlinear pedagogical approach, where the learning processes can be structured by manipulating performer constraints. Therefore, this chapter focuses on examining and understanding the processes involved in athlete learning through manipulating performer constraints when using the Sport Education model in Finland. Twenty-three players and their three coaches from one junior sport club participated in the study. The Sport Education season consisted of 11 practice sessions over 8 weeks. Data were collected through interviews, observations, questionnaires, and document analysis. Results suggested that players were united within their small teams and that they enjoyed having the autonomy and responsibility. As a conclusion, the Sport Education season implemented through manipulating performer constraints facilitated perceptions of empowerment, which in turn fostered motivated players.",signatures:"Jan-Erik Romar, Jani Sarén and Peter Hastie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59300",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59300",authors:[{id:"230949",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan-Erik",surname:"Romar",slug:"jan-erik-romar",fullName:"Jan-Erik Romar"},{id:"240345",title:"Mr.",name:"Jani",surname:"Saren",slug:"jani-saren",fullName:"Jani Saren"},{id:"240346",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Hastie",slug:"peter-hastie",fullName:"Peter Hastie"}],corrections:null},{id:"61835",title:"Continuing Professional Development with Cooperative Learning in a Professional Learning Group",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78227",slug:"continuing-professional-development-with-cooperative-learning-in-a-professional-learning-group",totalDownloads:978,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cooperative learning is a dynamic pedagogical model that can teach varied content to a diverse range of students. Students work together in small, structured heterogeneous groups to complete tasks. The purpose of this paper is to explore teachers’ experiences with Cooperative Learning during a school-based research project. This research was also designed to gain a greater understanding of Continuing Professional Development within a Professional Learning Group that has the potential to enhance the quality of a physical education (PE) program with non-PE specialist elementary teachers. This research suggests that the implementation of Cooperative Learning or any innovative models-based practice in schools is enhanced by continuing Professional Development. Teachers’ implementation of Cooperative Learning was assisted by teachers in this study by being part of a Professional Learning Group to help them reflect, identify, and start to overcome some of the obstacles that arise when implementing a new pedagogical model.",signatures:"Ben Dyson, Rachel Colby and Wendy Dowler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61835",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61835",authors:[{id:"230156",title:"Dr.",name:"Ben",surname:"Dyson",slug:"ben-dyson",fullName:"Ben Dyson"}],corrections:null},{id:"59969",title:"Nonlinear Pedagogy Game Instruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75198",slug:"nonlinear-pedagogy-game-instruction",totalDownloads:1030,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pedagogical game-based instructions such as Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) and constraint-led (CLT) theory from ecological perspective of motor learning seems to attract significant attentions among TGfU and motor learning researchers, educationist and physical education theory generator. Even though TGfU as game-based tactical approach through its pedagogical principles representation and exaggeration considered as a Nonlinear Pedagogy (NP) approach but in essence TGfU is a student-centered tactical approach of learning games. Whereas NP proposed by motor learning exponent’s dwells around student centered skill learning approaches. However, by merging these two approaches of TGfU a tactical centered model and CLT a technical student-centered approach under the roof of holistic NP at early research stage in Malaysian PE game curriculum. Some preliminary findings indicated supremacy NP compared to Linear pedagogy (LP) in terms of tactical decision making when to apply of long and short shot, recovery to base, drop shot and smash in badminton doubles game play performance. As conclusion, implementing NP in Malaysian school would further strengthen tactical-technical/skill approach and suits teachers and weaker player as teachers can adjust the tasks accordingly to the situated learning environments.",signatures:"Sanmuga Nathan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59969",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59969",authors:[{id:"202327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanmuga",surname:"Nathan",slug:"sanmuga-nathan",fullName:"Sanmuga Nathan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6674",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33d1ab42e6304ea91a1ee326da9b4101",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",bookSignature:"Yehudith Weinberger and Zipora Libman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to exhibit broad aspects of fungicides so that readers will experience both traditional and new topics to illustrate what would be the future of fungicides. Thus, the subject matter is extensive. The book welcomes contributions related to the following topics: \r\n\tApplied and basic studies - Field studies and lab assays of fungicides can be discussed. We also look for examples of application methods, which may include timing of application, tools for application, fungicide compatibility, phytotoxicity, etc. Field trials have to have at least two years of data; \r\n\tAdaptation of Integrated Plant Disease Management - How the IPM practice has been adapted in the field. Application of disease risk models, or use of fungicide application aids, which can be hardware or software. The introduction of a new tool for growers can also be included; \r\n\tNovel fungicides - In addition to the traditional chemical approach, alternative materials (enzymes, oils, extracts, etc.), biological control agents, or plant defense activators can be discussed; \r\n\tAdaptation of new technologies - Examples will be the use of unmanned vehicles, sensor technologies, advanced sprayers, or disease forecast systems for precision agriculture; \r\n\tFungicide resistance - Unfortunately, we cannot ignore the fact that fungicide-resistant strains are widespread. Documentation of fungicide-resistant strains, the introduction of new technologies and methods can be discussed.
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1. Introduction
The coal mining and other metal extraction industry contributes significantly to the country’s economy through export markets of the processed minerals in addition to creation of thousands of jobs in the mining industry. For example, in South Africa, 98% of the country’s electricity supply is from coal combustion. Coal mining and coal combustion for electricity generation leaves in its wake various types of waste streams such as acid leachate generating coal discards, acid generating mine tailings, and acid mine drainage (AMD) in mine voids and huge volumes of coal fly ash (CFA) in power utilities. Environmental regulations require these waste streams to be managed and remediated to reduce any negative impact on the environment. Of most concern and increasing interest is the prevention and control of acid mine drainage (AMD) and its treatment. Acid mine drainage has the potential to impact negatively on aquatic ecosystems and groundwater availability in particular. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is generally regarded as the principal environmental problem caused by the mining of the sulfide ore deposits. In coal combustion in power utilities, huge volumes of coal fly ash (CFA) are produced annually and this is normally stockpiled on land as ash heaps that require management due to possible negative environmental impacts such as generation of leachates with high concentration of toxic metal and non-metal species which could affect the quality of surface and groundwater resources in addition to the generation of particulate pollution.
2. Acid mine drainage generation and negative environmental impacts
Acid mine drainage is generated when sulfide minerals in the mined rock or overburden are exposed to oxygen and water during the mining process. These sulfide minerals include but not limited to pyrite (FeS2), its dimorph marcasite, and pyrrhotite (Fe1-xS). These sulfide minerals undergo bacterially catalyzed oxidation reactions which generated acidity and increased Fe, sulfate, and other toxic metal species concentration in recipient water bodies such as groundwater in mine voids [1] (Eq. (1))
FeS2s+3.75O2+3.5H2O→FeOH3s+2SO42‐+4H+E1
AMD is extremely acidic (as low as pH 2.0) and enriched with iron, manganese, aluminum, sulfate, and metal species such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and zinc depending on the geology of the mined rock [2]. During active mining operations, the groundwater is normally pumped out to maintain water table below mining levels but once mining stops pumping stops and the mine voids fill with acid mine drainage and eventually decant to the surface. This mine water requires management, which involves storage and treatment to the specific country’s disposal guidelines before disposal to surface water bodies.
