\r\n\tThis book will provide an insights in different aspects of hygiene in correlation to human health with special emphasis on cross contamination and cross infections with pathogens transmission. Basic principles of prevention, control and procedures for best hygiene practice are described with aim to deliver comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in hygiene for human health.
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Dr. Rozman has a university degree in Biology and Chemistry and a master’s in Biology. She obtained a PhD in Ecology from the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Maribor, with study on molecular methods in microbiology for purposes of hospital hygiene. She participates in study programmes of Nursing, Bioinformatics, and Food Safety covering environmental factors affecting human health. 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1. Introduction
The vast metabolic diversity observed in plants is the direct result of continuous evolutionary processes. There are more than 200,000 known plant secondary metabolites, representing a vast reservoir of diverse functions. When the environment is adverse and plant growth is affected, metabolism is profoundly involved in signaling, physiological regulation, and defense responses. At the same time, in feedback, abiotic stresses affect the biosynthesis, concentration, transport, and storage of primary and secondary metabolites. Metabolic adjustments in response to abiotic stressors involve fine adjustments in amino acid, carbohydrate, and amine metabolic pathways. Proper activation of early metabolic responses helps cells restore chemical and energetic imbalances imposed by the stress and is crucial to acclimation and survival. Time-series experiments have revealed that metabolic activities respond to stress more quickly than transcriptional activities do. In order to study and map all the simultaneous metabolic responses and, more importantly, to link these responses to a specific abiotic stress, integrative and comprehensive analyses are required. Metabolomics is the systematic approach through which qualitative and quantitative analysis of a large number of metabolites is increasing our knowledge of how complex metabolic networks interact and how they are dynamically modified under stress adaptation and tolerance processes. A vast amount of research has been done using metabolomic approaches to (i) characterize metabolic responses to abiotic stress, (ii) to discover novel genes and annotate gene function, and, (iii) more recently, to identify metabolic quantitative trait loci. The integration of the collected metabolic data concerning abiotic stress responses is helping in the identification of tolerance traits that may be transferable to cultivated crop species. In this review, the diverse metabolic responses identified in plants so far are discussed. We also include recent advances in the study of plant metabolomes and metabolic fluxes with a focus on abiotic stress-tolerance trait interactions.
2. Abiotic stresses and the impact on agriculture
Today, in a world of 7 billion people, agriculture is facing great challenges to ensure a sufficient food supply while maintaining high productivity and quality standards. In addition to an ever increasing demographic demand, alterations in weather patterns due to changes in climate are impacting crop productivity globally. Warming and shifts in rainfall patterns caused an historically high $10.3 billion in crop insurance payments to cover agriculture losses in 2011 in the U.S. [1]. Unfavorable climate (resulting in abiotic stresses) not only causes changes in agro-ecological conditions, but indirectly affects growth and distribution of incomes, and thus increasing the demand for agricultural production [2]. Adverse climatic factors, such as water scarcity (drought), extreme temperatures (heat, freezing), photon irradiance, and contamination of soils by high ion concentration (salt, metals), are the major growth stressors that significantly limit productivity and quality of crop species worldwide. As has been pointed out, current achievements in crop production have been associated with management practices that have degraded the land and water systems [3]. Soil and water salinity problems exist in crop lands in China, India, the United States, Argentina, Sudan, and many other countries in Western and Central Asia. Globally, an estimated 34 million irrigated hectares are salinized [4], and the global cost of irrigation-induced salinity is equivalent to an estimated US$11 billion per year [5].
A promising strategy to cope with adverse scenario is to take advantage of the flexibility that biodiversity (genes, species, ecosystems) offers and increase the ability of crop plants to adapt to abiotic stresses. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations promotes the use of adapted plants and the selection and propagation of crop varieties adapted or resistant to adverse conditions [6]. Global programs, such as the Global Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building (GIPB), aim to select and distribute crops and cultivars with tolerance to abiotic stresses for sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture [7].
3. Plant responses to abiotic stress
Through the history of evolution, plants have developed a wide variety of highly sophisticated and efficient mechanisms to sense, respond, and adapt to a wide range of environmental changes. When in adverse or limiting growth conditions, plants respond by activating tolerance mechanisms at multiple levels of organization (molecular, tissue, anatomical, and morphological), by adjusting the membrane system and the cell wall architecture, by altering the cell cycle and rate of cell division, and by metabolic tuning [8]. At a molecular level, many genes are induced or repressed by abiotic stress, involving a precise regulation of extensive stress-gene networks [9-11]. Products of those genes may function in stress response and tolerance at the cellular level. Proteins involved in biosynthesis of osmoprotectant compounds, detoxification enzyme systems, proteases, transporters, and chaperones are among the multiple protein functions triggered as a first line of direct protection from stress. In addition, activation of regulatory proteins (e.g., transcription factors, protein phosphatases, and kinases) and signaling molecules are essential in the concomitant regulation of signal transduction and stress-responsive gene expression [12, 13]. Early plant response mechanisms prevent or alleviate cellular damage caused by the stress and re-establish homeostatic conditions and allow continuation of growth [14]. Equilibrium recovery of the energetic, osmotic, and redox imbalances imposed by the stressor are the first targets of plant immediate responses.
Observed tolerance responses towards abiotic stress in plants are generally composed of stress-specific response mechanisms and also more general adaptive responses that confer strategic advantages in adverse conditions. General response mechanisms related to central pathways are involved in energy maintenance and include calcium signal cascades [15, 16], reactive oxygen species scavenging/signaling elements [17, 18], and energy deprivation (energy sensor protein kinase, SnRK1) signaling [19]. Induction of these central pathways is observed during plant acclimation towards different types of stress. For example, protein kinase SnRK1is a central metabolic regulator of the expression of genes related to energy-depleting conditions, but this kinase also becomes active when plants face different types of abiotic stress such as drought, salt, flooding, or nutrient depravation [20-24]. SnRK1 kinases modify the expression of over 1000 stress-responsive genes allowing the re-establishment of homeostasis by repressing energy consuming processes, thus promoting stress tolerance[24, 25]. The optimization of cellular energy resources during stress is essential for plant acclimation; energetically expensive processes are partially arrested, such as reproductive activities, translation, and some biosynthetic pathways. For example, nitrogen and carbon assimilation are impaired in maize during salt stress and potassium-deficiency stress; the synthesis of free amino acids, chlorophyll, and protein are also affected [26-28]. Once energy-expensive processes are curtailed, energy resources can be redirected to activate protective mechanisms. This is exemplified by the decrease in de novo protein synthesis in Brassica napus seedlings, Glycine max, Lotus japonicas, and Medicago truncatula during heat stress accompanied by an increased translation of heat shock proteins [29, 30].
4. Metabolic adjustments during stressing conditions: Osmolyte accumulation
A common defensive mechanism activated in plants exposed to stressing conditions is the production and accumulation of compatible solutes. The chemical nature of these small molecular weight organic osmoprotectants is diverse; these molecules include amino acids (asparagine, proline, serine), amines (polyamines and glycinebetaine), and γ-amino-N-butyric acid (GABA). Furthermore, carbohydrates, including fructose, sucrose, trehalose, raffinose, and polyols (myo-inositol, D-pinitol) [12, 31], as well as pools of anti-oxidants such as glutathione (GSH) and ascorbate [32, 33], accumulate in response to osmotic stress. Common characteristics of these diverse solutes are a high level of solubility in the cellular milieu and lack of inhibition of enzyme activities even at high concentrations. Accumulation of compatible solutes in response to stress is not only observed in plants, it is a defense mechanism triggered in animal cells, bacteria, and marine algae, indicative of an evolutionarily conserved trait [34, 35]. Scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to restore redox metabolism, preservation of cellular turgor by restitution of osmotic balance, and associated protection and stabilization of proteins and cellular structures are among the multiple protective functions of compatible osmoprotectants during environmental stress [36-38].
A large amount of research has been done on the beneficial effects of compatible solutes on plant tolerance to environmental stress. Correlation between amino acid accumulation (mainly proline) and stress tolerance was described in the mid-1960s in Bermuda grass during water stress [39]. Since then, extensive work has proven that proline serves as an osmoprotectant, a cryoprotectant, a signaling molecule, a protein structure stabilizer, and an ROS scavenger in response to stresses that cause dehydration; including salinity, freezing, heavy metals, and drought (low water potential) [40, 41]. Proline oxidation may also provide energy to sustain metabolically demanding programs of plant reproduction, once the stress has passed [42].
Proline metabolism and its regulation are processes well characterized in plants. Proline is synthesized from glutamate in the cytoplasm or chloroplasts: Δ-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) reduces glutamate to glutamate semialdehyde (GSA). Then GSA spontaneously cyclizes into pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C), which is further reduced by P5C reductase (P5CR) to proline. Conversely, proline is catabolized within the mitochondrial matrix by action of proline dehydrogenase (ProDH) and P5C dehydrogenase (P5CDH) to glutamate. In an alternative pathway, proline can be synthesized from ornithine in a pathway involving ornithine δ-aminotransferase (OAT). Core enzymes P5CS, P5C, P5CR, ProDH, and OAT are responsible for maintaining the balance between biosynthesis and catabolism of proline. Regulation comes at transcriptional level of genes encoding the key enzymes. Transcriptional up-regulation of genes for P5CS and P5C to increase proline synthesis from glutamate and down-regulation of genes for P5CR and ProDH to arrest proline catabolism is observed during dehydration/osmotic stress [43]. Also, post-translational regulation of core enzymes is closely associated with proline levels and environmental signals. For example, the Arabidopsis P5CS1 enzyme is subjected to feedback inhibition by proline, controlling the carbon influx into the biosynthetic pathway [44, 45]. Considering that proline accumulation is associated with stress tolerance, that core enzymes regulate proline biosynthesis, and that these core enzymes are likely rate-limiting steps for its accumulation, logic dictates that overexpression of biosynthetic proline enzymes might increase the levels of the compatible solute and thus improve the tolerance in plants against abiotic stress. Several studies have tested this by overexpressing genes for P5CS or P5C enzymes in different plant species, reporting the expected rise in proline levels and the associated resistance to dehydration, salinity, or freezing [46-53]. Furthermore, deletion of genes coding ProDH [54] or P5CDH [55, 56], expression of a feedback-insensitive P5CS [45], or the overexpression of OAT [57, 58] increase the cellular levels of proline and osmoprotection to some abiotic stresses.
Comparable extensive work has been done for other compatible solutes such as γ-aminobutyric acid [59], glycine betaine [60], trehalose [61], mannitol, and sorbitol [36]; these solutes are efficient protectors against some abiotic stressors. Metabolic pathways for biosynthesis and catabolism of compatible solutes, their regulation, participant enzymes, and compartmentalization are well characterized in most important plant species. This knowledge has led to strategies for improvement of plant tolerance involving the accumulation of those protective osmolytes in plants by expression of core biosynthetic enzymes or their improved derivatives, expression of related transporters, and deletion of osmolyte-consuming enzymes. These numerous studies have provided evidence that enhanced accumulation of compatible solutes correlates with reinforcement of plant resistance to adverse growth conditions.
