Percentage of prevalence of each farming system in all SSA, in each SSA regions, and in different agroecological zones [12, 13].
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Significant advancement has been made recently, which not only provides insight in to the pathophysiology of the disease but also helps to discover new therapies to fight the deadly disease. If accurate diagnosis and typing are made early, effective or even curative therapies are available. Unfortunately, because of the rarity of the disease and its protean clinical manifestations, patients may be misdiagnosed, especially at early stage of the disease, and this could lead to missed opportunities to effective therapy. The aim of the book is to help readers become familiar with the clinical presentation of amyloidosis and to review the latest diagnostic and therapeutic development.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1100-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7160-7",doi:"10.5772/46140",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"amyloidosis",numberOfPages:250,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"666d7fe7d19d8ae8be3c9bcc06945cba",bookSignature:"Dali Feng",publishedDate:"June 12th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3344.jpg",numberOfDownloads:24575,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:70,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 24th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 15th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 19th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"157948",title:"Dr.",name:"Dali",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"dali-feng",fullName:"Dali Feng",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/157948/images/system/157948.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dali Feng was born in China, where he completed his medical school training. 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He is also an accomplished cardiovascular researcher, with publications of more than 60 abstracts, 40 original manuscripts and five books’ chapters.\n\nIn his spare time, he enjoys fishing, canoeing, and rollerblading.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"44870",title:"“Amyloid” — Historical Aspects",doi:"10.5772/53423",slug:"-amyloid-historical-aspects",totalDownloads:3185,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Maarit Tanskanen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/44870",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/44870",authors:[{id:"158800",title:"Dr.",name:"Maarit",surname:"Tanskanen",slug:"maarit-tanskanen",fullName:"Maarit Tanskanen"}],corrections:null},{id:"42643",title:"Diagnosis of Amyloidosis",doi:"10.5772/52901",slug:"diagnosis-of-amyloidosis",totalDownloads:2054,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Cezar Augusto Muniz Caldas and Jozélio Freire de Carvalho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42643",authors:[{id:"30432",title:"Dr.",name:"Jozélio",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"jozelio-de-carvalho",fullName:"Jozélio de Carvalho"}],corrections:null},{id:"43676",title:"Cardiac Amyloidosis: Typing, Diagnosis, Prognosis and Management",doi:"10.5772/53763",slug:"cardiac-amyloidosis-typing-diagnosis-prognosis-and-management",totalDownloads:2008,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Glenn K. 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The particles differ in colour depending on the size of different nanocrystals. Quantum dots emit light when excited, smaller dots emit higher energy light. Manufacturers can accurately control the size of a quantum dot and as a result, they are able ‘tune’ the wavelength of the emitted light to a specific colour. Quantum dots find applications in several areas such as solar cells, transistors, LEDs, medical imaging, and quantum computing, thanks to their unique electronic properties. The properties of quantum dots have caused researchers and companies to consider using them in several fields like Optical Applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics), Biological Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications), etc... The following survey of quantum dot applications introduces many of these uses. They have characteristically low energy consumption, small size, longer lifetime, and faster switching and because of that, they have a wide palette of applicability. Over the years semiconductor technology has advanced to bigger heights. The result is what we see around us in the form of smart gadgets. This book would form the basis for a better widespread understanding of the capabilities and limitations of each category of the quantum dots, and may also suggest better, cheaper, or alternative lithography technologies are considered for their applications.
\r\n\r\n\tThe area of interest and scope of the project can be described with (but are not limited to) the following keywords: The Quantum dots can be lingering further into seven major categories:
\r\n\t(i) Quantum dots of very high-quality optical applications, Quantum dot light-emitting diodes (QD-LED) and ‘QD-White LED’, Quantum dot photodetectors (QDPs), Quantum dot solar cells (Photovoltaics).