Influx of acid mine drainage (AMD) into streams can degrade both aquatic habitat and water quality, often producing an environment devoid of most aquatic life. The extent of impact on aquatic ecosystems depends on a variety of factors which includes frequency of influx, volume, and chemistry of the AMD, and the buffering capacity of the receiving aquatic ecosystem [3]. Drainage from underground mines, surface mines, and refuse piles is the oldest and most chronic industrial pollution associated with coal mining. Various impacts of AMD include quality impacts on groundwater, corrosion of water supply infrastructure, and other manmade structures such as pipes, bridges, dams, and pumps. Acid mine drainage can also be toxic to vegetation; however, toxicity depends on discharged volume, pH, total acidity, and concentration of dissolved chemical species. pH is the most critical with respect to aquatic life. Smothering of stream beds from precipitated metal compounds is a common phenomenon in AMD-impacted streams [4, 5]. Acid mine drainage can also cause reduction in diversity and total number of micro-invertebrates and changes in community structure.
3. Coal fly ash generation and its physicochemical properties
Coal fly ash (CFA) is a by-product obtained during the combustion of coal in coal-burning power generation plants. As demand for cheaper electricity increases, huge volumes of coal fly ash will be generated that will require disposal and management. The worldwide annual production of CFA stands at 780 Mt [6] while 415 Mt or 53% is beneficially utilized, but utilization varies across countries. Japan has the highest utilization rate at 96.4%, Europe 90.9%, China 67%, and Middle East and Africa 10.6% [6]. The rest of the CFA is stockpiled on land or slurried to ash dams [7, 8]. South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) [9] defines fly ash as the powdery residue obtained by separation of the solids from the flue gases of furnaces fired with pulverized coal. Coal fly ash consists of many small (0.01–100 µm diameter) glass-like particles of a generally spherical character. The fineness of fly ash particles depends largely on the combustion temperature, the grinding size of introduced coal, and whether the resultant particle is spherical or irregular. The physicochemical and mineralogical properties of CFA depend on the composition of the parent coal, the conditions during coal combustion (temperature, air/fuel ratio, coal pulverization size, and rate of combustion), the efficiency of emission control devices, the storage and handling of the by-products, and the climate [10, 11].
Coal fly ash tends to accumulate toxic chemical species at high temperatures involved during its generation [10, 12] and is considered an environmental hazard in some countries. Anionic species (Cl−, SO42−), oxy-anionic species (Se, As, Mo, B, and Cr), and cationic species (Al, Fe, Na, K, Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, Cu, Cd, and Mg) are leached from the ash heaps by the wastewater derived from the ash slurry or by subsequent infiltration by rain upon disposal [8, 10, 13]. This may be of environmental concern due to possible contamination of surface and groundwater in disposal sites and limits beneficial application of CFA. The pH of a fly ash suspension, for example, in water can vary depending on the S content of the parent coal [14]. Fly ashes derived from anthracite coals are generally high in S and produce acidic fly ashes while fly ashes derived from lignite coals are low in S but high in Ca and produce alkaline ashes [15, 16]. South African coal is sub-bituminous and generates fly ash that is characterized by low Fe content. The aqueous extracts of this high Ca coal fly ash are strongly alkaline (pH 12–12.5) due to the free lime content [2, 17]. Mineralogical analysis indicates coal fly ash to be mainly aluminosilicate which forms the basis of its utilization in the synthesis of geopolymers [18], zeolitic adsorbents for water treatment [19]. X-ray diffraction also indicates that CFA has free lime content ranging from 1 to 40% depending on the coal source [6]. This free lime content is the basis of fly ash utilization in acid mine drainage treatment [2] and remediation of acidic mine spoils and control of acid mine drainage generation in sulfidic mine tailings [11].
4. Acid mine drainage treatment using coal fly ash
Acid mine drainage is characterized by high acidity (pH 2–4) and often contains high concentrations of chemical species such as Fe, Mn, and Al and anionic species such as SO4 in addition to elements like Zn, Co, Pb, Cr, and Cu, in trace concentrations which necessitate these waters to be treated before release. Management of mine water pollution demands a range of active and passive remediation engineering technologies to minimize its impact on ground and surface waters which can incur significant expense [20]. Consequently, mining companies are in constant search for innovative and economically viable treatment technologies. Traditionally, the remediation of AMD has been carried out through a range of active and passive technologies. Active treatment technologies involve the use of alkaline reagents such as limestone and lime [21, 22], and magnesite [23]. Some of the limitations of limestone treatment processes include armoring of limestone particles by amorphous ferric hydroxide precipitates which reduces the efficiency of treatment process and attains a maximum pH of 7 which leaves species such as Mg in solution [24]. A limitation of lime is its high cost [24]. Passive treatment systems involve a combination of alkaline reagents and utilization of natural biochemical processes in artificially constructed wetlands, ponds, and alkaline-generating drains [25–27]. Innovative acid mine drainage treatment using unconventional alkaline agents such as slag has been evaluated [28, 29]. The steel slags on contact with the AMD increased the pH to circumneutral levels and reduced the levels of most major inorganic contaminants such as Al, Fe, Ti, Ni, Be, and Cu. However, the slag was observed to leach chemical species in the reaction mixture leading to an increased concentration of Ba, V, Mn, Cr, As, Ag, and Se in the leachates. This would be a major drawback of employing the steel slags in AMD treatment due to the secondary contamination of the product water.
Several research studies have reported on the application of coal fly ash for the amendment of acidic coal mine spoils [30] and of acidic soils [31]. These applications were motivated by the alkaline nature of the coal fly ash. Other researchers have reported on the ability of the coal fly ash to remove metal species from aqueous solutions [32–34].
Due to the pressure on the mining companies to reduce the cost of acid mine drainage treatment, they are constantly looking for cheaper treatment agents for AMD. On the other hand, most coal combustion power utilities are constantly looking for large volumes of beneficial coal fly ash generated by their coal combustion process. In most instances, the coal mines generating AMD are located close to the power utilities producing coal fly ash. This has motivated researchers to look at the possibility of utilization of coal fly ash as liming agent for AMD. Coal fly ash contains free lime content that can be used in the neutralization of AMD leading to an increase of pH and precipitation of the metal ion contaminants as insoluble hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxyhydroxysulfates [17, 35].
Coal fly ash has also been beneficiated into zeolitic materials that are used as adsorbents for metal species in AMD effluents. These zeolites possess adsorptive properties and provide a combination of ion exchange and molecular sieve properties [36, 37]. Results of the treatment of AMD with CFA zeolitic product indicated an increased pH and a decreased metal concentration. These materials have advantage over traditional liming materials such as lime or limestone since they are cheaply produced and contribute to sustainable management of coal fly ash.