5. Plant metabolomics and applications
The traditional approach of enhancing the accumulation of a specific compounds in response to a determined stimulus, as done with compatible solutes, have resulted in some degree of tolerance in plants, and also demonstrates that the ability to redirect nutrients to imperative processes and the induction of adequate metabolic adjustments are crucial for plant survival during conditions of stress. However, this is a sectioned view of how plants regulate their entire metabolism in response to stressing conditions. In order to achieve a more comprehensive understanding, we must consider that plant metabolism is an intricate network of interconnected reactions. Plants have a high degree of subcellular compartmentation, a vast repertory of metabolites, and developmental stage strongly influences metabolism. Therefore, metabolic responses are complex and dynamic and involve the modification of more than one metabolite. Also, accumulation of a specific compound is not an absolute requirement indicative of a tolerance trait; adjustment of the flux through a certain metabolic pathway might be enough to contribute to stress tolerance [62]. Recently, it has been reported that plants modulate stoichiometry and metabolism in a flexible manner in order to maintain optimal fitness in mechanisms of storage, defense, and reproduction under varying conditions of temperature and water availability [63]. Furthermore, time-series experiments in Arabidopsis thaliana plants subjected to temperature and/or light alterations revealed that time-resolved metabolic activities respond more quickly than transcriptional activities do [64].
Traditional molecular approaches for tracing metabolic phenotypes in plants responding to abiotic stress have identified and manipulated specific genes or groups of genes in plant models. These have primarily been genes involved in early responses or in down-stream assembly of the response reaction. With the application of new powerful tools of molecular biology and bioinformatics, large collections of genes have been subjected to complete analysis. To arrive at a complete and comprehensive knowledge of physiology in the plant response to abiotic stress, researchers are embracing ionomic profiling, transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic analysis. A deep dissection of the biochemical pathways in plants facing stressing conditions requires integrative and comprehensive analyses in order to identify all the simultaneous metabolic responses and, more importantly, to be able to link these responses to specific abiotic stress. In this sense, metabolomics could contribute significantly to the study of metabolic responses to stress in plants by identifying diverse metabolites, such as the by-products of stress metabolism, stress signal transduction molecules, and molecules that are part of the acclimation response [65].
The metabolome is the entirety of small molecules present in an organism and can be regarded as the ultimate expression of its genotype in response to environmental changes. Metabolomics is gaining importance in plant research in both basic and applied contexts. Metabolomic studies have already shown how detailed information gained from chemical composition can help us to understand the various physiological and biochemical changes occurring in the plants and their influence on the phenotype. The analytical measurement of several hundreds to thousands of metabolites is becoming a standard laboratory technique with the advent of “hyphenated” analytical platforms of separation methods and various detection systems. Separation methods include gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE). Different types of mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and ultraviolet light spectroscopy (UV/VIS) devices are utilized for detection. Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS) is a specialized technique often used in direct infusion (DI) mode for metabolomics analyses, as its high mass accuracy allows a separation solely based on this parameter. Each methodology offers advantages and disadvantages, and the method of choice will depend on the type of sample and metabolites to be determined, and the combination of analytical platforms [66].
GC and MS were the first pair of techniques to be combined, delivering high robustness and reproducibility. GC-MS remains one of the most widely used methods for obtaining metabolomic data because of its ease of use, excellent separation power, and its reproducibility. The main drawback of GC-MS is that only thermally stable volatile metabolites, or non-volatile compounds that can be chemically altered to make them volatile, can be detected [67, 68]. NMR spectroscopy is a fingerprinting technique that offers several advantages over high-throughput metabolite analyses, such as relatively simple sample preparation and the non-destructive analysis of samples. NMR can detect different classes of metabolites in a sample, regardless of their size, charge, volatility, or stability with excellent resolution and reproducibility [69]. Labeling of metabolites with isotopes and subsequent NMR analysis is also useful for metabolic flux analysis and fluxomics as it allows tracking the selective signal enhancement of isotopologues [70]. Recent advances with high-throughput approaches using ultra-high-field FT-ICR-MS alone or in combination with other tools of ‘first pass’ metabolome analysis as electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) are expected to make inventory of the entire metabolome in a single sample possible in the near future [71, 72].
In metabolomics, the implicit objective is to identify and quantify all possible metabolites in a cellular system under defined states of stress conditions (biotic or abiotic) over a particular time scale in order to characterize accurately the metabolic profile [73]. But metabolome studies have some analytical limitations. It is important to have in mind that from the total amount of metabolites in a sample, only an informative portion can be reliably identified and quantified. In addition, metabolic networks in multicellular eukaryotes, specifically in plants, are challenging because of the large size of the metabolome, extensive secondary metabolism, and the considerable variation in tissue-specific metabolic activity [74]. Therefore, experimental design and sample preparation need to be done with great care because environmental and experimental variation confer noticeable impact on the resulting metabolic profiles. This has been demonstrated in legumes in which a high proportion of nutritional and metabolic changes depend on non-controllable environmental variables [75].
Metabolomic analyses have been applied to the functional identification of unknown genes through metabolic profiling of plants in which some genes are up- or down-regulated, the discovery of biomarkers associated with disease phenotypes, the safety assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), the characterization of plant metabolites of nutritional importance and significance in human health, and the discovery of compounds involved in plant resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses [76]. Metabolic profiles can be used as signatures for assessing the genetic variation among different cultivars or species of the same genotype at different growth stages and environments. The metabolite profile represents phenotypic information; this means that qualitative and quantitative metabolic measurements can be related to the genotypes of the plants to differentiate closely related individuals [77, 78]. Once the identification of individual metabolites is available, connections among metabolites can be established, and then metabolic profiles can be used to infer mechanisms of defense. Metabolic profiles will guide tailoring of genotypes for acceptable performance under adverse growth conditions and will be of help in design and development of crop plant cultivars best suited to sustainable agriculture [79, 80]. Metabolomics tools have been used to evaluate the impact of the genotype and the environment on the quality of plant growth in the study of interpecific hybrids between Jacobaea aquatica and J. vulgaris (common weeds native to Northern Eurasia). An NMR-based metabolomics profiling approach was used to correlate the expression of high and low concentrations of particular compounds, including phenylpropanoids and sugars, with results of quantification of genetically controlled differences between major primary and secondary metabolites [81]. In melon (Cucumis melo L.), metabolomic and elemental profiling of fruit quality were found to be affected by genotype and environment [82].
6. Plant metabolomics and drought stress
The variable and often insufficient rainfalls in extended areas of rain-fed agriculture, the unsustainable groundwater use for irrigated agriculture worldwide, and the fast-growing demands for urban water are putting extreme pressure on global food crop production. The demand for water to sustain the agriculture systems in many countries will continue to increase as a result of growing populations [83]. This progressively worsening water scarcity is imposing hydric stress on both rain-fed and irrigated crops. Water deficiency stress induces a wide range of physiological and biochemical alterations in plants; arrestment of cell growth and photosynthesis and enhanced respiration are among the early affects. Genome expression is extensively remodeled, activating and repressing a variety of genes with diverse functions [11, 84]. Sensing water deficit and activation of defense mechanisms comes through chemical signals in which abscisic acid (ABA) plays a central role. ABA accumulates in tissues of plants subjected to hydric stress and promotes transpiration reduction via stomatal closure. Through this mechanism, plants minimize water losses and diminish stress injury. ABA regulates expression of many stress-responsive genes, including the late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins, leading to a reinforcement of drought stress tolerance in plants [85]. Many questions remain unresolved concerning hydric stress-plant metabolic response: How does drought stress perturb metabolism in crop plants? How does hydric stress affect the metabolism of wild plants? What modern strategies of “omics” could be exploited to support future programs of crop breeding to lead to a more sustainable agriculture?
As previously described, one of the main mechanisms by which plants cope with water deficits is osmotic adjustment. These adjustments maintain a positive cell turgor via the active accumulation of compatible solutes. Traditionally, the analysis of metabolic responses to drought stress was limited to analysis of one or two classes of compounds considered as “role players” in the development of tolerance. Application of metabolomic approaches is providing a less biased perspective of metabolic profiles of response and also is aiding in the discovery of novel metabolic phenotypes. Unbiased GC-MS metabolomic profiling in Eucalyptus showed that drought stress alters a larger number of leaf metabolites than the previously reported in targeted analysis. Accumulation of shikimic acid and two cyclohexanepentol stereoisomers in response to drought stress was described for the first time in Eucalyptus. Also, the magnitude of metabolic adjustments in response to water stress correlates with the sensitivity/tolerant phenotype observed; drought affected around 30-40% of measured metabolites in Eucalyptus dumosa (a drought-sensitive specie) compared to 10-15% in Eucalyptus pauciflora (a drought-tolerant specie) [86]. Similarly, critical differences in the metabolic responses were observed when drought-tolerant (NA5009RG) and drought-sensitive (DM50048) soybean cultivars were analyzed by 1H NMR-based metabolomics. Interestingly, no enhanced accumulation of the traditional osmoprotectants, such as proline, soluble sugars as sucrose or myo-inositol, organic acids or other amino acids (except for aspartate), were detected in the leaves of either genotype during water stress. In contrast, levels of 2-oxoglutaric acid, pinitol, and allantoin were affected differentially in the genotypes when drought was imposed, suggesting possible roles as osmoprotectants [87]. In contrast to soybean, levels of amino acids, including proline, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, and valine, were increased under drought stress in three different cultivars of wheat (Triticum aestivum) analyzed for 103 metabolites in a targeted GC-MS approach [88]. Metabolic adjustments in response to adverse conditions are transient and depend on the severity of the stress. In a 17-day time course experiment in maize (Zea mays) subjected to drought stress, GC-MS metabolic analysis revealed changes in concentrations of 28 metabolites. Accumulation of soluble carbohydrates, proline and eight other amino acids, shikimate, serine, glycine, and aconitase, was accompanied by the decrement of leaf starch, malate, fumarate, 2-oxoglutarate, and seven amino acids during the drought treatment course. However, as the water potential became more negative, between the 8th and 10th days, the changes in some metabolites were more dramatic, demonstrating their dependence on stress severity [89].
Accumulation of compatible solutes is an evolutionary conserved trait in bacteria, plants, animal cells, and marine algae. A recent GC-MS metabolomic analysis confirmed that the moss Physcomitrella patens also triggers compatible solute accumulation in response to drought stress. After two weeks of physiological drought stress, 26 metabolites were differentially affected in gametophores, including altrose, maltitol, L-proline, maltose, isomaltose, and butyric acid, comparable to metabolic adjustments previously reported in stressed Arabidopsis leaves. More interesting is the recent report of a new compound, annotated as EITTMS_N12C_ATHR_2988.6_1135EC44, with no previously mass spectra matching record, accumulated specifically in response to drought stress in this moss [90].
7. Plant metabolomics and salinity stress
A current problem for crop plants worldwide, which will become more critical in the future, is salt stress imposed by salinity in soils due to poor practices in irrigation and over-fertilization, among other causes. Salt stress induces abscisic acid synthesis; abscisic acid transported to guard cells closes stomata, resulting in decreased photosynthesis, photo-inhibition, and oxidative stress. This causes an immediate inhibition of cell expansion, visible as general plant growth inhibition, accelerated development, and senescence [91]. To cope with salt stress plants implement strategies that include lowering of rates of photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration [92]. Sodium ion, by its similar chemical nature to potassium ion, competes with and inhibits the potassium uptake by the root. Potassium deficiency results in growth inhibition because this ion is involved in the capacitance of a plethora of enzyme activities in addition to its participation in maintaining membrane potential and cell turgor [91].