\r\n\t(ii) Quantum Computing (quantum bits or ‘qubits’), (vii) The Future of Quantum Dots (broad range of real-time applications, magnetic quantum dots & graphene quantum dots), Superconducting Loop, Quantum Entanglement, Quantum Fingerprints.
\r\n\r\n\t(iii) Biomedical and Environmental Applications (to study intracellular processes, tumor targeting, in vivo observation of cell trafficking, diagnostics and cellular imaging at high resolutions), Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes and Bacterial Cells, Resonance Energy-Transfer Processes, Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality, Water and Wastewater Treatment, Pollutant Control.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-594-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-593-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-595-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"0dd5611c62c91569bd2819e68852002a",bookSignature:"Prof. Jagannathan Thirumalai",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11756.jpg",keywords:"LED, Organic LEDs, Dyes & Pigments, Solar Cells, Laser Photonics, Electronic Switching Devices, Qubits, Josephson Junction, Bioconjugation, Cell Imaging, Photoelectrochemical Immunosensor, Membranes, and Bacterial Cells",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 16th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 26th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 13th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), the Republic of Korea. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin-film optoelectronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books, and member of several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. His h-index is 19.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99242/images/system/99242.png",biography:"Dr. J. Thirumalai received his Ph.D. from Alagappa University, Karaikudi in 2010. He was also awarded the Post-doctoral Fellowship from Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), Republic of Korea, in 2013. He worked as Assistant Professor of Physics, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, Chennai, India (2011 to 2016). Currently, he is working as Senior Assistant Professor of Physics, Srinivasa Ramanujan Centre, SASTRA Deemed University, Kumbakonam (T.N.), India. His research interests focus on luminescence, self-assembled nanomaterials, and thin film opto-electronic devices. He has published more than 60 SCOPUS/ISI indexed papers and 11 book chapters, edited 4 books and member in several national and international societies like RSC, OSA, etc. Currently, he served as a principal investigator for a funded project towards the application of luminescence based thin film opto-electronic devices, funded by the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. As an expert in opto-electronics and nanotechnology area, he has been invited as external and internal examiners to MSc and PhD theses, invited to give talk in some forum, review papers for international and national journals.",institutionString:"SASTRA University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"17",title:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5348",title:"Luminescence",subtitle:"An 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The expansion of arable land area allocated to crops has played a less important part in production increases. However, these trends are not uniform across regions. For instance, most of the growth in wheat and rice production in developing countries in the land-scarce regions of Asia and Northern Africa has resulted in yield gains, while expansion of harvested land is a result of rapid production growth of maize in Latin America and the Caribbean and in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [2]. Yield growth contributed only one-third of the increase in crop production in the latter region. The arable land area in developed countries peaked in the mid-1980s and has fallen at an accelerating rate ever since. SSA is scientifically known as a rich niche of plant diversity which, in conjunction with local and traditional knowledge, makes the perfect combination to promote a sustainable solution for professional and smallholder farmers while respecting their livelihood needs, traditions, and market demand.
Economic foundations of most SSA are dominated by agriculture, which is recognized to contribute between 15 and 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP). Besides, agriculture sector provides livelihoods for over 70% of SSA’s population through family farming [3, 4]. The economically active population in agriculture doubled from 100 million people in 1980 to 212 million in 2013. Considering that 75% of the SSA population is involved directly or indirectly in farming and related employment, the strategic role of family farms, mainly by women, has been recognized by key actors [5]. Over the last 40 years, the SSA population has been increasing from 279 to 826 million people, both in rural and urban populations. It is expected that due to the climate changes, there will be an increase in rural-urban migration as a consequence of agriculture abandonment and toward the search for better opportunities for both livelihoods and work, which will also cause an expansion and reclassification of urban boundaries [6]. As a result, by 2050 about 50% of SSA’s population will be living in towns and cities [7]. In fact, a migration from rural-to-urban areas has been increasing at a fast pace (Figure 1).