Although coal fly ash will continue to attract researchers working on cheaper options for the treatment of AMD in both active and passive systems, it is important to note some of the shortcomings and strengths of its application for AMD effluent treatment. Several authors [2, 17, 35] observe that coal fly ash can effectively increase the pH of AMD and decrease its metal species concentration leading to much cleaner product water. The process was observed to be effective for the treatment of acidic AMD [2]. However, the application of CFA for AMD treatment leads to the release of Na, Cl, K, Mg, B, Sr, Ba, and Mo leading to an increased salinity of product water. The chemistry of the coal fly ash and AMD being treated will be a significant determinant factor on the success of the treatment process in addition to the contact time employed. The authors further observed that the treatment process will be combination specific, meaning that different CFA:AMD combination ratios will give product water with varying quality.
5. Conclusions
Coal fly ash can be used effectively to treat AMD. However, the process has its strengths and weaknesses. The treatment technology will be dependent on the chemical properties of the coal fly ash and the AMD effluents being treatment. This means that the treatment process has to be optimized for each coal fly ash/AMD combination for effective results. The product water in this treatment process will require secondary treatment such as reverse osmosis to remove the increased salinity of the product water. Most countries have environmental legislation that classify coal fly ash as a hazardous material, hence reducing its development and utilization as a beneficial material. However, there is still a lot to be learned in terms of the application of coal fly ash and its products for remediation of acid mine waters.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Acid mine drainage generation and negative environmental impacts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Coal fly ash generation and its physicochemical properties",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Acid mine drainage treatment using coal fly ash",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Nordstrom SK. The effect of sulfate on aluminum concentrations in natural waters: Some stability relations in the system Al2O3-SO3-H2O at 298°K. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 1982;46:681-692. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(82)90168-5'},{id:"B2",body:'Gitari MW, Petrik LF, Etchebers O, Key DL, Iwuoha E, Okujeni C. Treatment of acid mine drainage with fly ash: Removal of major contaminants and trace elements. Journal of Environmental Science Health-Part A. 2006;A41:1729-1747. DOI: 10.1080/10934520600754425'},{id:"B3",body:'Kimmel WG. The impact of acid mine drainage on the stream ecosystem. 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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0956-053X(01)00053-8'},{id:"B12",body:'Spears DA, Lee S. Geochemistry of Leachates from Coal Ash. Geological Society, London Special Publications. 2004;236:619-639. January 1, 2004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2004.236.01.35'},{id:"B13",body:'Plank CO, Martens DC. Boron availability as influenced by application of fly ash to soil. Soil Science Society of America, Proceedings. 1974;38:974-977. DOI: 10.2136/sssaj1974.03615995003800060038x'},{id:"B14",body:'Barry SR, Daniels WL, Jackson ML. Evaluation of leachate quality from co-disposed coal fly ash and coal refuse. Journal of Environmental Quality. 1997;26:1417-1424. DOI: 10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600050031x'},{id:"B15",body:'Furr AK, Parkinson TF, Hinrichs RA, Van Campen DR, Bache CA, Gutenmann WH, St. John RE Jr, Pakkala IS, Lisk DJ. National survey of elements and radioactivity in fly ashes: Absorption of elements by cabbage grown in fly ash soil mixtures. Environmental Science & Technology. 1977;11:1194-1201 ISSN: 0013-936X'},{id:"B16",body:'Page AL, Elseewi AA, Straughan I. Physical and chemical properties of fly ash from coal-fired power plants with reference to environmental impacts. Residue Reviews. 1979;71:83-120 978-1-4612-6185-8_2'},{id:"B17",body:'Gitari WM, Petrik LF, Etchebers O, Key DL, Iwuoha E, Okujeni C. Passive neutralisation of acid mine drainage by fly ash and its derivatives: A column leaching study. Fuel. 2008;87:1637-1650. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2007.08.025'},{id:"B18",body:'Nyale SM, Babajide OO, Birch GD, Böke N, Petrik LF. Synthesis and characterization of coal fly ash-based foamed geopolymer. Procedia Environmental Sciences. 2013;18:722-730. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2013.04.098'},{id:"B19",body:'Musyoka NM, Petrik LF, Gitari WM, Balfour G, Hums E. Optimization of hydrothermal synthesis of pure phase zeolite Na-P1 from South African coal fly ashes. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A. 2012;47:337-350. DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2012.645779'},{id:"B20",body:'Younger PL, Banwart SA, Hedin RS. Mine water: Hydrology, pollution, remediation. In: Chapter Two: Mine Water Chemistry. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 2002. p. 65-126 978-94-010-0610-1'},{id:"B21",body:'Maree JP, du Plessis P. Neutralisation of acidic effluents with calcium carbonate. Water Science and Technology. 1994;29:285-296. DOI: http://wst.iwaponline.com/content/29/9/285'},{id:"B22",body:'Geldenhuys AJ, Maree JP, De Beer M, Hlabela P. An integrated limestone/lime process for partial sulphate removal. South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (SAIMM). 2001;103:345-371 ISSN 2411-9717'},{id:"B23",body:'Masindi V, Gitari WM, Tutu H, De Beer M. Passive remediation of acid mine drainage using cryptocrystalline magnesite: A batch experimental and geochemical modelling approach. Water SA. 2015;41:677-682. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v41i5.10'},{id:"B24",body:'Maree JP, Van Tonder GJ, Millard P. Underground Neutralization of Mine Water with Limestone. Pretoria, South Africa: Water Research Commission, Report No. 609/1/96; 1996. ISBN: 1-86845-241-7'},{id:"B25",body:'Cravotta III AC, Trahan MK. Limestone drains to increase pH and remove dissolved metals from acidic mine drainage. Applied Geochemistry. 1999;14:581-606. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(98)00066-3'},{id:"B26",body:'Hedin RS, Watzlaf GR. The effects of anoxic limestone drains on mine water chemistry. In: Proceedings of the International Land Reclamation and Mine Drainage Conference; Pittsburgh. United States of America; 1994. pp. 185-194. DOI: 10.21000/JASMR94010185'},{id:"B27",body:'Ziemkiewicz PF, Skousen JG, Brant DL, Sterner PL, Lovett RJ. Acid mine drainage treatment with armoured limestone in open limestone channels. Journal of Environmental Quality. 1997;26:1017-1024. DOI: 10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600040013x'},{id:"B28",body:'Simmons J, Ziemkiewicz P, Courtney Black D. Use of steel slag leach pads for the treatment of Acid Mine Drainage. Mine Water and the Environment. 2002;21:91-99. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s102300200024'},{id:"B29",body:'Zvimba JN, Siyakatshana N, Mathye M. Passive neutralization of acid mine drainage using basic oxygen furnace slag as neutralization material: Experimental and modeling. Water Science Technology. 2017;75:5-6. DOI: 10.2166/wst.2016.579'},{id:"B30",body:'Bhumbla DK, Keefer RF, Singh RN. Selenium uptake by alfalfa and wheat grown on a mine spoil reclaimed with fly ash. In: Proceedings of Mine Drainage and Surface Mine Reclamation Conference, Washington DC, USA, 1998. pp. 15-21. DOI: 10.21000/JASMR88020015'},{id:"B31",body:'Phung HT, Lund LJ, Page AL, Bradford GR. Trace elements in fly ash and their release in water and treated soils. Journal of Environmental Quality. 