The metabolic perturbation in plants exposed to salinity involves a broad spectrum of metabolic pathways and both primary and secondary metabolism. For example, in a proteomic study in foxtail millet (cv. Prasad), 29 proteins were significantly up- or down-regulated due to NaCl stress, with great impact on primary metabolism. These proteins were classified into nine functional categories: cell wall biogenesis (lignin biosynthesis), among these were caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase and caffeoyl CoA 3-O-methyltransferase; photosynthesis and energy metabolism, which included proteins like cytochrome P450 71D9, phytochrome 1, photosystem I reaction center subunit IV B, and ATP synthase F1 sector subunit beta, among others; nitrogen metabolism, proteins like glutamine synthetase root isozyme 4, ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase, chloroplast precursor (Fd-GOGAT), and urease; carbohydrate metabolism, proteins such as UDP-glucose 4-epimerase GEPI42 (galactowaldenase) and beta-amylase; and lipid metabolism including isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase 2 and aldehyde dehydrogenase [93].
Studies using metabolomic tools in plant models and plant crops have shown that the physiology in salt stress courses through a complex metabolic response including different systematic mechanisms, time-course changes, and salt-dose dependence. The biochemical changes involve metabolic pathways that fulfill crucial functions in the plant adaptation to salt stressing conditions. Time-course metabolite profiling in cell cultures of A. thaliana exposed to salt stress demonstrates that glycerol and inositol are abundant 24 h after salt stress exposure, whereas lactate and sucrose accumulate 48 h later. The methylation cycle, the phenylpropanoid pathway, and glycine betaine biosynthesis exhibit induction as a short-term response to salinity stress, whereas glycolysis and sucrose metabolism and reduction in methylation are long-term responses. Long-term salt exposure also causes a reduction in the metabolites that were initially responsive [94]. In tobacco plants treated with various doses of salt, 1 day of treatment with 50 mM NaCl induced accumulation of sucrose, and to a lesser extent glucose and fructose, through gluconeogenesis. Further stress (500 mM NaCl for another day) led to elevation of proline and even higher elevation in sucrose levels compared to the lower dose; at the same time, glucose and fructose levels decreased as transamination-related metabolites (asparagine, glutamine, and GABA) did. These data suggest that sugar and proline biosynthesis pathways are metabolic mechanisms for control of salt stress over one- to two-day periods (short-term). Proline continues to be observed at high levels at later stages (3 to 7 days under highly stressing concentrations of 500 mM NaCl) and sucrose decreases (although it remains at high levels compared to control). There are also significant elevations in levels of asparagine, valine, isoleucine, tryptophan, myo-inositol, uracil, and allantoin, and reductions in glucose, fructose, glutamine, GABA, malate, fumarate, choline, uridine, hypoxantine, nicotine, N-methylnicotinamide, and formate [95]. Similarly, in maize plants stressed with salt solutions ranging in concentration from 50 to 150 mM NaCl, the metabolic profile of the shoot extracts changes most dramatically compared to controls in the plants exposed to the highest salt concentration [96].
Another complexity in the metabolic perturbations in salt-stressed plants consists of tissue-specific response differences. In maize plants exposed to 50-150 mM NaCl saline solution, levels of sucrose and alanine were increased and levels of glucose decreased in roots and shoots. Other osmoprotectants exhibited differentiated behavior: GABA, malic acid, and succinate levels increased in roots, while glutamate, asparagine and glycine betaine were at higher concentrations in shoots. There were decreased levels of acetoacetate in roots and of malic acid and trans-aconitic acid in shoots. A progressive metabolic response was more evident in shoots than in roots [96].
In comparative ionomics and metabolite profiling of related Lotus species (Lotus corniculatus, L. tenuis, and L. creticus) under salt stress, the extremophile L. creticus (adapted to highly saline coastal regions) exhibits better survival after long-term exposure to salinity and is more efficient at excluding Cl- from shoot tissue than the two cultivated glycophytes L. corniculatus and L. tenuis (grassland forage species). Sodium ion levels are higher in the extremophile than the cultivars under both control conditions and salt stress. In L. creticus, a differential homeostasis of Cl-, Na+, and K+ is accompanied by distinct nutritional changes compared to the glycophytes L. corniculatus and L. tenuis. Magnesium and iron levels increase in L. creticus after salt treatment, but levels of potassium, manganese, zinc, and calcium do not. In non-stressed control plants, 41 metabolites are found at lower levels in L. creticus than in the two glycophytes, and 10 metabolites are at higher levels in L. creticus. These data demonstrate that each of these species has a distinct basal metabolic profile and that these profiles do not show a concordance with salt stress or salt tolerance. In salt stress conditions, 48 metabolites show similar changes in all species, either increasing or decreasing, with increased levels the amino acids proline, serine, threonine, glycine, and phenylalanine; the sugars sucrose and fructose, myo-inositol and other unidentified metabolites; and with decreased levels of organic acids such as citric, succinic, fumaric, erythronic, glycolic, and aconitic acid, including ethanolamine and putrescine, among others. Of note is that more than half of the metabolites affected by salt treatment are common among the three species, and only one-third of responsive metabolites in L. creticus are not shared with the glycophytes. Interestingly, the changes in the pool sizes of these metabolites are only marginal [97]. A few changes in the metabolic profile are extremophile-specific, but most salt-elicited changes in metabolism are similar. Other studies in glycophytes under salt stress indicate that organic acids and intermediates of the citric acid cycle tend to decrease [98]. Also in genus Lotus, model species (L. japonicus, L. filicaulis, and L. burttii) and cultivated species (L. corniculatus, L. glaber, and L. uliginosus) exhibit consistent negative correlation in the Cl- levels in the shoots and tolerance to salinity, but metabolic profiles diverge amongst genotypes; asparagine levels are higher in the more tolerant genotypes. These results support the conclusion that Cl-exclusion from the shoots represents a key physiological mechanism for salt tolerance in legumes; moreover, an increased level of the osmoprotectant asparagine is typical [99]. In L. japonicus, which has a robust metabolic response to salt stress, levels of proline and serine, polyolsononitol and pinitol, and myo-inositol increase [75].
All these studies demonstrate that the metabolic plant response to salinity stress is variable depending on the genus and species and even the cultivar under consideration. Differential metabolic rearrangements are in intimate correlation with genetic backgrounds. Furthermore, the plant physiology in salt stress with time proceeds through a complex metabolic response including different systematic mechanisms and changes. Inside a salt-stressed plant as a biological unit, different tissues respond differentially and in some cases the responses are even contrasting. From comparative ionomics studies, it is evident also that under salinity stress, differential homeostasis of ions as Cl-, Na+, and K+ is correlated with distinct nutritional changes in extremophile and glycophyte species, even inside the same genus. Noticeable differences exist between plant species in the way they react to surpass the osmotic pressure imposed by high soil salt content through mechanisms such as tolerance, efficiency in salt exclusion, changes in nutrient homeostasis, and osmotic adjustment. From the aforementioned studies, metabolic markers in the response to high salinity in plants include glycine betaine, sucrose, asparagine, GABA, malic acid, aspartic acid, and trans-aconitic acid. In legumes, increases in levels of the amino acids asparagine, proline, and serine are notable as are increases in polyolsononitol, pinitol, and myo-inositol [75].
8. Plant metabolomics and oxidative stress
An increase in intracellular levels of ROS is a common consequence of adverse growth conditions. An imbalance between ROS synthesis and scavenging is caused in a manner independent of the nature of the stress; it is induced by both biotic and abiotic types of stress. Toxic concentrations of ROS cause severe damage to protein structures, inhibit the activity of multiple enzymes of important metabolic pathways, and result in oxidation of macromolecules including lipids and DNA. All these adverse events compromise cellular integrity and may lead to cell death [100, 101]. Normal cellular metabolic activity also results in ROS generation under regular growth conditions. Thus, cells sense uncontrolled elevation of ROS and use them as a signaling mechanism to activate protective responses [102]. In this context plants have developed efficient mechanisms for removal of toxic concentrations of ROS. The antioxidant system is composed of protective enzymes (e.g., superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, reductase, and redoxin) and radical scavenger metabolites (mainly GSH and ascorbate). GSH is an essential component of the antioxidant system that donates an electron to unstable molecules such as ROS to make them less reactive and also can acts as a redox buffer in the recycling of ascorbic acid from its oxidized form to its reduced form by the enzyme dehydroascorbate reductase [103]. Organized remodeling of metabolic networks is a crucial response that gives the cells the best chance of surviving the oxidative challenge.
In A. thaliana, oxidative treatment with methyl viologen causes the down-regulation of photosynthesis-related genes and concomitant cessation of starch and sucrose synthesis pathways, meanwhile catabolic pathways are activated. These metabolic adjustments avoid the waste of energy used in non-defensive processes and mobilize carbon reserves towards actions of emergency relief such as the accumulation of maltose, a protein structure-stabilizer molecule [104]. A GC-MS metabolomic study, together with an analysis of key metabolic fluxes of cell cultures and roots of A. thaliana treated with the oxidative stressor menadione, revealed the similarities and divergences in the metabolic adjustments triggered in both culture systems. Inhibition of the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) by accumulation of pyruvate and citrate is accompanied by a decrement of malate, succinate, and fumarate pools. This early (0.5 h) response was observed in both systems. Inhibition of TCA cycle concomitantly causes a decrement in the pools of glutamate and aspartate due to the inhibition of the synthesis of TCA-linked precursors 2-oxoglutarate and oxaloacetate, respectively. Another mutual early metabolic redistribution is the redirection of the carbon flux from glycolysis to the oxidative pentose phosphate (OPP) pathway. This is also reflected by the decrement in the glycolytic pools of glucose-6 phosphate and fructose 6-P, and the increment in the OPP pathway intermediates ribulose 5-phosphate and ribose 5-phosphate. Increased carbon flux through the OPP pathway might supply reducing power (via nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADPH) for antioxidant activity, since oxidative stress decreases the levels of the reductants GSH, ascorbate, and NADPH. After 2 and 6 h of stress progression, metabolic adjustments in response to oxidative stress are different in roots than in cell suspension cultures. In roots, pools of TCA cycle intermediates and amino acids are recovered. In contrast, in cell cultures, the concentrations of these metabolites remains depressed throughout the time course, indicating higher basal levels of oxidative stress in cell cultures. At the end of the treatment time (6 h), 39 metabolites, including GABA, aromatic amino acids (tryptophan, phenylalanine, and tyrosine), proline, and other amino acids, were significantly altered in roots. These results showed the broad spectrum of metabolic modifications elicited in response to oxidative stress and the influence of the biological system analyzed [105].
Redirection of carbon flux from glycolysis through the OPP pathway and subsequent increase in the levels of NADPH was also reported in rice cell cultures treated with menadione. CE-MS analysis of these rice cultures showed the depletion of most sugar phosphates resulting from glycolysis (pyruvate, 3-phosphoglyceric acid, dihydroxyacetone phosphate, fructose-6-phosphate, glucose-1-phosphate (G1P), G6P, G3P, phosphoenolpyruvate) and TCA-organic acids (2-oxoglutarate, aconitate, citrate, fumarate, isocitrate, malate, succinate) and increases in the levels of OPP pathway intermediates (6-phosphogluconate, ribose 5-phosphate, ribulose 5-phosphate). Incremental increases in the biosynthesis of GSH and intermediates (O-acetyl-L-serine, cysteine, and γ-glutamyl-L-cysteine) are also observed in the menadione-treated rice cell cultures [106].