Annual growth of population in rural and urban regions in sub-Saharan Africa within the period of 1950s and to future projections until the 2050s [
To answer the increasing growth in consumers, production growths have stemmed mostly from area expansion at the expense of biodiversity, cultural value, and the rise in greenhouse gas emission (GGE). To respond to both market needs and the feeding of continuously growing population, crop production has been marked by extensive growth of staple crops, namely, in SSA. Over the last 20 years, crop staple production has risen at the cost of more land for agriculture. By 2014, most of African arable land was occupied by staple crops with more than 80 million hectares (ha), and the major contributors are maize, sorghum, and millet, accounting for 80% of total food production. From the 1960s to the 1970s, there was an increase of 1 million ha dedicated to maize that increases by the 1980s with more 3 million ha, and from them on, there has been an increase of 4 million ha for every decade [7]. When restricting to the top six agriculture commodities in SSA region on FAOSTAT data [7] (Figure 2), major crops were analyzed in terms of production (A), area harvested (B), and yield (C), and key staple crops were highlighted, namely, rice, cassava, sorghum, and grain legumes/pulses, along with maize.
Top six agriculture commodities in the sub-Saharan Africa region, in terms of production (A), area harvested (B), and yield (C), from the period 1961 to 2011 [
Maize is the crop that occupies the largest portion of agriculture land use, with an increasing area harvested devoted to its production that does not translate to an increment on crop production and thus yield. However, its production has been in an increasingly trend due to maize being Africa’s most important food crop, and it is held up as a model food crop to meet Africa’s growing urban demand for convenient food products [8, 9, 10]. Maize production, however, is risky because of unpredictable rainfall. On the other hand, cassava is known as Africa’s second most important food staple in terms of per capita calories consumed, as a major source of calories. Accordingly, cassava production is among the higher number in SSA, occupying less agriculture land but with increasing steady production, translated in high yields. For instance, investment from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in projects such as accelerated varietal improvement and seed delivery of legumes and cereals in Africa (AVISA) has contributed to more efficient cassava varieties. Yet, cassava has several other advantages over rice, maize, and other grains as a food staple in areas where there is a degraded resource base, uncertain rainfall, and weak market infrastructure. It is drought tolerant; this attribute makes it the most suitable food crop during periods of drought and famine. Cassava has historically played an important famine prevention role in Eastern and Southern Africa where maize is the preferred food staple and drought is a recurrent problem. While rice is produced in vast areas of the world, the physical requirements for growing it are limited to certain zones. Economically viable cultivation typically requires high average temperatures during the growing season, abundant supplies of water applied in a timely manner, smooth land surfaces to facilitate uniform flooding and drainage, and a subsoil stratum that inhibits the percolation of water. The bulk of world rice production is destined for food use and is the primary staple for more than half of the world’s population. In recent years, rice has also become an important staple throughout Africa as part of the changing dietary habits. However, rice production requires high workforce and has limitations due to low mechanization of major SSA countries, which makes rice a crop usually bought at higher prices, without increasing its production.
Considering this overall trend of major staple crop production in SSA region, it is undeniable that agricultural growth will contribute to poverty reduction, within a sustainable crop production scenario. A great diversity of farming systems across SSA shapes the current agriculture production in the region. Thus, in this chapter, we first provide an overview analysis of the major farming systems in SSA along with agroecological zoning, which delivers clear evidences on the sustainability of current agriculture production. After, we pinpoint how to ally sustainable intensification to integrated land use in SSA farming systems, by recurring to intercropping systems focusing on pulse crops (grain legumes, which are grown primarily for their edible seeds) and more particularly on legumes that have been named orphan legumes. Orphan, or underutilized, legumes are domesticated legumes with useful properties but with less importance than major world crops due to use and supply constraints. However, they play a significant role in many developing countries, providing food security and nutrition to consumers, as well as income to resource-poor farmers. Being legumes, these plants have the advantage of fixing atmospheric nitrogen for their own needs and for soil enrichment, thereby reducing the cost of fertilizer inputs in crop farming [11].