1979;8:171-175. DOI: 10.2134/jeq1979.00472425000800020007x'},{id:"B32",body:'Erol M, Kucukbayrak S, Ersoy-Mericboyu A, Ulubas T. Removal of Cu2+ and Pb2+ in aqueous solutions by fly ash. Energy Conservation Management. 2005;46:1319-1331. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2004.06.033'},{id:"B33",body:'Panday KK, Prasad G, Singh VN. Copper (ii) removal from aqueous solutions by fly ash. Water Research. 1985;19:869-873. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(85)90145-9'},{id:"B34",body:'Doye I, Duchesne J. Neutralization of acid mine drainage with alkaline industrial residues: Laboratory investigation using batch-leaching tests. Applied Geochemistry. 2003;18:1197-1213. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(02)00246-9'},{id:"B35",body:'Madzivire G, Gitari WM, Kumar Vadapalli VR, Ojumu TV, Petrik LF. Fate of sulphate removed during the treatment of circumneutral mine water and acid mine drainage with coal fly ash: Modelling and experimental approach. Minerals Engineering. 2011;24:1467-1477. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2011.07.009'},{id:"B36",body:'Moreno N, Querol X, Ayora C. Utilization of zeolites synthesized from coal fly ash for the purification of acid mine waters. Environmental Science and Technology. 2001;35:3526-3534. DOI: 10.1021/es0002924'},{id:"B37",body:'Fungaro DA, Izidiro JDC. Remediation of acid mine drainage using zeolites synthesized from coal flyash. Química Nova. 2006;29:735-740. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0100-40422006000400019'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Mugera Wilson Gitari",address:"mugera.gitari@univen.ac.za",affiliation:'
Environmental Remediation and Water Chemistry Group, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
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1. Introduction
1.1 Global climate change
Climate changes are the mammoth challenges that human race will face in coming decades as described by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The increase in release of greenhouse gases, particularly CO2 is considered as the main cause of global warming. The concentration of CO2 has increased from 280 ppm to 400 ppm subsequently of 0.5–1°C rise in an average temperature. It is expected that mean global temperature will rise by 0.2–0.3°C per decade hence rise of 1.2 to 5.8°C by the end of the twenty-first century. The increase in mean temperature in key viticulture regions was 1.6–1.8°C in Europe and 1.2–1.4°C across the globe during the growing seasons from 1950 to 2000 [1, 2, 3, 4]. Similarly, a decrease in precipitation has been recorded in over southern Europe [5]. In addition to rising temperature, corresponding heat waves are becoming more common and frequent. Climate change is no doubt an inevitable challenge that must be dealt with serious policies in the upcoming decades. It is a major challenge that viticulture industry has to face in coming decades.
1.2 Climate a key determinant for viticulture
Climate is a limiting factor determining phenology, vegetative growth, physiological development, fruit production and consequently wine quality [6, 7, 8]. Geographical distribution of vineyards is determined by climatic factors. Weather parameters: temperatures, solar radiation, precipitation, and the inter-annual seasonal variability leads to annual changes in vine productivity [9, 10, 11]. Extreme weather events: hailstorms, excessive rainfall, late frost spells have been recognized as factors having detrimental impacts on grapevine productivity and quality [12].
1.3 Climate change impacts on viticulture
It is evident that climate change will have a negative impact on viticulture industry. Higher temperature during the active growing season will strongly affect grapevines because it is a major driver of development stages of grapevine [13]. Extreme heat stress during ripening period will abruptly reduce grapevine metabolism. It may result in higher sugar levels and lower acidity with potential increase in chances of wine spoilage [14] thereby lower production and quality. Furthermore, extreme heat and water stress, under future climates, may threaten final yields and productivity [15].
2. Grapevine phenolic compounds
Phenolic Compounds in grapes account for only a trivial proportion of the berry weight but contribute significantly to fresh fruit. All phenolic compounds have some common features as; an “aromatic ring” comprising of six carbon atoms having one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups or their derivatives as indicated in Table 1. They play an important role in color development, astringency, flavor and aroma to grapes. These compounds are the main substrates for grape juice and wine oxidation [16, 17, 18]. Their susceptibility to oxidation due to unsaturated double bonds and hydroxyl groups make phenolic compounds valuable antioxidants [19, 20]. Flavonoids and non-flavonoids phenolics are produced inside grape berries through biochemical pathway (Figure 1). Flavonoids accumulate mainly in the skin, seeds, and stem while neoflavanoids mostly accumulate in the mesocarp of the berry.
Table 1.
Different classes of polyphenolic compounds and their basic structures along with examples are given.
Figure 1.
Shikimate pathway for the biosynthesis of anthocyanins, Flavonols and flavonoids. (reproduced from the idea of Velasco et al. [21] with few modifications).
Phenolic profile of grapevines depends on, region, prevailing weather conditions, and site-specific viticultural practices [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28]. Higher the total phenolic content more is antioxidant activity and it is a genotypic character [29, 30, 31, 32]. Skin color (yellow, pink, red, blue-black and full black) is due to presence of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are synthesized to protect the berries from the negative effect of adverse environmental conditions particularly ultraviolet radiation. Accumulation and degradation of already synthesized anthocyanins was noticed due to elevated temperatures during the ripening period [33, 34]. Therefore, in hotter regions the anthocyanin in red and black grapes skin is affected more, while climatic conditions in colder growing regions favor their biosynthesis. Grapevine varieties (var.) have particular anthocyanin fingerprints e.g., malvidin-3-Oglycoside is most abundant in var. ‘Hasansky Sladky’ while in var. ‘Zilga’ it is delphinidin-3-O-glycoside. Moreover, their biosynthesis varies from year to year due to annual seasonal climatic variability [35].
2.1 Phenolic compounds biosynthesis in grapevine
Production of phenoloic compounds is regulated by transcription factors which regulate the activity of genes involved in phenolic biosynthetic pathways. Moreover, location, timing, and extent of the production of phenolic compounds is also dependent on these transcription factors [36, 37]. In addition to grape berries, some flavonoids are produced in leaves and are imported via the phloem [38, 39]. Shikimate and malonate pathways are the two main “assembly lines”. The shikimate pathway (Figure 1) is the part of the biosynthesis chain of most plant phenolics, whereas the malonate pathway (Figure 2) is less important compared with Shikimate pathway in plants, but the malonate pathway is essential in fungi and bacteria.
Figure 2.
Acetate Mevalnoate pathway for monoterpenoids biosynthesis. (reproduced from the idea of Velasco et al. [21] with few modifications).
Secondary metabolites such polyphenols play significant ecological functions within the defense and signaling mechanisms in plants [40]. Different climatic variables such as air temperature, radiation, rainfall, relative humidity, wind, altitude, and topographic features play vital role in the polyphenol biosynthesis pathway in grapes. In this section, we shall review research studies focusing on key environmental variables.