9. Perspectives
Metabolome analysis has become an invaluable tool in the study of plant metabolic changes that occur in response to abiotic stresses. Despite progress achieved, metabolomics is a developing methodology with room for improvement. From a technical perspective, further developments are required to improve sensitivity for identification of previously uncharacterized molecules and for quantification of cellular metabolites and their fluxes at much higher resolution. This will allow the identification of novel metabolites and pathways and will allow linkage to responses to specific stresses, and, therefore, increase our level of knowledge of the elegant regulation and precise adjustments of plant metabolic networks in response to stress.
Another challenging task is the integration of metabolic data with data from experiments profiling the transcriptome, proteome, and genetic variations obtained from the same tissue, cell type, or plant species in response to a determined environmental condition. Integrated information can be used to map the loci underlying various metabolites and to link these loci to crop phenotypes, to understand the mechanisms underlying the inheritance of important traits, and to understand biochemical pathways and global relationships among metabolic systems. Elucidation of the regulatory networks involved in the activation/repression of key genes related to metabolic phenotypes in response to determined abiotic stress is becoming possible. Transcription factors (TFs) are central player in the signal transduction network, connecting the processes of stress signal sensing and expression of stress-responsive genes. Thus engineered TFs have emerged as powerful tools to manipulate complex metabolic pathways in plants and generate more robust metabolic phenotypes [107, 108].
Metabolic networks are highly dynamic, and changes with time are influenced by stress severity, plant developmental stage, and cellular compartmentalization. Since metabolic profiling only reveals the steady-state level of metabolites, detailed kinetics and flux analyses will support a better understanding of metabolic fluctuations in response to stress [109]. Genome-scale models (GSM) are in silico metabolic flux models derived from genome annotation that contain stoichiometry of all known metabolic reactions of an organism of interest. Construction of detailed GSMs applied to plant metabolism will provide information about distribution of metabolic fluxes at a specific genotype, a determined developmental stage, or a particular environmental condition. This detailed knowledge of the metabolic and physiological status of the cell can be used to design rational metabolic engineering strategies and to predict required genetic modifications to obtain a desired metabolic phenotype such as optimized biomass production, increased accumulation of a valuable metabolite, accumulation of a metabolite of response towards abiotic stress, or modification of metabolic flux through a specific pathway of significance [110]. Recently advances have been made in this field. For example, in rice, by using four complementary analytical platforms based on high-coverage metabolomics, molecular backgrounds of quality traits and metabolite profiles were correlated with overall population structure and genetic diversity, demonstrating that quality traits could be predicted from the metabolome composition, and that traits can be linked with metabolomics data. Results like these are opening the doors to modern plant breeding programs [111].
Once a metabotype (metabolic phenotype) is confirmed to strengthen the tolerance to a particular abiotic stressor, the next challenge will be the transfer of this metabolic trait to a non-adapted plant species of interest. Engineering of more tolerant plants will then require the efficient integration and expression of one to several transgenes in order to modify an existent metabolic pathway or reconstruct a new complete one. Development and optimization of protocols for robust transformation of nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts must be made available for higher plants including economically important crops; this will open new opportunities for plant metabolic engineering [112]. Future research progress on these topics will lead to novel strategies for plant breeding and elevating the health and performance of crops under adverse growth conditions to keep up with the ever-increasing needs for food and feed worldwide.
10. Conclusions
Metabolomics is the comprehensive and quantitative analysis of the entirety of small molecules present in an organism that can be regarded as the ultimate expression of its genotype in response to environmental changes, often characterized by several simultaneous abiotic and biotic stresses. Results obtained from a number of metabolomic studies in plants in response to different abiotic stresses have shown detailed relevant information about chemical composition, including specific osmoprotectants, directly related to physiological and biochemical changes, and have shed light on how these changes reflect the plant phenotype. Metabolomic studies are impacting both basic and applied research. Metabolomic studies will generate knowledge regarding how plant metabolism is differentially adjusted in relation to a specific stress and whether metabolic adjustments are stress specific or common to different types of stress. These studies will also reveal how metabolic pathways coordinate their fluxes and enzymes activities in order to strength their cellular energy requirements under stressing conditions. In an applied context, metabolomic approaches are providing a broader, deeper, and an integral perspective of metabolic profiles in the acclimation plant response to stressing environments. This information will reveal metabotypes with potential to be transferred to sensitive, economically important crops and will allow design of strategies to improve the adaptation of plants towards adverse conditions. Ultimately, design strategies will consider plant metabolism as a whole set of interconnected biochemical networks and not as sections of reactions that lead to the accumulation of a final metabolite. The task is challenging as it must take into account that reactions to stress course through a complex metabolic response, including different systematic mechanisms, time-course changes, and stress-dose dependences. Moreover, there are differences among plant tissues, and, as expected, marked differences between plants at the genus and species levels, exposing intimate correlation with genetic backgrounds. Nevertheless, the application of more advanced metabolomics tools will lead to new knowledge that will accelerate the design and the improvement of plant breeding projects, that surely will lead to the next generation of crops for specific applications in particular circumstances to cope with abiotic and biotic stress on agricultural crops worldwide.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/43341.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/43341.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/43341",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/43341",totalDownloads:5336,totalViews:1068,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:65,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:19,impactScorePercentile:99,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"April 25th 2012",dateReviewed:"November 5th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 13th 2013",dateFinished:"February 25th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/43341",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/43341",book:{id:"3226",slug:"abiotic-stress-plant-responses-and-applications-in-agriculture"},signatures:"Saúl Fraire-Velázquez and Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández",authors:[{id:"51144",title:"Dr.",name:"Saul",middleName:null,surname:"Fraire",fullName:"Saul Fraire",slug:"saul-fraire",email:"sfraire@prodigy.net.mx",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"156646",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Balderas-Hernández",fullName:"Victor Emmanuel Balderas-Hernández",slug:"victor-emmanuel-balderas-hernandez",email:"balderas.victor@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Zacatecas",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Abiotic stresses and the impact on agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Plant responses to abiotic stress ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Metabolic adjustments during stressing conditions: Osmolyte accumulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Plant metabolomics and applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Plant metabolomics and drought stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Plant metabolomics and salinity stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Plant metabolomics and oxidative stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"9. Perspectives ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"10. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'U.S. Department of Agriculture\'s Risk Management Agency. [13 August 2012]; Available from: http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=RMA_Agency_Splash.xml&contentidonly=true.'},{id:"B2",body:'Schmidhuber J, Tubiello FN. Global food security under climate change. 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Growth, photosynthesis and H+-ATPase activity in two Jerusalem artichoke varieties under NaCl-induced stress. Process Biochem. 2012 Apr;47(4):591-6.'},{id:"B93",body:'Veeranagamallaiah G, Jyothsnakumari G, Thippeswamy M, Reddy PCO, Surabhi GK, Sriranganayakulu G, et al. Proteomic analysis of salt stress responses in foxtail millet (Setaria italica L. cv. Prasad) seedlings. Plant Sci. 2008 Nov;175(5):631-41.'},{id:"B94",body:'Kim JK, Bamba T, Harada K, Fukusaki E, Kobayashi A. Time-course metabolic profiling in Arabidopsis thaliana cell cultures after salt stress treatment. Journal of experimental botany. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov\'t). 2007;58(3):415-24.'},{id:"B95",body:'Zhang J, Zhang Y, Du Y, Chen S, Tang H. Dynamic Metabonomic Responses of Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Plants to Salt stress. J Proteome Res. 2011;10:1904-14.'},{id:"B96",body:'Gavaghan CL, Li JV, Hadfield ST, Hole S, Nicholson JK, Wilson ID, et al. Application of NMR-based Metabolomics to the Investigation of Salt Stress in Maize (Zea mays). Phytochem Analysis. 2011 May-Jun;22(3):214-24.'},{id:"B97",body:'Sanchez DH, Pieckenstain FL, Escaray F, Erban A, Kraemer U, Udvardi MK, et al. Comparative ionomics and metabolomics in extremophile and glycophytic Lotus species under salt stress challenge the metabolic pre-adaptation hypothesis. Plant, cell & environment. (Comparative Study Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov\'t). 2011 Apr;34(4):605-17.'},{id:"B98",body:'Sanchez DH, Siahpoosh MR, Roessner U, Udvardi M, Kopka J. Plant metabolomics reveals conserved and divergent metabolic responses to salinity. Physiologia plantarum. (Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov\'t Review). 2008 Feb;132(2):209-19.'},{id:"B99",body:'Sanchez DH, Pieckenstain FL, Szymanski J, Erban A, Bromke M, Hannah MA, et al. Comparative Functional Genomics of Salt Stress in Related Model and Cultivated Plants Identifies and Overcomes Limitations to Translational Genomics. PloS one. 2011;6:e17094.'},{id:"B100",body:'Gill SS, Tuteja N. Reactive oxygen species and antioxidant machinery in abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2010 Dec;48(12):909-30.'},{id:"B101",body:'Kar RK. Plant responses to water stress: role of reactive oxygen species. Plant Signal Behav. 2011 Nov;6(11):1741-5.'},{id:"B102",body:'Moller IM, Sweetlove LJ. ROS signalling--specificity is required. Trends Plant Sci. 2010 Jul;15(7):370-4.'},{id:"B103",body:'Jozefczak M, Remans T, Vangronsveld J, Cuypers A. Glutathione is a key player in metal-induced oxidative stress defenses. Int J Mol Sci. 2012;13(3):3145-75.'},{id:"B104",body:'Scarpeci T, Valle E. Rearrangement of carbon metabolism in <i>Arabidopsis thaliana</i> subjected to oxidative stress condition: an emergency survival strategy. Plant Growth Regulation. 2008;54(2):133-42.'},{id:"B105",body:'Lehmann M, Schwarzlander M, Obata T, Sirikantaramas S, Burow M, Olsen CE, et al. The metabolic response of Arabidopsis roots to oxidative stress is distinct from that of heterotrophic cells in culture and highlights a complex relationship between the levels of transcripts, metabolites, and flux. Mol Plant. 2009 May;2(3):390-406.'},{id:"B106",body:'Ishikawa T, Takahara K, Hirabayashi T, Matsumura H, Fujisawa S, Terauchi R, et al. Metabolome analysis of response to oxidative stress in rice suspension cells overexpressing cell death suppressor Bax inhibitor-1. Plant Cell Physiol. 2010 Jan;51(1):9-20.'},{id:"B107",body:'Hussain SS, Kayani MA, Amjad M. Transcription factors as tools to engineer enhanced drought stress tolerance in plants. Biotechnol Prog. 2011 Mar-Apr;27(2):297-306.'},{id:"B108",body:'Agarwal PK, Shukla PS, Gupta K, Jha B. Bioengineering for Salinity Tolerance in Plants: State of the Art. Mol Biotechnol. 2012 Apr 27.'},{id:"B109",body:'Kruger NJ, Masakapalli SK, Ratcliffe RG. Strategies for investigating the plant metabolic network with steady-state metabolic flux analysis: lessons from an Arabidopsis cell culture and other systems. J Exp Bot. 2012 Mar;63(6):2309-23.'},{id:"B110",body:'Collakova E, Yen JY, Senger RS. Are we ready for genome-scale modeling in plants? Plant Sci. 2012 Aug;191-192:53-70.'},{id:"B111",body:'Redestig H, Kusano M, Ebana K, Kobayashi M, Oikawa A, Okazaki Y, et al. Exploring molecular backgrounds of quality traits in rice by predictive models based on high-coverage metabolomics. BMC systems biology. 2011 Oct 28;5.'},{id:"B112",body:'Krichevsky A, Zaltsman A, King L, Citovsky V. Expression of complete metabolic pathways in transgenic plants. Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev. 2012;28:1-13.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Saúl Fraire-Velázquez",address:"sfraire@prodigy.net.mx",affiliation:'
Laboratorio de Biología Integral de Plantas y Microorganismos, Unidad Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Campus II UAZ, Colonia Agronómica, Zacatecas, Zacatecas, México
Laboratorio de Biología Integral de Plantas y Microorganismos, Unidad Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Campus II UAZ, Colonia Agronómica, Zacatecas, Zacatecas, México
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1. Introduction
Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the main cause of disability and death among patients with diabetes mellitus, especially those with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). On average, CVD typically occurs 14.6 years earlier in patients with T2DM being characterized by greater severity than in individuals without diabetes mellitus [1, 2]. It is estimated that 90% of atherosclerotic CVD is preventable [3]. The dramatic increase of T2DM has developed into a major public health concern worldwide [4]. Several clinical studies have demonstrated that preventive strategies reduce significantly the risk of developing T2DM [4]. Understanding the mechanisms, strategies, and challenges as well as the potential cardiovascular risks and benefits of glucose-lowering diets are important in managing CVD in T2DM.