The diversity of agroecological zones (AEZs) across SSA (Figure 3A) results in the wide range of farming systems. According to the availability of natural resources (land, water, grazing areas, and forest) and climate, especially length of growing period and altitude, as well as the pattern of farm activities and household livelihood, African farming systems can be classified in 15 farming classes (Figure 3B). AEZs are climate-based and are a useful basis for determining the general suitability and production potential of crops and livestock in any given area. Thus, by matching AEZs with SSA farming systems, one can disclose potential or constraints toward SSA farming system (Figure 3B), by using a correlation analysis on agroecological zones and farming systems area based on HarvestChoice data (https://harvestchoice.org/).
Farming systems and agroecological zones in sub-Saharan Africa. (A) Agroecological zones 5-class [
From the 15 farming systems in SSA, there are 5 that occupy a higher percentage of the SSA region: (1) maize mixed, (2) arid pastoral oases, (3) pastoral, (4) agropastoral, and (5) root and tuber crop (Table 1). The most prominent farming system in SSA is maize mixed, occupying 18% of SSA, especially in East Africa (37%) with the prevalence of the AEZ subhumid, semiarid, and tropical highlands (Table 1). East Africa tropical highlands and subhumid highlands have a bimodal rainfall pattern offering farmers two cropping seasons, but in drier areas such as semiarid AEZ, farmers usually harvest only once a year. This farming systems is one of the most important food production system in East Africa, with only 6% of the irrigated area in SSA [14], thus depending mostly on rainfall (Figure 4).
Farming systems | SSA (%) | SSA regions (%) | Agroecological zones (%) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EA | MA | SA | WA | Arid | Humid | Semiarid | Subhumid | Subtropical | Tropical highlands | ||
Irrigated | 0.9 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 2.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 |
Agropastoral | 20.2 | 10.7 | 16.5 | 14.4 | 6.0 | 1.7 | 47.9 | 3.8 | 0.3 | 18.7 | |
Pastoral | 21.0 | 3.3 | 40.4 | 10.9 | 27.5 | 1.9 | 19.4 | 1.7 | 36.1 | 12.8 | |
Arid pastoral oases | 3.1 | 10.8 | 13.7 | 40.1 | 62.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 32.8 | 2.4 | |
Artisanal fishing | 2.0 | 3.9 | 1.3 | 0.0 | 1.9 | 0.3 | 3.6 | 1.3 | 5.2 | 0.0 | 0.6 |
Perennial mixed | 1.6 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 11.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.3 | 0.5 | 15.2 | 0.5 |
Humid lowland tree crop | 2.9 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 6.8 | 0.0 | 14.2 | 0.0 | 4.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Forest based | 6.0 | 0.0 | 20.1 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 41.6 | 0.0 | 0.9 | 0.0 | 0.1 |
Highland perennial | 1.9 | 5.6 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 11.5 |
Highland mixed | 2.2 | 5.3 | 1.1 | 2.1 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 1.1 | 3.1 | 12.2 |
Root and tuber crop | 9.8 | 0.8 | 27.0 | 0.0 | 5.4 | 0.0 | 30.0 | 0.0 | 25.0 | 0.0 | 2.4 |
Cereal root crop mixed | 7.2 | 0.6 | 6.7 | 0.0 | 18.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 8.8 | 24.6 | 0.0 | 0.6 |
Maize mixed | 36.9 | 16.4 | 15.8 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 5.3 | 18.6 | 31.9 | 12.5 | 38.0 |
Food crops irrigated (A) and rainfed (B) value production (Int$, 2005) [
Considering a projection of increased number of drying days over East Africa [17] and a 0.96% annually increasing temperature (Figure 5A), the sustainability of this farming system is of great concern, and there is an urgent need of capacity building in crop management technologies, such as nitrogen efficiency in rainfed systems. The main staple crop in the maize mixed farming system is maize, with the main income being migrant allowances, cattle, small ruminants, tobacco, coffee, and cotton, plus the sale of food crops such as maize and pulses [14]. In the past, most of the production has been boosted by a subsidized combination of high doses of inorganic fertilizers and hybrid maize varieties. Once subsidies were removed, the use of high-cost inputs on maize became unprofitable, and the majority of smallholders reverted to traditional varieties with low to no market value, resulting in low household income. Although maize is the main crop, the intercropping system exists with pulses, oil seeds, cotton, sorghum, and millet. Intercropping with pulses, such as common bean, cowpeas, and soybeans, is common where landholdings are small and there is less pressure on the land. Most of the area occupied today by the maize mixed system was heavily afforested as farmers have pushed arable land into the forests, decreasing biodiversity to increase area devoted to commercial species. Pressure on the land to respond market needs led to problems related to declining soil fertility in combination with long dry seasons resulting in lower crop yields, food insecurity, hunger, and poverty [18]. Nevertheless, maize mixed is one of the farming systems that has a good long-term agricultural growth prospects with high potential for poverty reduction [14], which is reflected in East African lowest annual percentage of prevalence of severe food insecurity (Figure 5A).