3.1 Temperature
Temperature plays a significant role in vine phenology whereas increase in mean temperature prolonged the vegetative and reproductive cycle of grapevine and hence berry developmental and maturity stages are shifted in warmer months of the growing plant reproductive cycles [41]. Available historical records of harvest timings from different grape growing regions indicate an advance of 1–2 weeks during last few decades [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. Although, some management practices may be the one reason for the advancement of ripening [48]. The conjugated effects of progressive phenology along with rise in temperatures during berry ripening with higher sugar contents, lesser organic acids concentration and altered berry composition of metabolites, such as phenolic compounds [41]. Research studies have encompassed the effect of wide ranging of temperature intensities; from moderate to high heat stress i.e., up to 35–45°C during day or night period at key berry development stages. The genotype, plant material and experimental constraints may affect the response of berry metabolism to temperature variations [49]. Although, difficult to fully relate with field conditions, controlled climate chamber experiments are also conducted to understand the influence of environmental variations [50, 51, 52].
3.1.1 Temperature impact on phenolic compounds
Effects of temperature on polyphenols are not always consistent as recently highlighted [49, 53]. However, there are unequivocal scientific evidence which indicate the deleterious effects of elevated temperature on the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in the grape berry. Studies of the impact of elevated temperature were validated at physiological and molecular studies [54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63]. It was noticed that heat stress repressed chief anthocyanin biosynthesis regulators, such as VviMYBA1 and downstream regulating genes such as VviCHI, VviUFGT, VviDFR, VviF3H2, and VviLDOX. However, not all of these research studies indicated unambiguous suppression or a strong correlation with lower anthocyanin accumulation. Various aspects of viticulture e.g., vines, cultivars, berry development stages, treatment intensities and sampling strategy take part in accumulation and production of anthocyanin. The effect of temperature on anthocyanin biosynthesis varies highly between different genotypes. For instance, when maximum temperature exceeds 35°C during berry ripening, it inhibits the color formation prominently e.g., in cv. Grenache than in cv. Carignan [64].
Previously, it has also been established that timings of temperature variations during day-night period have a strong influence on berry metabolites and lower temperature near berry ripening time particularly at night was related with improved coloration of grapes [55]. It was recently confirmed through experiments at molecular level that lower night temperatures increased anthocyanin accumulation and expression of related genes e.g., VviF3H1, VviUFGT, VviCHS3, and VviMYBA1 [65]. More pronouncing effects of lower night temperature were noticed near veraison stage in Corvina grapes. In a related study on Kyoho grapes, 3°C rise in temperature (27 to 30°C) during berry ripening caused less berry coloration and induced a significant decrease in transcript levels of anthocyanin regulating genes [66]. Similarly, in cv. Merlot, increase in day’s temperature from 20 to 25°C during ripening caused decrease in anthocyanin levels by 37% [63]. In addition to repressing of anthocyanin regulating genes, high temperature may stimulate anthocyanin degradation due to the augmented activity of peroxidases [33]. It has been established that a peroxidase coding gene; VviPrx3 is up regulated, in berries when exposed to high temperature [67], and similar effects have been noticed in other plant species, such as Brunfelsia, litchi and strawberry [68, 69, 70]. A related increase in quantity of acylated and tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins has been observed in cvs. Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Sangiovese and Malbec under higher temperature conditions [52, 61, 63, 71, 72], alongside overexpression of the acyltransferase gene Vvi3AT activity. Similarly for anthocyanins, elevated temperature impeded flavanol buildup while significantly augmented methoxylated (isorhamnetin & syringetin) and 3′, 4′, 5′-substituted (myricetin & syringetin) flavonols in cv. Merlot. More interestingly, rise in temperature may cause a disconnection of sugar-anthocyanin accumulation and biosynthesis, hence leading to a lower anthocyanin-sugar ratio which might be due to delayed anthocyanin biosynthesis or lesser anthocyanin accumulation during ripening phases. The extent of this thermal decoupling is highly cultivar dependent as indicated for cv. Grenache and cv. Carignan and can vary even among the clones of same cultivar as discussed for cv. Tempranillo [63, 64, 72, 73, 74, 75].
The effect of temperature on tannins biosynthesis is yet not fully understood. However, it may be pointed that elevated temperature can enhance the production of tannin monomers, flavan-3- ols as highlighted by [76]. However, some other studies report non-significant effects on tannin production as tannins were not much affected by heat stress in cv. Sangiovese at veraison stage. More recently, scientists came up with similar results indicating no effect on flavan-3-ol or tannin levels. Although, significantly higher galloylation of flavan-3-ols levels were noticed in consistent with earlier findings. It was further indicated that an overexpression of UDP glucose-gallic acid-glucosyltransferase genes under elevated temperature. Moreover, heat stress also reserved the expression levels of members of STS biosynthetic pathway. However, lower temperature upregulated STS transcripts hence accelerated stilbene biosynthesis [49, 61, 76, 77, 78, 79].
3.2 Radiation
Berry exposure to sunlight is generally associated with better berry quality attributes due to more total soluble solids (TSS), anthocyanins, and phenolics. On the other hand, it also lowers acidity and pH along with lower disease incidence due to favorable improved microclimate [49, 80, 81, 82].
3.2.1 Effect of radiations on phenolic compounds
Increased levels of phenolic compounds have been noticed in cvs. Pinot Noir, Riesling, Summer Black and Cabernet Sauvignon owing to better exposure to sunlight [83, 84, 85, 86]. It also augmented the expression level of regulatory and structural phenylpropanoid genes as highlighted by recent studies [87, 88, 89, 90]. Flavonoids particularly flavonol glucosides are the most light-responsive phenolic compounds ones whose levels increased with better exposure to sunlight. This positive effect was in consistent with their UV radiation-screening activity and their capability to reduce oxidative damage. Flavonoids were produced upon exposure to UV-B radiation as adaptive traits to reduce the radiation damage, as there exists a strong correlation between physiology and quercetin-3-O-glucoside & kaempferol-3-O-glucoside levels in UV-B radiation stressed vines [91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97]. Recently, a more comprehensive study elucidated that shoot removal and leaf thinning in cvs. Cabernet Sauvignon & Petit Verdot improved light exposure, hence it significantly augmented the flavonols kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin levels. However, little or no change was noticed for other flavonoid compounds. Similarly, higher levels of hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonol were noticed due to increased sun light exposure in cv. Cabernet Sauvignon [90, 98].
Several transcriptomic studies indicated that flavonol genes such as VviGT5, VviGT6 and VviFLS1 were induced more than other phenylpropanoids genes when exposed to UV radiation as observed in cv. Tempranillo berry skin. In return, lower expression level of VviFLS4 gene and its transcriptional regulator i.e., MYB12 was noticed under shade [92]. However, it has not yet been established that to what level UV light contributed to stimulate the synthesis of phenolic compounds. It can be deduced from literature that UV-B radiations are responsible for overexpression of key flavonoid genes [40, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]. Recently, VviHY5 and VviHYH; the two bZIP TFs elongated hypocotyl 5 protein (HY5) orthologs were identified as the key components of UV-B reaction pathway along with mediated flavonol accumulation owing to high radiation exposure in grapevines [100, 105].