2. Mechanisms by which diabetes increases cardiovascular disease
All forms of diabetes are characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and the development of diabetes-specific macrovascular disease affecting the coronary arteries. Large prospective clinical studies show a strong correlation between hyperglycemia, insulin resistance and diabetic macrovascular complications in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus [5]. Five major molecular mechanisms have been implicated in hyperglycemia-induced tissue damage [6]: (1) increased polyol pathway flux, (2) increased advanced glycation end products (AGEs), (3) activation of protein kinase C (PKC), (4) increased hexosamine pathway flux, and (5) activation of the 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LO) pathway [5]. Hyperglycemia-induced overproduction of superoxide is the causal link between high glucose concentration and the pathways responsible for hyperglycemic damage [5] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Pro-atherogenic mechanisms of diabetes associated with hyperglycemia. Four hyperglycemia-related mechanisms may promote diabetic atherosclerosis: (1) the polyol pathway, (2) formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), (3) activation of protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms, (4) the 12/15-lipoxyenase pathway, and (5) the hexosamine pathway. All four mechanisms result in increased formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promote diabetic atherosclerosis by various mechanisms as depicted in the figure. Boxes in arrows, cells and ECM indicate relevant pathway. 12/15-LO = 12-/15-lipoxygenase, AR = aldose reductase, EC = endothelial cell, ECM = extracellular matrix, Fruc = fructose, GFAT = glutamine-fructose-6-phopshate amidotransferase, Glc = glucose, Mo = monocyte, Mφ = macrophage, RAGE = receptor for advanced glycation end products, SDH = sorbitol dehydrogenase, VSMC = vascular smooth muscle cell, other abbreviations are explained in the text. Reprinted with permission from [5].
2.1. Increased polyol pathway flux
Aldose reductase (alditol:NADP+ 1-oxidoreductase) is a cytosolic NADPH-dependent oxidoreductase that catalyzes the reduction of glucose to sorbitol, which is further processed to fructose [7]. Aldose reductase (AR) has a low affinity (high Km) for glucose and, under euglycemic conditions, this pathway plays a minor role in glucose metabolism [6]. Excess glucose is also channeled into the accessory polyol pathway, where it is reduced to polyalcohol sorbitol by AR, an NADPH-dependent enzyme [8]. In the polyol pathway, sorbitol is oxidized to fructose by sorbitol dehydrogenase, with NAD+ reduced to NADH. Under hyperglycemia, this pathway can account for 25–30% of total glucose metabolism [9]. Overexpression of human AR in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor (LDLR) deficient mice resulted in increased atherosclerotic lesion size if mice became diabetic by administration of streptozotocin (STZ) [5, 10]. Atherosclerotic lesions in normoglycemic LDLR−/− did not differ significantly between AR-overexpressing mice and mice with normal AR expression [11]. Long-term polyol pathway activation also increased intimal thickening in dog coronary arteries, an effect that could be blunted by AR inhibition [12]. Polyol pathway activation also triggered abnormalities in endothelium-dependent relaxation in aortas from STZ-diabetic rats and decreased nitric oxide (NO) release and functionality [13, 14].
2.2. Increased intracellular formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs)
One of the important mechanisms responsible for accelerated atherosclerosis in diabetes is the Maillard reaction—a type of non-enzymic browning which involves the reaction of carbonyl compounds, especially reducing sugars, with compounds which possess a free amino group, such as amino acids, amines, and proteins [15]. This reaction is subdivided into three main stages. In an early stage, the protein glycation process starts with a nucleophilic addition between free ε-amino or NH2-terminal groups of proteins and the carbonyl group of reducing sugars (normally glucose or glyceraldehyde) to form a reversible Schiff base [16]. By structural irreversible rearrangements, more Amadori products—stable keto-amines—are formed (i.e., hemoglobin A1c (Hb A1c) [17]. In an intermediate stage, breakdown of Amadori products results in a variety of reactive dicarbonyl compounds such as glyoxal, methylglyoxal, and deoxyglucosones. In the late stage of glycation due to oxidation, dehydration, and cyclization reactions, irreversible compounds called AGEs are formed [18]. AGEs act either by modifying substrates, or by interacting with specific receptors [16]. AGEs-induced damage can occur to the vasculature, vascular cells, and cells implicated in vascular homeostasis via at least the following 4 mechanisms [19, 20]: (1) AGEs modify intracellular proteins, including those involved in the regulation of gene transcription; (2) precursors of AGEs leave the cells via diffusion and modify nearby extracellular matrix molecules, subsequently altering the signaling between matrix and cells and ultimately causing cellular dysfunction; (3) AGEs and their precursors modify circulating proteins in the bloodstream, thereby altering their function; (4) circulating proteins modified by AGEs bind to and activate AGE receptors, thereby altering the production of inflammatory cytokines and growth factors and causing tissue damage [19, 20].
The deleterious effects of AGEs on the vasculature can also be classified either as follow:
2.2.1. Receptor-independent effects of AGEs
Collagen in the blood vessel wall has a relatively long biological half-life, and with time undergoes significant non-enzymatic glycation, which may have a considerable bearing on atherosclerosis [21]. Soluble plasma proteins, such as low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and immunoglobulin G (IgG), are also entrapped and covalently cross-linked by AGEs on collagen [20, 22]. Glycation of LDL-C decreases recognition of LDL-C particles by the LDL-receptor and enhances the uptake of LDL-C by a low-affinity high-capacity receptor pathway on macrophages. Decreased LDLR affinity of glycated LDL-C may result in increased oxidation of particles and may sufficiently alter their structure to render them immunogenic [23]. Glycated LDL-C is more susceptible to oxidative modification than non-glycated LDL-C. Being immunogenic, glycated LDL-C accumulates in plasma and may enhance cholesterol ester accumulation in macrophages and thus may increase the risk of atherogenic complications [23]. Glycation of apolipoprotein A1 (Apo-AI), the major protein of the protective HDL-C (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) complex is increased in T2DM and has been shown to induce conformational changes and decreased stability of the lipid-protein interaction, as well as a reduction in the ability of the lipoprotein to self-associate [24, 25]. HDL-C glycated in vitro and Apo-AI isolated from diabetic subjects show decreased ability to activate lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase, which drives reverse cholesterol transport by esterifying the cellular cholesterol removed by HDL-C [26, 27]. In human aortic endothelial cells, glycated and glycoxidized HDL-C induces H2O2 formation, dampens the expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthases (eNOS) decreases NO production, promotes apoptosis associated with increased caspase 3 expression, attenuates caspase 3 inhibition, and increases release of cytochrome c into the cytosol [28, 29].
2.2.2. Receptor-dependent effects of AGEs
AGEs initiate diabetic micro- and macrovascular complications through the structural modification and functional alteration of the extracellular matrix proteins [30]. The receptor for AGEs (RAGE) is a multiligand receptor of the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell surface molecules, acting as a counter-receptor for these diverse molecules [31]. AGE/RAGE signaling elicits activation of multiple intracellular signal pathways involving NADPH oxidase, PKC, and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), resulting in nuclear factor NF-kappaB activity [31]. In human diabetic atherosclerotic plaques, RAGE was demonstrated to be upregulated and its expression colocalized with inflammatory markers such as cyclooxygenase 2 and matrix metalloproteinases, particularly in macrophages at the vulnerable regions of atherosclerotic plaques [32, 33]. Administration of the soluble form of RAGE (sRAGE) could work as a decoy receptor for AGEs and might inhibit the binding of AGEs to RAGE, preventing the development and progression of atherosclerosis in animal subjects [34]. The augmented response to arterial injury in diabetes was shown to be associated with RAGE, because administration of sRAGE caused decreased neointimal expansion in hyperglycemic fatty Zucker rats [35].
2.3. Activation of protein kinase C
Protein kinase C (PKC), a multifunctional serine/threonine-specific protein kinase, plays a crucial role in many cellular functions and affects many signal transduction pathways. The AGC group is named after the protein kinase A, G, and C families that are closely related to the cAMP-dependent protein kinase [36]. Twelve PKC isoforms have thus far been identified, which differ in terms of structure and substrate requirements [37]. Eight isoforms are activated by diacylglycerol (DAG) [6, 38]. Hyperglycemia can contribute to the direct and indirect production of ROS via the activation of the DAG-PKC pathway [6, 38]. Indirect PKC activation may be due to RAGE engagement or polyol pathway activation or activation of the12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LO) pathway [39]. Increased PKC levels associated with diabetes are found in several tissues including the aorta and the heart [40, 41]. Higher PKC activation triggers hyperglycemia-induced cardiometabolic perturbations such as changes in blood flow, basement membrane thickening, vascular permeability, angiogenesis, cell growth, and enzymatic activity alterations [42, 43]. PKC activation directly increases the permeability of albumin and other macromolecules through barriers formed by endothelial cells [44]. PKCβ1 and PKCβ2 are two of the classical isoforms (α, β, and γ) of PKC [45]. Of the two isoforms, PKCβ2 overexpression and activation facilitates the development of cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis, which eventually leads to left ventricular dysfunction suggesting that PKCβ may play a central role in the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) [46, 47]. PKCβ2 activation has been implicated in diabetes-associated abnormalities via inhibition of Akt (protein kinase B)-dependent endothelial nitric eNOS activity [48]. Restoration of Akt-eNOS-NO signaling has been shown to attenuate DCM and myocardial dysfunction [49]. Quantitative immunoblotting revealed a significant increase in membrane fraction expression of PKC-β1 and -β2 in failed human hearts [50]. Among the processes induced by hyperglycemia, activation of PKC may contribute to DCM by inhibiting the metabolic actions of insulin [51]. The PKC-β inhibitor ruboxistaurin (LY333531) is a class of bisindolylmaleimide [52]. In vivo LY333531 treatment prevents excessive PKCβ2 activation and attenuates cardiac diastolic dysfunction in rats with STZ-induced diabetes. LY333531 suppresses the decreased expression of myocardial NO and phosphate endothelial eNOS [53]. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma (PPARs-γ), could directly affect vascular function because of their expression in endothelial cells and smooth vascular muscle cells [54, 55].