Temperature increase in all regions of SSA and the annual percentage of prevalence of severe food insecurity in the total population of each SSA region. Abbreviations: East Africa (EA), Middle Africa (MA), Southern Africa (SA), West Africa (WA) [
The second most relevant farming system is the arid pastoral oasis farming system covering 62% of the arid AEZ and 40% of the West Africa region (Table 1). This farming system contains some oasis farming and a number of irrigation schemes, producing date palm (
This farming system is the most dependent on rainfall, and although West Africa has an annual temperature increase of 1.1% (Figure 5B), there is also a projection of 30–70% increased precipitation within semiarid and subhumid AEZs in West Africa [17] which account for 25 and 22% of the area, respectively, thus presenting a minor prevalence of severe food insecurity (Figure 5A). In the third place, there are two farming systems that have relevance in SSA, agropastoral and pastoral. Agropastoral farming system, generally in the semiarid and tropical highlands of East and South Africa (Table 1), is characterized by producing both crops and livestock. Approximately, 22 million ha are used for crops, mainly rainfed sorghum and pearl milted for family subsistence, whereas sesame and pulses are for household income. Livestock are also kept for subsistence (milk and milk products), offspring, transportation (camels, donkeys), land preparation (oxen, camels), income revenue, exchange, savings, bride wealth, and/or insurance against crop failure [14]. One of the major concerns and fragilities of this area is its vulnerability to drought, leading to crop failure and consequently to weaker animals due to a decrease in crop biomass production [19]. As animals are insurance to crop failure, severe drought leads to decapitalizations of herds and therefore lack of animals to exchange for grain. In addition, the search for more land, to mitigate the decrease in millet and sorghum yields for subsistence, along the investment in other crops used for trading (e.g., pulses) promotes a decline in soil fertility and weed infestation, mainly by
The pastoral farming system, generally in the arid and subtropical AEZs, occupying 40.4% in South Africa region and 21% in East Africa, is dominated by livestock, where livelihoods depend mainly from cattle, camels, sheep, goats, some cereal crops, and off-farm work [21]. Being mostly present in arid regions and in South Africa, the main source of vulnerability is the great climatic variability and consequently high incidence of drought, similarly to the agropastoral farming systems.