Anthocyanin accumulation increased significantly when grapes clusters were exposed to increased light, whereas shading decreased them. Recently, it was indicated that the UV-B radiation might prompted up-regulation of miR3627/4376 which facilitated anthocyanin accumulation [106, 107]. In a related in vitro study in which effect of berry exposure to light and temperature was studied it was inferred that elevated light increased anthocyanin levels in grapes [59]. The augmented anthocyanin levels found associated with the up regulation of correlated genes of anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. Some other studies also endorse the stimulation of key anthocyanin genes e.g., TF VviMYBAa and VviUFGT under higher sun light exposure [66, 99]. Interestingly, UV-B radiation prompted the expression of VviMYBA1 gene while delaying the down regulation of VviMYBA6 and VviMYBA7 genes at later berry developmental stages [105]. Less light exposure modulated the quantity of di- to tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins more toward tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins as demonstrated through the down regulation of VviF3′ 5 ′Hs, somewhat similar but inconstant trends have been reported in cvs. Cabernet Sauvignon and Petite Verdot under warm climatic conditions [59, 90, 98, 99, 106]. However, low light conditions may increase non-acylated anthocyanins concentration as highlighted by [92, 107]. There is still need for further research to develop a better understanding.
3.3 Water
Water is an important constituent of plant structure and performs variety of functions in addition to transport of mineral nutrients from soil. It is a key component of photosynthetic pathway in plants. Moreover, water balance is necessary for quality table and wine grape production. Similarly, primary and secondary metabolite production is regulated by balanced water availability.
3.3.1 Impact of vine water status on phenolic compounds
Different primary and secondary metabolites are significantly influenced by drought stress in grapevines. Recent research has focused on probing the effects of water on berry physiology and quality attributes [40, 108, 109] and it has been noticed that drought stress may increase primary metabolites and polyphenols up to 85% and 60% respectively under different stress treatments. The impact of water deficit varies with intensity and duration of the stress conditions as well as berry developmental stage. Water deficit during the initial growth phases has more negative impact on final volume and yield at harvest as it reduces cell expansion, however rate of cell expansion is not affected much [110] while ripening phase, and it has little impact on berry size. Primary metabolites such as citric acid and glyceric acid synthesis was affected by both short and prolonged stress whereas polyphenols biosynthesis was accelerated only by the prolonged drought stress treatment.
Selective water deficit applications increased anthocyanin accumulation in grape skin along with the activation of genes of corresponding anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway [111]. For instance, in grape cv. Chardonnay, water stress increased the content of flavonols and decreases the expression of genes involved in biosynthesis of stilbene precursors [40].
It has been observed that modest water deficit i.e., predawn leaf water potential of 0.3 to −0.5 MPa is useful for better wine quality especially for red cultivars [112, 113] These positive effects may partially be attributed to increased solute concentration owing reduced berry volume under water deficit conditions. However, a higher buildup of secondary metabolites independent of change in berry volume has been reported [114]. More elaborative research findings at molecular level highlighted an upregulation of key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways in response to water stress [40, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120]. But these beneficial effects were more noticeable when water deficit occurred throughout berry ripening phase [49].
In addition to an increase in the accumulation of phenylpropanoids and flavonoids due to water stress, an altered composition of anthocyanins has also been noticed owing to increased levels of tri-hydroxylated anthocyanins i.e., petunidin, delphinidin and malvidin [111, 121, 122, 123, 124]. However, these observed changes in the anthocyanin profile of grapes due to water stress appear to be highly varietal dependent [125, 126] due to varying genotypic response associated to environmental variables. Similarly, an increase in proanthocyanidin concentration and proanthocyanidin polymerization along with higher catechin levels in grape berry skins have also been indicated by [127, 128, 129]. The increase in phenolic levels when water deficit occurred before veraison may be due to concentration effects [130, 131] however, several other scientists discussed increase in anthocyanin content at berry level [111, 114, 123, 132]. More focused research is needed to validate ribose, glyceric acid, citric acid, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-glucoside interactions as indicators of drought stress [133].
3.4 Impacts of elevated CO2 concentration
Elevated atmospheric CO2 is usually favorable for plant growth as it causes an increased photosynthetic carbon fixation hence more biomass and yield. Free Air Carbon enrichment (FACE) experiments on agronomic crops such as wheat, rice and soybean have outlined 12–14% increase in harvestable yield owing to elevated carbon dioxide (eCO2) [134, 135, 136]. Although, there are limited studies on horticultural crops however, it has been indicated that eCO2 increased total antioxidant capacity of fruits and vegetables, along with higher concentration of glucose, fructose, total soluble sugars, polyphenols compounds, flavonoids, ascorbic acid, and calcium [90]. Research studies on grapevine related to eCO2 mainly focused on vegetative growth and photosynthetic responses while records on berry metabolism at physiological and molecular level are relatively scarce. However, most of the available records suggest an increase in photosynthetic activity hence better yield and biomass accumulation [94, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141]. Recently dependence of berry ripening rates on the carbon fixation was investigated however, only few quality attributes were found to be affected due to eCO2 and that particularly; sugars, acids, and berry size [138, 142, 143]. Recently, it has been inferred in FACE experiment that eCO2 did not negatively affected juice and wines quality [144]. Similarly, it had already been established that anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins were not affected by eCO2 [137, 138, 142, 143, 144, 145]. Moreover, in multi stress experiments on cv. Temperanillo cuttings where elevated temperature condition i.e., +4°C and CO2 i.e., 700 ppm were simulated it was deduced that high CO2 in combination with elevated temperature hastened berry ripening and decreased high temperature tempted anthocyanin–sugar decoupling in berries [146].
4. Conclusions
Polyphenols are the key secondary metabolite of grapes and have ample amounts of antioxidants. The production and biosynthesis of phenols is regulated by varying climatic conditions in addition to genotypic traits. Elevated temperature impairs phenolic biosynthesis pathways hence lesser accumulation, while lowers temperatures favor their production. On the other hand, excessive radiation may cause degradation of these compounds. Optimum sun light penetration is necessary for the activation of genes of phenolic biosynthesis pathways. Water balance is also important as modest water deficit near verasion can also promote their activity. For elevated carbon dioxide levels (eCO2) despite limited studies, no major negative effects have been reported. However, there is need to study grapes phenolic compounds in relation to global climate change.