2.4. Increased glucose flux through the hexosamine pathway
The hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP) is another side branch of glycolysis [56]. The reaction in which glucose 6-phosphate is changed to fructose 6-phosphate is catalyzed by glutamine fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase (GFAT) [57]. The major product of HBP is UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) [57]. UDP-GlcNAc regulates flux through HBP by regulating GFAT activity and is the obligatory substrate of O-GlcNAc transferase [57, 58]. Hyperglycemia stimulates the expression of PAI-1 in smooth vascular muscle cells and aortic endothelial cells. This effect is thought to be an important factor in the development of vascular disease in diabetes [59, 60]. Sp1 (a protein that in humans is encoded by the SP1 gene) was the first transcription factor identified as an O-GlcNAc modified protein [60]. It has multiple O-GlcNAc modification sites, and its phosphorylation on serine–threonine is inversely proportional to its O-GlcNAc modification [57, 61]. The glycosylated form of Sp1 seems to be more transcriptionally active than the deglycosylated form [62]. The major mechanism of glucose toxicity is the increased mitochondrial superoxide production; this event can account for the diverse manifestations in vascular cells, i.e., increased polyol pathway flux, increased AGE products, activation of PKC, and increased HBP [6, 63]. Inhibition of the rate-limiting enzyme in the conversion of glucose to GFAT blocks hyperglycemia-induced increases in the transcription of TGF-b1 and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 [64, 65]. This pathway also plays an important role in hyperglycemia-induced and fat-induced insulin resistance [66, 67]. A prospective study examined the effect of strict blood glucose control through intravenous insulin aimed at euglycemia on the concentration of UDP-GlcNAc and UDP-GalNAc in the muscles of severely insulin resistant, uncontrolled, obese, T2DM patients [67, 68].
2.5. 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LO) pathway
12/15-LOs are enzymes that insert molecular oxygen into polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as arachidonic acids, leading to formation of 12(S)- and 15(S)-hydroxyeicosatetraeonic acid [69]. 12/15-LO enzymes and their products, namely HETEs (hydroxyeicosatetraeonic acid) and hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids, have been implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis [70]. Several studies have shown that the 12/15-LO pathway is also able to mediate oxidative modification of LDL-C [71, 72]. 12/15-LO seems to be involved in hyperglycemia, as well as minimally modified LDL-mediated adhesion of monocytes to the endothelium and promotes smooth vascular muscle cell hypertrophy [73]. Also 12(S)- HETE promotes monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells, probably in part by inducing the fibronectin splice variant CS-1 (C-terminal fragment of the connecting segment 1) and VCAM-1 on endothelial cells [73]. Some metabolites of the 12/15-LO system, i.e., 13-hydroxyoctadecadieonic acid (13-HODE) reduces platelet adhesion to endothelial cells and binds to PPARγ thereby reducing macrophage expression of matrix metallopeptidase 9 and proinflammatory cytokines [74].
3. The potential of diet in preventing cardiovascular disease and diabetes
The 2016 American Diabetes Association (ADA) Lifestyle Guidelines support the idea of a healthy diet to improve overall health, in light of achieving body weight, individualized glycemic, blood pressure, and lipid goals [75]. The 2016 European Guidelines on CVD prevention in clinical practice acknowledge that the Mediterranean diet is the most studied specific dietary pattern, which comprises many of the foods and nutrients that have been recommended previously, such as high intake of fruits, vegetables, whole grain products, fish, and unsaturated fatty acids [76]. The PREDIMED study (Prevention with Mediterranean Diet) demonstrated that Mediterranean diet reached a statistically significant reduction in the rate of the composite cardiovascular primary end-point of myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, or cardiovascular death [77]. The Mediterranean diet protects the heart, improves lipid profile, reduces blood pressure, and improves glucose tolerance [78]. Current evidence indicates that the Mediterranean diet is effective in improving glycemic control and reducing cardiovascular risk factors in people with T2DM and should therefore be considered in the overall strategy for the management of people with diabetes [79]. In the most extensive study assessing the effects of the Mediterranean diet on patients with newly diagnosed T2DM, the follow-up results over 8.1 years show that compared to a traditional low-fat diet, the rate of regression in the intima-media thickness of the carotid artery was higher by 49%, and the rate of progression lower by 25% in the Mediterranean diet group [80, 81].
4. Using food to meet dietary guidelines
Evidence-based nutrition practice guidelines are devised to guide clinicians in assisting dietitians and patients/clients in taking appropriate decisions regarding nutrition care for specific disease, or conditions in typical settings [82, 83]. The 2015–2020 US Dietary Guidelines are a critical tool for professionals to help Americans make healthy choices in their daily lives to help prevent chronic disease. It serves as the evidence-based foundation for nutrition education materials that are developed by the US Federal Government for the public [77]. Strong evidence reflects a large, high-quality, and/or consistent body of evidence. Moderate evidence reflects sufficient evidence to draw conclusions. Limited evidence reflects a small number of studies, studies of weak design or with inconsistent results, and/or limitations on the generalizability of the findings [77, 84]. The ADA uses the Create Your Plate system, which divides a plate into three sections: non-starchy vegetables (the largest section), starchy foods, and meat or meat substitutes [85]. The Harvard School of Public Health uses the Healthy Eating Pyramid, which is split into nine sections, including a base of daily exercise and weight control [86]. The LiveWell for LIFE project uses National Plates to show the ideal composition of diets in various European Union countries which are both healthy, environmentally sustainable and affordable [87]. Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE study) is an epidemiological study carried out in 18 countries, examining associations between diet and total mortality, CVD mortality, CVD events, and non-CVD mortality. [88] The PURE study carried out between 2003 and 2009 on 153,996 adults, aged 35–70 from urban and rural communities in low, middle, and high-income households, found that elevated carbohydrate diets (74.4–80.7% of daily calories from carbs) had a mortality hazard ratio 1.28 (1.12–1.46) times greater the median follow-up period of 7.4 years [88]. Total fat and individual types of fat were associated with lower risk of total mortality, but were not significantly associated with risk of CVD mortality [89]. Reducing saturated fatty acid intake and replacing it with carbohydrate have an adverse effect on blood lipids [88]. Global dietary guidelines should be reconsidered in light of these findings.
5. Dietary items
5.1. Dietary fiber
Dietary fiber can be classified in different ways: soluble versus insoluble based on water solubility; fermentable versus non-fermentable based on whether or not it can be fermented by the microbiota in the large intestine; and viscous versus non-viscous related to its viscosity [90]. Fruit, vegetables, and cereals are the major sources of dietary fiber. The analysis of 67 clinical trials on diets high in soluble fibers suggested that these fibers lower total cholesterol and LDL-C [91]. Water insoluble fibers remain unchanged during digestion and have no effect unless they displace foods supplying saturated fats and cholesterol [92]. Most of the available epidemiologic studies suggest that dietary fiber is inversely related to coronary artery disease [93]. Diet rich in dietary fiber is beneficial for the treatment of T2DM [94], as dietary fiber ameliorates postprandial hyperglycemia by delaying digestion and absorption of carbohydrates [95]. A recent systematic review of the literature reported that moderate amounts of fiber supplements (4–19 g/day) achieved little improvement in glycemic control or CVD risk factors [96]. It has been reported that increased intake of dietary fiber and low GI diet with legumes reduced blood pressure compared with wheat fiber diet in T2DM patients [95]. A cross-sectional study in adults men and women indicated that the highest total dietary fiber and insoluble dietary fiber intakes were associated with a significantly lower risk of overweight, high blood pressure, plasma apolipoprotein (apo) B, apo B, apo A–I, cholesterol, triacylglycerols, and homocysteine [97]. The fiber intake should, ideally, be 40 g/day (or 20 g/1000 kcal/day) or more and about half should be of the water-soluble type. People with T2DM are encouraged to choose ≥5 servings of fiber-rich vegetables or fruit and ≥4 servings of legumes per week to achieve the fiber intake goals set for the general population [98].
5.2. Polyphenols
A number of antioxidants showed beneficial effect in experimental models of atherosclerosis and CVD [99, 100]. The main polyphenol dietary sources are fruit and beverages (fruit juice, wine, tea, coffee, chocolate, and beer), dry legumes, and cereals [101]. Dietary polyphenols have been shown to possess cardioprotective effects. Oleuropein inhibits the oxidation of LDL-C in vitro [102]. Dietary quercetin decreases lipid peroxidation and upregulates the expression of serum HDL-associated paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) in the liver [101]. PON-1 may mediate anti-atherogenic properties by protecting LDL-C from oxidation. Several studies have indicated that red wine polyphenolic compounds (RWPCs) were able to inhibit proliferation and migration of vascular cells. RWPCs induced NO-mediated endothelium-dependent relaxations in isolated arteries. The activation of eNOS led to an increase in [Ca2+]i and phosphorylation of eNOS by the PI3-kinase/Akt pathway [103]. RWPCs also increased endothelial prostacyclin release and inhibited the synthesis and the effects of endothelin-1 in endothelial cells [101].
5.3. Lycopene
Lycopene is a natural carotenoid found in tomatoes, which has biochemical functions as an antioxidant scavenger, hypolipidemic agent, and inhibitor of pro-inflammatory and pro-thrombotic factors [104]. Red fruits and vegetables, including tomatoes, watermelons, pink grapefruits, apricots, and pink guavas, contain lycopene. Processed tomato products are good dietary sources of lycopene [105]. Two major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the anti-atherogenic activities of lycopene. The non-oxidative action of lycopene results in an increase of gap-junction communication between cells and modulation of immune function [106] .The oxidative hypothesis supports the prevention of the oxidization of LDL-C as the initial step leading to its uptake by the macrophages inside the arterial wall and the formation of foam cells and atherosclerotic plaque [105]. A possible mechanism for the protective role of lycopene in CVD is via the inhibition of cellular 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol synthesis [107]. Results from the Harvard Medical School’s Women’s Health Study showed that women with the highest intake of tomato-based foods rich in lycopene had a reduced risk for CVD compared to women with a low intake of these foods [108]. The European multicenter case-control study on antioxidants, myocardial infarction, and breast cancer (EURAMIC) study found that the risk of MI was 60% lower for the highest quintile of adipose lycopene concentration compared to the lowest quintile, after adjustment for age, family history of CVD and cigarette smoking [109]. In a cross-sectional study comparing Lithuanian and Swedish populations showing diverging mortality rates from CVD, lower blood lycopene levels were found to be associated with increased risk and mortality from CVD [110]. Many studies show that high consumption of tomato products can improve resistance to oxidation in people with T2DM [111]. Eating a lycopene-rich Mediterranean diet increases lycopene levels and can reduce the levels of hemoglobin A1c from 7.1 to 6.8% [112]. In a case-control study on serum β-carotene and the risk of T2DM, participants in the highest tertile of serum β-carotene levels had a 55% lower risk of developing T2DM [113]. In a quasi-experimental study, 32 T2DM patients received 200 g raw tomato daily for 8 weeks. There were significant decreases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure and also a significant increase in apoA-I compared with initial values, which suggests the beneficial role of tomato consumption in reducing cardiovascular risk associated with T2DM [114, 115].
5.4. Fatty acids
N−3 fatty acids including α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have a significant role in the prevention of CVD [116]. The evidence supports a dietary recommendation of ≈500 mg/day of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for CVD risk reduction [117]. A meta-analysis suggests that ALA consumption may also confer cardiovascular benefits, and each 1 g/d increment in ALA intake was associated with a 10% lower risk of CVD death [118]. Dietary sources of ALA include flaxseeds and flaxseed oil, walnuts and walnut oil, soybeans and soybean oil, pumpkin seeds, rapeseed oil, and olive oil [119]. In the GISSI Prevention Study, treatment with n-3 PUFA significantly lowered the risk of the primary endpoint (death, non-fatal MI, and stroke) [120]. Several mechanisms explaining the cardioprotective effect of the n-3 PUFA have been suggested including antiarrhythmic and antithrombotic roles [119].