Overall, regardless of the farming system, the major concern of SSA food security is connected to drought, due to the dependency on the rainfall periods in most of the farming systems. As such, SSA farming system sustainability has been largely affected by climate changes, such as increases in temperature (Figure 5A) and the occurrence of 291 events of extreme drought [22], posing a clear threat to the maintenance of current and future crop production, affecting smallholder’s livelihoods and food security in the long run. Increasing food production by expansion of agricultural land is fragile, as population grows, thus demanding more land through deforestation. FAO Special Programme for Food Security considers intensification of existing production patterns and diversification of production and processing, as the two main strategies to eradicate poverty and hunger. These two strategies meet the objective of sustainable intensification (SI) concepts, in combination with site-specific factors and agroecological conditions. SI is defined as the process of “producing more food from the same area of land while reducing the environmental impacts” [23]. Pretty et al. [24] stated that from 40 projects over 20 countries involving over 10 million farmers, SI increased farm productivity over twofold. Moreover, an adequate implementation of SI worldwide could respond to 2050 food demand while supporting land conservation from 1 to 0.2 billion ha and decreasing gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE) from 3 to 1 Gt per year [25]. Thus, it is imperative to emphasize and implement efficiently SI practices and agricultural technologies in SSA to ensure both food security and profitability. To sustainably increase yields of smallholders in their farming systems, it is essential to adopt an effective land management and implement strategies that aid farmers to face climate uncertainties.
A sustainable crop production needs an efficient soil fertility management, in order to prospect future high yield production. Most African soils are poor compared to most other parts of the world, due to the lack of volcanic rejuvenation. This has caused African soils to undergo various cycles of weathering, erosion, and leaching, resulting in poor nutrient soils [26]. As the population continues to grow at a fasting rate leading to an increased demand for food, Africa’s agricultural land is becoming increasingly degraded (Figure 6A), due to ill management practices and of external inputs. In East Africa the rate of depletion is so high that even drastic measures, such as doubling the application of fertilizer (Figure 6B) or manure or halving erosion losses, would not be enough to offset nutrient deficits. In African soil, there is higher depletion of nitrogen and potassium than phosphorus due to leaching and soil erosion. These soil problems are the result of continuous cropping of cereals without rotation with legumes, inappropriate soil conservation practices, and inadequate amounts of fertilizer use [28]. These problems are aggravated by short growing seasons together with limited water availability from rainfall resulting in restricted crop diversification contributing for additional pressure on the land.
(A) Average annual nutrient depletion (NPK) in Africa, 1993–1995 [
Among all the plant nutrients essential for crop production, nitrogen is the key nutrient [29]. African farmers to fulfill this large nitrogen requirement for crop production in an increasing depleted soil are using 16 metric tons of nitrogen each year (Figure 6B) [7]. Pulse crops and soil microorganisms have potential to convert nitrogen into plant-usable forms, contributing significant amounts of nitrogen to satisfy crop needs. To respond population food needs, natural sources of nitrogen are not sufficient to achieve required yields; thus, there is a need to complement with chemical nitrogen but in an efficient, eco-friendly, and environmental management manner. Under current scenario, there is an urgent need for improving nitrogen use efficiency and balance use of natural resources which is essential for sustainable agricultural production [30]. Pulses, and especially multipurpose pulses, are part of Africa history due to their multiple benefits in agriculture and society. Multipurpose pulses serve and are needed for different functions and in general are best to respond to the diverse needs of farmers, including food, fuel, and fodder, and ecosystem services such as pollination and improving soil fertility and organic matter content. By increasing soil organic matter content, an improvement in soil structure is obtained, promoting an increase in water-holding capacity [31]. Moreover, pulses and legumes in general have the natural ability to biologically fix atmospheric nitrogen and to enhance the biological turnover of phosphorous [32]. However, over time, consumers’ preferences have changed with traditional crops which have been replaced by staple crops (e.g., rice, cassava, and maize) and which have been subject to intensive research and political support worldwide. The quantity of arable land used for pulses is much less than the area cultivated with important cereals (Figure 2B), thus negatively affecting the nutrient balance in African soils [32]. Multipurpose pulse crops offer smallholder farmers a multifaceted way to improve food security, diet, and soil health as well as economic returns and income stability. SSA smallholder’s farmers have been incentivized to produce common bean and cowpea (Figure 7), but with climate change and most of SSA agriculture being rainfall dependent, future is compromised. Although the production of cowpea (Figure 7E) and bean (Figure 7F) is far greater than other pulses (Figure 7G), the area distribution of pulses is more comprehensive within AEZ and farming systems, especially in the major SSA farming systems as maize mixed and agropastoral (Figure 3B). Thus, it is important to recover and enhance agriculture productivity of local crops, known as orphan legumes, known to local farmers and communities. Moreover, these orphan legumes are a likely source of important traits for introduction into major crops to aid in combating the stresses associated with global climate change.