\n',keywords:"Grapevine, berry phenolics, anthocyanins, temperature, CO2, radiations, water",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79109.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79109.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79109",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79109",totalDownloads:147,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 24th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"November 25th 2021",datePublished:"February 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"October 25th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Phenolics compounds in grapes contribute to berry and must color, organoleptic properties, nutritional value, antioxidant properties and provide protection against environmental challenges. Climate change has place mammoth challenges for the viticulture industry in different viticulture regions. Environmental variables determine to the greater extent, suitable grapes varieties for fresh as well as premium quality wine production. Grape berry composition is particularly affected by heat, drought, and intensity of solar irradiation. It is expected that climatic extremes will have an adverse effect on berry quality traits such as phenolic compounds in different grape cultivars. Polyphenols particularly anthocyanins decrease at elevated temperature, similarly flavanols levels increase with better exposure to solar radiation. Water availability is crucial for better vine growth and good production, however modest water stress particularly near veraison, upregulates the activity of key enzymes of the phenylpropanoid and flavonoid pathways. Therefore, it is important to know that how and when phenolic substance accumulate in berries and how various cultivars respond. This review elaborates the effect of weather conditions on biosynthesis of different phenolic compounds in grapes. Berry phenolic substances e.g., total phenolic compounds (TPC), total anthocyanins (TAC) and total flavonoid contents (TFC) synthesis is strongly regulated under the influence of environmental conditions during growing season. In this chapter we, shall focus on accumulation of phenolic compounds in grapevine in relation to climatic variations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79109",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79109",signatures:"Monis Hussain Shah, Rizwan Rafique, Tanzila Rafique, Mehwish Naseer, Uzman Khalil and Rehan Rafique",book:{id:"10799",type:"book",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-347-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-346-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-348-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"354421",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Rafique",fullName:"Rizwan Rafique",slug:"rizwan-rafique",email:"rizwanrafiqueao@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"426543",title:"Dr.",name:"Monis",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",fullName:"Monis Shah",slug:"monis-shah",email:"monishussain50@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"426544",title:"Ms.",name:"Tanzila",middleName:null,surname:"Rafique",fullName:"Tanzila Rafique",slug:"tanzila-rafique",email:"tanzilarafique@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"426549",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehwish",middleName:null,surname:"Naseer",fullName:"Mehwish Naseer",slug:"mehwish-naseer",email:"rafiqrizwan155@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427922",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehan",middleName:null,surname:"Rafique",fullName:"Rehan Rafique",slug:"rehan-rafique",email:"rizwanrafique@uf.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"427924",title:"Mr.",name:"Uzman",middleName:null,surname:"Khalil",fullName:"Uzman Khalil",slug:"uzman-khalil",email:"rafiq_rizwan155@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Global climate change",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Climate a key determinant for viticulture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3 Climate change impacts on viticulture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Grapevine phenolic compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1 Phenolic compounds biosynthesis in grapevine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Key climatic variables affecting grapes polyphenolic compounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Temperature",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.1 Temperature impact on phenolic compounds",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Radiation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.1 Effect of radiations on phenolic compounds",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.3 Water",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.3.1 Impact of vine water status on phenolic compounds",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.4 Impacts of elevated CO2 concentration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. 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This response can be blunted with the appropriate mix of biocompatible materials and anticoagulation therapy. The use of anticoagulants, in turn, requires appropriate laboratory testing to determine whether the patient is appropriately anticoagulated. Physicians must balance the risks of bleeding with the risks of thrombosis; the proper interpretation of these tests is often shrouded in mystery. It is the purpose of this chapter to help demystify the coagulation system, anticoagulants, biocompatible surfaces, and coagulation testing so that ECMO practitioners can make informed decisions about their patients and to spur coordinated efforts for future research to improve our understanding of these complex processes.",book:{id:"5202",slug:"extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-advances-in-therapy",title:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Advances in Therapy"},signatures:"Timothy M. Maul, M Patricia Massicotte and Peter D. Wearden",authors:[{id:"182691",title:"Dr.",name:"Timothy",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Maul",slug:"timothy-maul",fullName:"Timothy Maul"},{id:"187110",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Wearden",slug:"peter-wearden",fullName:"Peter Wearden"},{id:"187112",title:"Dr.",name:"Patti",middleName:null,surname:"Massicotte",slug:"patti-massicotte",fullName:"Patti Massicotte"}]},{id:"56530",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69955",title:"Poisoning by Anticoagulant Rodenticides in Humans and Animals: Causes and Consequences",slug:"poisoning-by-anticoagulant-rodenticides-in-humans-and-animals-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:1826,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are a keystone of the management of rodent populations in the world. The widespread use of these molecules raises questions on exposure and intoxication risks, which define the safety of these products. Exposures and intoxications can affect humans, domestic animals and wildlife. Consequences are different for each group, from the simple issue of intoxication in humans to public health concern if farm animals are exposed. After a rapid presentation of the mechanism of action and the use of anticoagulant rodenticides, this chapter assesses the prominence of poisoning by anticoagulant rodenticides in humans, domestic animals and wildlife.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Sébastien Lefebvre, Isabelle Fourel, Stéphane Queffélec, Dominique\nVodovar, Bruno Mégarbane, Etienne Benoit, Virginie Siguret and\nVirginie Lattard",authors:[{id:"180156",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Lattard",slug:"virginie-lattard",fullName:"Virginie Lattard"},{id:"185579",title:"Dr.",name:"Sébastien",middleName:null,surname:"Lefebvre",slug:"sebastien-lefebvre",fullName:"Sébastien Lefebvre"},{id:"185580",title:"Prof.",name:"Etienne",middleName:null,surname:"Benoit",slug:"etienne-benoit",fullName:"Etienne Benoit"},{id:"209023",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Fourel",slug:"isabelle-fourel",fullName:"Isabelle Fourel"},{id:"209031",title:"Mr.",name:"Stéphane",middleName:null,surname:"Queffélec",slug:"stephane-queffelec",fullName:"Stéphane Queffélec"},{id:"209032",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Megarbane",slug:"bruno-megarbane",fullName:"Bruno Megarbane"},{id:"209033",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominique",middleName:null,surname:"Vodovar",slug:"dominique-vodovar",fullName:"Dominique Vodovar"},{id:"209034",title:"Prof.