5.5. Ethanol and non-ethanolic components of wine
Several groups are now beginning to use animal models of myocardial ischemia and reperfusion to explore whether certain nutrients, including ethanol and non-ethanolic components of wine, may have a specific protective effect on the myocardium, independently from the classical risk factors for coronary disease involved in vascular atherosclerosis and thrombosis [121]. Most epidemiological studies have suggested an inverse association between regular light to moderate drinking and the risks of CVD [122]. Researchers have wondered whether moderate alcohol consumption mediates some of its cardioprotective effects by stimulating NO, and conversely, whether binge drinking diminishes NO availability [123]. In a swine model of chronic ischemia, alcohol administration promoted angiogenesis, increased capillary and arteriolar density in non-ischemic myocardium [122]. Numerous studies indicate that moderate red wine consumption is associated with a protective effect on the cardiovascular system, which has largely been attributed to the rich content of phenolic compounds [124, 125]. Polyphenolic antioxidants scavenge the free radicals, inhibit lipid peroxidation (lipoproteins, membranes), attenuate platelet aggregation, produce coronary vasorelaxation, and protect from cellular injury [126]. Sudden death was examined in US males who participated in the Physicians’ Health Study over 12 years of follow-up. Men who consumed light to moderate amounts of alcohol (2–6 drinks/week) had a significantly reduced risk of CVD compared to those who never or rarely consumed alcohol [127]. Daily intake of red wine decreased plasma malondialdehyde and oxidized LDL-C, indicating the antioxidant activity of wine polyphenols [128]. The NO-mediated vasorelaxant effects of red wine phenolic extracts acted mainly through activating endothelial NO synthase [129]. Mild to moderate beer drinking (12.5–25 g/day) provides cardiac protection, improves endothelial function by inhibiting vascular oxidative damage and modulating the Akt/eNOS pathway, which should be attributed to the non-alcohol components in beer [130]. PPARγ plays an important role in glucose and lipid metabolism [131]. Ellagic acid and epicatechin gallate, active components of wine, were reported to have similar affinity to PPARγ of rosiglitazone, which is a standard drug for the treatment of T2DM [132]. Xanthohumol is a flavonoid which was reported to exist in hops and beer could decrease the activity of alpha glucosidase in a non-competitive and reversible way via directly binding to the enzyme and triggering conformational alterations [131].
6. Dietary patterns
6.1. Low-fat diets
Low-fat diets may improve quality of life and extend life expectancy in healthy people, as well as in patients with overweight issues, diabetes, and CVD [77]. Due to the high risk of CVD in individuals diagnosed with T2DM, the goal in dietary fat intake (amount and type) is similar to that of patients with CVD without diabetes [77]. Certain saturated fatty acids (SFA), trans fatty acids (TFA), conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), and cholesterol adversely affect blood lipid levels, whereas viscous fiber, unsaturated MUFA and PUFA, plant sterols/stanols, and to a certain extent, polyphenols have favorable effects [113]. Diet recommendations include obtaining 25 to 35% of daily calories from fats, and restricting saturated fats to less than 7% of total calories, TFA less than 1%, and cholesterol to less than 200 mg/day [133]. These levels can be achieved by eating more grain products, vegetables and fruits, low-fat dairy products, and fat-free milk, and by reducing food containing TFA [134]. A randomized controlled trial found that diets containing ≥7% SFA and ≥200 mg/day cholesterol led to a reduction of the LDL-C level by 9–12% compared to baseline values or to a more standard Western-type diet [135].
6.2. Low-carbohydrate diets
Low-carbohydrate diets are preferable to a low-fat diet in reducing triglycerides (TG) levels and for increasing HDL-C blood levels [77]. A low-carbohydrate diet is defined as consumption of 30–130 g of carbohydrates per day or up to 45% of total calories [136]. There is no justification for the recommendation of very low carbohydrate diets in T2DM. Carbohydrate quantities, sources, and distribution should be selected to facilitate near-normal long-term glycemic control [137]. A two-year international Dietary Intervention Randomized Controlled (DIRECT) study found that compared to the other diets, the low-carbohydrate diet was most effective for weight loss, and changes in biomarkers (TG, HDL-C, glucose, and insulin) [138].
6.3. A Mediterranean diet
A Mediterranean diet characterized by a relatively high fat intake (40–50% of total daily calories), of which SFA comprises ≤8%, and MUFA 5–25% of calories is associated with a higher life expectancy in healthy people, as well as with lower rates of stroke, coronary heart disease, and diabetes [77]. Mediterranean-style diets are preferable to a low-fat diet in reducing cardiovascular events, increasing blood HDL-C levels, decreasing plasma TG levels, and improving insulin sensitivity [77]. This diet is characterized by abundant legumes, unrefined cereals, vegetables, fresh fruit, olive oil as the principal source of fat, moderate to high consumption of fish, dairy products (mostly as cheese and yogurt), wine consumed in low to moderate amounts, and red meat consumed in low amounts [139]. The Mediterranean-style eating pattern has been observed to improve cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with diabetes [140]. Interventional studies demonstrate the beneficial role of the Mediterranean diet in T2DM management, greater improvements in glycemic control, and reduction of CVD risk factors [141]. The Mediterranean diet is associated with a lower incidence of all-cause mortality [142].
6.4. The dietary approach to stop hypertension (DASH) diet
The dietary approach to stop hypertension (DASH) diet is a dietary pattern to prevent and control hypertension. Its main target is to lower blood pressure, and therefore CVD incidence, by dietary means [77]. The DASH diet includes a relatively high daily content of fruit, vegetables, and grain; moderate amounts of low-fat dairy products, fats, and oils; a decreased content of meat, regular-fat dairy products, snacks, and sweets. All meals have similar sodium content (approximately 3000 mg/day) [77, 143]. Several observational studies in adults have shown that adherence to a DASH-like diet has positive effects on cardiovascular health, including reduced risk of hypertension, T2DM, heart failure, coronary heart disease, stroke [144]. The PREMIER trial reported that standard dietary treatment of hypertensive patients often showed unfavorable control of lipid profile and other cardiovascular risk factors [145]. In the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial, intensive glucose control significantly reduced total cholesterol and LDL-C and TG. The DASH-sodium results indicate that low sodium levels are correlated with the largest reductions in blood pressure for participants at both pre-hypertensive and hypertensive levels [146].
7. Conclusions
To maintain a healthy weight, diet should include a variety of foods, increased intake of fruits and vegetables, whole grains, olive oil, and nuts. Moderate intake of fish, poultry, and red wine is recommended. Consumption of foods high in sodium and sugar should be minimized. The Mediterranean diet has been shown to reduce the incidence of major cardiovascular events among patients with T2DM. Low-fat dietary patterns have been shown to reduce the risk of CVD in both primary and secondary prevention. The healthy DASH diet plan was developed to lower blood pressure and is associated with a lower risk for developing T2DM. Low-carbohydrate diets may help prevent obesity, T2DM, and atherosclerosis.
\n',keywords:"cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, healthy diet, dietary patterns, nutrients",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57473.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57473.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57473",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57473",totalDownloads:1507,totalViews:265,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 3rd 2017",dateReviewed:"October 2nd 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"July 11th 2018",dateFinished:"November 6th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cardiovascular disease remains the main cause of death and disability among patients suffering from diabetes mellitus. All forms of diabetes are characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and the development of diabetes-specific macrovascular disease affecting the coronary arteries that supply the heart. Healthy diet plays an important role in the prevention and management of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. The information in this chapter is divided into the following sections: mechanisms by which diabetes increases cardiovascular disease, the relationship between diet and disease, the potential of foods in preventing cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and dietary items and patterns.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57473",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57473",signatures:"Vlad Cristina",book:{id:"6155",type:"book",title:"Diabetes Food Plan",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Diabetes Food Plan",slug:"diabetes-food-plan",publishedDate:"July 11th 2018",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6155.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-275-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-274-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-307-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"210388",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vlad",middleName:"I",surname:"Cristina",fullName:"Vlad Cristina",slug:"vlad-cristina",email:"cvlad@umfcluj.ro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Mechanisms by which diabetes increases cardiovascular disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Increased polyol pathway flux",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Increased intracellular formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1. Receptor-independent effects of AGEs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2. Receptor-dependent effects of AGEs",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3. Activation of protein kinase C",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4. Increased glucose flux through the hexosamine pathway",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.5. 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LO) pathway",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. The potential of diet in preventing cardiovascular disease and diabetes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Using food to meet dietary guidelines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Dietary items",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.1. Dietary fiber",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.2. Polyphenols",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.3. Lycopene",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.4. Fatty acids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.5. Ethanol and non-ethanolic components of wine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"6. Dietary patterns",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"6.1. Low-fat diets",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"6.2. Low-carbohydrate diets",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.3. A Mediterranean diet",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.4. 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Mediterranean dietary pattern and prediction of all-cause mortality in a US population: Results from the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Archives of Internal Medicine. 2007;167:2461-2468. DOI: 10.1001/archinte. 167.22.2461'},{id:"B143",body:'Sacks FM, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. New England Journal of Medicine. 2001;344:3-10. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200101043440101'},{id:"B144",body:'Liese AD, Bortsov A, Günther AL, et al. Association of DASH diet with cardiovascular risk factors in youth with diabetes mellitus the SEARCH for diabetes in youth study. Circulation. 2011;123(13):1410-1417. DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA110. 955922'},{id:"B145",body:'Appel LJ, Champagne CM, Harsha DW, et al. Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: Main results of the PREMIER clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2003;289:2083-2093'},{id:"B146",body:'Ha SK. 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Open Access Funding
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Muenstermann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5598.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"53700",doi:"10.5772/67013",title:"Migration and Health from a Public Health Perspective",slug:"migration-and-health-from-a-public-health-perspective",totalDownloads:2415,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"One of the main dimensions related to migration is that of health; this correlation is dynamic by nature and complex. Health is strongly related to the social determinants of health (job, income, education, and housing). When not properly supported by appropriate inter-sectoral policies, migration can expose the most vulnerable socioeconomic groups to significant problems. The protection of the health of migrants is an important investment of the public health because it promises benefits to both migrant population and natives. An essential aspect is to properly analyze the health needs of ethnic minorities. Both quantitative and qualitative research is necessary, and the involvement of the target communities is important. Another important aspect is the education and training of social and health workers involved in the care of migrants (with a multidisciplinary teamwork and “transcultural” approach), and the organization of services that can effectively be used. Finally, it is also essential to carry out an evaluation of health outcomes of the migrant population and the impact of adopted health policies. Protecting the health of ethnic minorities is both a challenge for governments and a test of the quality of their health systems.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Maurizio Marceca",authors:[{id:"192600",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Marceca",slug:"maurizio-marceca",fullName:"Maurizio Marceca"}]},{id:"53589",doi:"10.5772/66931",title:"Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) among Elderly Turkish and Polish Migrants and German Natives: The Role of Age, Gender, Income, Discrimination and Social Support",slug:"health-related-quality-of-life-hrqol-among-elderly-turkish-and-polish-migrants-and-german-natives-th",totalDownloads:1489,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Background: Migration can negatively and positively influence health-related quality of life (HRQoL). Yet, little is known about the HRQoL of Turkish and Polish migrants and German natives.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Johanna Buchcik, Joachim Westenhöfer, Mick Fleming and Colin R.\nMartin",authors:[{id:"192396",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Johanna",middleName:null,surname:"Buchcik",slug:"johanna-buchcik",fullName:"Johanna Buchcik"},{id:"193514",title:"Prof.",name:"Joachim",middleName:null,surname:"Westenhöfer",slug:"joachim-westenhofer",fullName:"Joachim Westenhöfer"},{id:"193515",title:"Prof.",name:"Mick",middleName:null,surname:"Fleming",slug:"mick-fleming",fullName:"Mick Fleming"},{id:"193516",title:"Prof.",name:"Colin R.",middleName:null,surname:"Martin",slug:"colin-r.-martin",fullName:"Colin R. Martin"}]},{id:"53657",doi:"10.5772/66827",title:"Asians as Model Minorities: A Myth or Reality among Scientists and Engineers in Academia",slug:"asians-as-model-minorities-a-myth-or-reality-among-scientists-and-engineers-in-academia",totalDownloads:1535,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Asians from China, India, South Korea, and Taiwan constitute the largest non‐White group in academic science and engineering (S&E). Most of the studies in relation to race/ethnicity combine Asians into one category whether they are immigrants (foreign born) or US citizens. Research has suggested that job satisfaction differs with the type of citizenship status held by faculty members. However, what studies fail to notice is that Asian faculty members who are either born in the United States or are naturalized might experience very different levels of attitudes and satisfaction toward their job when compared with Asian faculty members who are foreign born and on temporary visa status, impacting retention. Do institutions recognize the differences between these two groups, or are Asian faculty members considered a “model minority” group and “problem‐free?” This is the question that this study aims to examine. Given the growing competition in S&E globally, matters pertaining to faculty members’ satisfaction, retention, and persistence will take a front seat among policy makers and university administrators. Data for this study come from the National Science Foundation’s Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR).",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Meghna Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"192631",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meghna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"meghna-sabharwal",fullName:"Meghna Sabharwal"}]},{id:"53671",doi:"10.5772/67004",title:"The New Actors of International Migration: A Comparative Analysis of Foreign Students’ Experiences in a Medium-Sized City in Turkey",slug:"the-new-actors-of-international-migration-a-comparative-analysis-of-foreign-students-experiences-in-",totalDownloads:1273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"International or foreign student migration is one of the topics that started to become a hot topic in many different countries because of various aspects. Lately, Turkey, especially in terms of higher education, can be seen as a country that sends students to study abroad but also attracts foreign students. With regard to Adnan Menderes University which is located in a medium‐sized city (Aydın), the main focus of this study is based on experiences of foreign students regarding prejudice, discrimination and racism. In addition to this, the topics such as to what extent are foreign students having difficulty to adapt to the life in Turkey, to what extent are the students satisfied with their lives in the country, in what way could foreign students who currently study in Turkey help to increase the foreign student population or sustain the student migration were examined. In this context, six different categories, such as students from Africa, Asia, South Caucasia, Middle East, Europe/Balkans and Europe/Other, were created. Surveys were applied to participants of the study group in line with a quantitative research scope.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Serdar Ünal",authors:[{id:"192402",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Ünal",slug:"serdar-unal",fullName:"Serdar Ünal"}]},{id:"53486",doi:"10.5772/66824",title:"Immigration and Food Insecurity: The Canadian Experience—A Literature Review",slug:"immigration-and-food-insecurity-the-canadian-experience-a-literature-review",totalDownloads:2632,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Canada is a popular destination for immigrants and integration of newcomers is an important strategy for its demographic growth and economic development. Food insecurity disproportionately affects newcomers in Canada; unfortunately, they occupy the lower end of the socio‐economic spectrum and thus adding to the burden of socio‐cultural challenges they are already facing. The high level of food insecurity contributes to poor diet quality and the rise in overweight and other chronic health conditions and therefore to the loss of healthy immigrant status. Indeed, statistical evidence, mainly of the overall Canadian population, demonstrates that individuals living in food‐insecure households have higher rates of self‐reported poor health and chronic health conditions. Therefore, understanding and properly addressing the factors associated with food insecurity among Canadian immigrants is crucial for an adequate integration of immigrants. This chapter suggests that an adequate and appropriate understanding of food security for Canadian immigrant populations requires consideration of a cultural perspective in addition to the traditional individual, household and community levels and the development of measurement tools to capture this cultural dimension. It is proposed the concept of cultural food insecurity encompasses the four usual dimensions (availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability) and a newly proposed fifth cultural dimension. Future research should aim at validating the relevance of this cultural perspective as a fifth pillar for food security and developing measurement tools to assess it.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Diana Tarraf, Dia Sanou and Isabelle Giroux",authors:[{id:"192842",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Tarraf",slug:"diana-tarraf",fullName:"Diana Tarraf"},{id:"193533",title:"Dr.",name:"Dia",middleName:null,surname:"Sanou",slug:"dia-sanou",fullName:"Dia Sanou"},{id:"193603",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Giroux",slug:"isabelle-giroux",fullName:"Isabelle Giroux"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53486",title:"Immigration and Food Insecurity: The Canadian Experience—A Literature Review",slug:"immigration-and-food-insecurity-the-canadian-experience-a-literature-review",totalDownloads:2630,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Canada is a popular destination for immigrants and integration of newcomers is an important strategy for its demographic growth and economic development. Food insecurity disproportionately affects newcomers in Canada; unfortunately, they occupy the lower end of the socio‐economic spectrum and thus adding to the burden of socio‐cultural challenges they are already facing. The high level of food insecurity contributes to poor diet quality and the rise in overweight and other chronic health conditions and therefore to the loss of healthy immigrant status. Indeed, statistical evidence, mainly of the overall Canadian population, demonstrates that individuals living in food‐insecure households have higher rates of self‐reported poor health and chronic health conditions. Therefore, understanding and properly addressing the factors associated with food insecurity among Canadian immigrants is crucial for an adequate integration of immigrants. This chapter suggests that an adequate and appropriate understanding of food security for Canadian immigrant populations requires consideration of a cultural perspective in addition to the traditional individual, household and community levels and the development of measurement tools to capture this cultural dimension. It is proposed the concept of cultural food insecurity encompasses the four usual dimensions (availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability) and a newly proposed fifth cultural dimension. Future research should aim at validating the relevance of this cultural perspective as a fifth pillar for food security and developing measurement tools to assess it.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Diana Tarraf, Dia Sanou and Isabelle Giroux",authors:[{id:"192842",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Tarraf",slug:"diana-tarraf",fullName:"Diana Tarraf"},{id:"193533",title:"Dr.",name:"Dia",middleName:null,surname:"Sanou",slug:"dia-sanou",fullName:"Dia Sanou"},{id:"193603",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabelle",middleName:null,surname:"Giroux",slug:"isabelle-giroux",fullName:"Isabelle Giroux"}]},{id:"53470",title:"Sociocultural Models of Second-Language Learning of Young Immigrants in Canada",slug:"sociocultural-models-of-second-language-learning-of-young-immigrants-in-canada",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The most significant challenge for the minority immigrant is learning a new language. They arrive in a new culture and community hoping to master English quickly in order to achieve their academic and career goals. However, many immigrants have mentioned general barriers resulting from being unable to communicate with peers outside their cultural and linguistic group. Recent research has identified several cognitive variables such as vocabulary, reading aloud, and grammatical judgment related to second-language learning in immigrants; however, little attention was given to sociocultural factors such as acculturation, motivation, and cultural learning because learning a language is a necessary aspect of being socialized into a particular culture. This chapter reviews research of sociocultural models in relation to second-language learning of immigrant youth in Canada. We address this paradigm for research by incorporating both acculturation and sociolinguistic approaches, as well as more traditional cognitive-linguistic approaches, to models of second-language learning in immigrants.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Fanli Jia, Alexandra Gottardo and Aline Ferreira",authors:[{id:"192435",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanli",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",slug:"fanli-jia",fullName:"Fanli Jia"},{id:"194425",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Gottardo",slug:"alexandra-gottardo",fullName:"Alexandra Gottardo"},{id:"194656",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"aline-ferreira",fullName:"Aline Ferreira"}]},{id:"53700",title:"Migration and Health from a Public Health Perspective",slug:"migration-and-health-from-a-public-health-perspective",totalDownloads:2413,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"One of the main dimensions related to migration is that of health; this correlation is dynamic by nature and complex. Health is strongly related to the social determinants of health (job, income, education, and housing). When not properly supported by appropriate inter-sectoral policies, migration can expose the most vulnerable socioeconomic groups to significant problems. The protection of the health of migrants is an important investment of the public health because it promises benefits to both migrant population and natives. An essential aspect is to properly analyze the health needs of ethnic minorities. Both quantitative and qualitative research is necessary, and the involvement of the target communities is important. Another important aspect is the education and training of social and health workers involved in the care of migrants (with a multidisciplinary teamwork and “transcultural” approach), and the organization of services that can effectively be used. Finally, it is also essential to carry out an evaluation of health outcomes of the migrant population and the impact of adopted health policies. Protecting the health of ethnic minorities is both a challenge for governments and a test of the quality of their health systems.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Maurizio Marceca",authors:[{id:"192600",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Marceca",slug:"maurizio-marceca",fullName:"Maurizio Marceca"}]},{id:"53859",title:"Introductory Chapter: People's Movements in the 21st Century",slug:"introductory-chapter-people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Ingrid Muenstermann",authors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}]},{id:"53701",title:"The Immigrant Experience in V.S. Naipaul's The Enigma of Arrival and Z. Smith's White Teeth: An Exploration of Homi Bhabha's Postcolonial Theory",slug:"the-immigrant-experience-in-v-s-naipaul-s-the-enigma-of-arrival-and-z-smith-s-white-teeth-an-explora",totalDownloads:2110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"V.S. Naipaul and Z. Smith, prominent postcolonial authors, reflect the condition of the immigrants suffering from cultural shock, hybridity, fragmentation and mimicry in the postcolonial Western societies in their novels, The Enigma of Arrival and White Teeth. The former portrays the desperate condition of an author doing his best to create his work in the post‐war West, in London and New York, trying to overcome his hybridity and adaptation problems due to his cultural background, and the latter sheds light on the cultural distress of two families from Bangladesh, immigrating to London, by stressing the conflicts between the Westerners and the Easterners and between the first and the second generations of immigrants. Thus, these two novels highlight the immigrant experience illustrating the impact of power relations between the former colonized and the former colonizer upon their relationship in the postcolonial era. In this study, the problems of immigrants in the post‐war West in these novels will be analysed in the light of Homi Bhabha's postcolonial theory, which puts forward such concepts as hybridity, mimicry, ambivalence, cultural differentiation and otherness. In this regard, Bhabha's theory will be adapted into these novels to identify cultural problems of immigrants in these works.",book:{id:"5598",slug:"people-s-movements-in-the-21st-century-risks-challenges-and-benefits",title:"People's Movements in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"People's Movements in the 21st Century - Risks, Challenges and Benefits"},signatures:"Berna Köseoğlu",authors:[{id:"148215",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",middleName:null,surname:"Köseoğlu",slug:"berna-koseoglu",fullName:"Berna Köseoğlu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"271",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"25",type:"subseries",title:"Evolutionary Computation",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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