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Siguret",slug:"virginie-siguret",fullName:"Virginie Siguret"}]},{id:"39638",doi:"10.5772/51484",title:"The History of Sepsis from Ancient Egypt to the XIX Century",slug:"the-history-of-sepsis-from-ancient-egypt-to-the-xix-century",totalDownloads:10525,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"2583",slug:"sepsis-an-ongoing-and-significant-challenge",title:"Sepsis",fullTitle:"Sepsis - An Ongoing and Significant Challenge"},signatures:"Johan Sebastián Hernández Botero and María Cristina Florián Pérez",authors:[{id:"141171",title:"Dr.",name:"Johan",middleName:"Sebastian",surname:"Hernandez Botero",slug:"johan-hernandez-botero",fullName:"Johan Hernandez Botero"},{id:"141520",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Florian Perez",slug:"maria-cristina-florian-perez",fullName:"Maria Cristina Florian Perez"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56521",title:"Food Poisoning Caused by Bacteria (Food Toxins)",slug:"food-poisoning-caused-by-bacteria-food-toxins-",totalDownloads:5827,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"In the environment, there are polluting substances that can cause adverse reactions in human beings when entering the body through different ways (ingestion, inhalation, injection, or absorption). The main pollutants can be poisons, chemical compounds, toxic gases, and bacterial toxins. These can be found in different places and their effects depend on the dose and exposure time. Furthermore, foodborne diseases (FBDs) can cause disability; these diseases can be caused by toxins produced by bacteria or other toxic substances in the food, which can cause severe diarrhea, toxic shock syndrome, debilitating infections such as meningitis and even death. FBDs are transmitted through food contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms that have multiple factors of virulence, which gives them the ability to cause an infection; some bacterial genres can produce toxins directly in the food, but other genres can produce them once they have colonized the intestine. Among the pathogens involved in FBDs that are also considered to be toxigenic are Salmonella spp., Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes. Foodborne diseases can be prevented and acute diarrhea syndromes, fever and even death from dehydration can be avoided, especially in children under the age of 5 and in immunocompromised people.",book:{id:"5873",slug:"poisoning-from-specific-toxic-agents-to-novel-rapid-and-simplified-techniques-for-analysis",title:"Poisoning",fullTitle:"Poisoning - From Specific Toxic Agents to Novel Rapid and Simplified Techniques for Analysis"},signatures:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez, Ingrid Palma-Martínez, Luis Uriel\nGonzalez-Avila, Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano, Raúl Colmenero Solís\nand Graciela Castro-Escarpulli",authors:[{id:"204160",title:"Prof.",name:"Graciela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Escarpulli",slug:"graciela-castro-escarpulli",fullName:"Graciela Castro-Escarpulli"},{id:"204162",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Cortez",slug:"cecilia-hernandez-cortez",fullName:"Cecilia Hernández-Cortez"},{id:"204163",title:"MSc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Palma-Martinez",slug:"ingrid-palma-martinez",fullName:"Ingrid Palma-Martinez"},{id:"204164",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Uriel",middleName:null,surname:"González-Avila",slug:"luis-uriel-gonzalez-avila",fullName:"Luis Uriel González-Avila"},{id:"204165",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Mandujano",slug:"andrea-guerrero-mandujano",fullName:"Andrea Guerrero-Mandujano"}]},{id:"64561",title:"Musculoskeletal Injuries: Types and Management Protocols for Emergency Care",slug:"musculoskeletal-injuries-types-and-management-protocols-for-emergency-care",totalDownloads:2430,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"These are a common type of human injuries which can result from the damage of muscular or skeletal systems (i.e., bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, blood vessels, etc.); they usually occur due to a strenuous and/or repetitive activity and can result into variety of complaints, complications, and deformities causing a big burden on the financial and health system in all societies. They are among the largest category of work-related injuries and are responsible for almost 30% of all worker’s compensation costs worldwide. Injuries to the musculoskeletal system occur in 85% of patients who sustain blunt trauma; they often appear dramatic, but rarely cause an immediate life-threatening situation, although these injuries must be assessed and managed accurately so life or limb are not jeopardized. The doctor must be familiar with the anatomy and the injury site to protect his patients from further disability and prevent complications. Major musculoskeletal trauma such as crushed injuries that can cause release of myoglobin resulting in renal tubular injury (acute kidney injury), or can be associated with internal torso injuries like acute compartment syndrome. soft tissue and skeletal system traumas may not be initially recognized, so continued reassessment and evaluation are necessary to identify all injuries.",book:{id:"6616",slug:"essentials-of-accident-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"Ahmad Subhy Alsheikhly and Mazin Subhy Alsheikhly",authors:[{id:"144628",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad Subhy",middleName:"Humadi",surname:"Alsheikhly",slug:"ahmad-subhy-alsheikhly",fullName:"Ahmad Subhy Alsheikhly"}]},{id:"59641",title:"Problem of Burns in Children: Opportunities for Health Improvement",slug:"problem-of-burns-in-children-opportunities-for-health-improvement",totalDownloads:1386,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Burns are one of the most devastating types of trauma in medicine. Children under 5 years of age are a high-risk group to burns. The most common type is thermal burn caused by hot fluids (scald). Most childhood burns occur at home under parental supervision. These are preventable injuries. The chapter presents results of my studies about risk factors of burns in children and possibilities of health improvement. Simple changes in children’s environment and increasing awareness of caregivers can lead to a decrease in the number of this type of injuries. Moreover, the first aid given to burnt children soon after the injury usually is not adequate (no cooling thermal burns and no analgesia). Health improvement can be obtained by reducing the number of burns, the correct first aid given after the injury, and the organization of specialized health-care centers and rehabilitation services for victims of burns.",book:{id:"6616",slug:"essentials-of-accident-and-emergency-medicine",title:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine",fullTitle:"Essentials of Accident and Emergency Medicine"},signatures:"Agata Maria Kawalec",authors:null},{id:"51795",title:"ECMO Cannulation Techniques",slug:"ecmo-cannulation-techniques",totalDownloads:4289,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"An extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) circuit consists of a pump and a membrane oxygenator. This circuit can interface with the human body in a variety of cannulation strategies to provide different forms and levels of support. These various support techniques can be divided into two broad categories: those designed to support the body’s respiratory functions (lungs) and those designed to support the body’s blood circulation (heart). In this chapter we discuss various cannulation techniques used.",book:{id:"5202",slug:"extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-advances-in-therapy",title:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",fullTitle:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation - Advances in Therapy"},signatures:"Chand Ramaiah and Ashok Babu",authors:[{id:"183646",title:"Dr.",name:"Chand",middleName:null,surname:"Ramaiah",slug:"chand-ramaiah",fullName:"Chand Ramaiah"},{id:"189073",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Babu",slug:"ashok-babu",fullName:"Ashok Babu"}]},{id:"27955",title:"Transfusion-Associated Bacterial Sepsis",slug:"transfusion-associated-sepsis",totalDownloads:8258,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"802",slug:"severe-sepsis-and-septic-shock-understanding-a-serious-killer",title:"Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock",fullTitle:"Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock - Understanding a Serious Killer"},signatures:"Jolanta Korsak",authors:[{id:"72828",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Korsak",slug:"jolanta-korsak",fullName:"Jolanta Korsak"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"177",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"81920",title:"Rethinking an Approach for Sustainable Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105141",signatures:"Parakram Pyakurel",slug:"rethinking-an-approach-for-sustainable-globalization",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81297",title:"Legumes Cropping and Nitrogen Fixation under Mediterranean Climate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104473",signatures:"Fernando Teixeira",slug:"legumes-cropping-and-nitrogen-fixation-under-mediterranean-climate",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81493",title:"Rust Disease Classification Using Deep Learning Based Algorithm: The Case of Wheat",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104426",signatures:"Shivani Sood, Harjeet Singh and Suruchi Jindal",slug:"rust-disease-classification-using-deep-learning-based-algorithm-the-case-of-wheat",totalDownloads:40,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Food Systems Resilience",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10897.jpg",subseries:{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society"}}},{id:"81428",title:"Observatory of Sustainable Development in Postgraduate Study Programs in Baja California",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104641",signatures:"Rodolfo Martinez-Gutierrez, Maria Marcela Solis-Quinteros, Maria Esther Ibarra-Estrada and Angel Ernesto Jimenez-Bernardino",slug:"observatory-of-sustainable-development-in-postgraduate-study-programs-in-baja-california",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Globalization and Sustainability - 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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