Area harvested of pulses in East Africa (A), Middle Africa (B), South Africa (C), and West Africa (D). Data retrieved from FAOSTAT (accessed March 2019). Rainfed production of cowpea (E) and beans (F) in metric tons (mt) for SSA. Rainfed production of other pulses in international dollars (Int$) for SSA [
Thus, the potential use of multipurpose pulse crops as a sustainable strategy to overcome the present problems associated with the agricultural intensification is undeniable to cope soil depletion and decreasing crop yields annually, as well as inevitable environmental changes that will occur in the next 50 years. The promotion of neglected and underutilized species (NUS) African legumes adapted to rainfed and drought conditions will contribute not only to the diversity of cropping systems but also to decrease food insecurity. However, there is the need to address critical knowledge gaps that will allow the full use and advantages to introduce successfully pulse crops within agricultural and food systems. Part of this includes promoting pulse farming and implementing different farm management practices in order to contribute to the resilience of SSA farming systems. As the world celebrated the International Year of Pulses in 2016, there is a continuous need to establish the potential and invest in the innovation of undervalued role that pulses can play and that have to play in the post-2016 agenda.
Changes in temperature and rainfall regime may have considerable impacts on agricultural productivity and on the ecosystem on which many people depend [36]. Rainfall amounts, distribution, and intensity are already producing floods, droughts, and changes in large-scale hydrological cycle [37, 38] which will affect the duration of crop growing seasons. Changes in temperatures affect plant growth and animal feed intake. Increases in maximum temperatures can lead to yield reductions and reproductive failure in maize, and animals reduce their feed intake. Maize being the most produced staple crops in SSA is particularly sensitive to temperatures above 30°C [17]. Also, wheat growing temperature is already above optimal, and it is expected to increase [39]. Increase in nighttime temperatures can also lead to decrease in rice yields, especially during the dry season. Another concerning factor is the increasing carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere that is beneficial for C3 plants such as wheat, but not for C4 plants such as maize and sorghum, and it may also decrease protein concentration in wheat grain, reducing nutrient availability for animals. Climate projections indicate losses of 27–32% for maize, millet, and groundnut [40] and 71% for beans [41] especially soybean that is the most common legumes produced.
Rainfed farming system in SSA produces 90% of staple food in SSA [42] and in the face of long periods of drought or dry spells in the growing season causes an unbalancing of the cycle of by-products in the mix farming system [43]. In order to find more suitable agriculture conditions, population migration takes place. This strategy, together with the increase in population, is leading to tropical rainforest destruction to conquer agriculture land, plus the general land degradation due to inappropriate land use, which in turn causes desertification, salinization, sodification, and soil and water erosion, increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and creating a spiraling decline in the productivity of the land in terms of both food and other natural resources [14]. Projections are alarming; showing climate variability on agricultural production will have substantial effects in mixed smallholder systems, resulting in reduced food security that potentially increases the risk of hunger and undernutrition. However, it is the mixed system that presents the best capacity to tackle the inevitable change in climate. For that, farmers may have to respond by increasing the system resilience, diversification, and risk management [36]. To increase system resilience, farmers have to improve soil and nutrient management, through manure and crop residues, using, for example, legumes for natural nitrogen fixation and suitable for livestock feed. Also, they need to improve ecosystem management and biodiversity, by considering the substantial genetic variability in domestic crops and livestock that have the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, drought, and other environmental constrains, as well as pests and diseases. The combination of different crops and livestock breeds with their wild relatives is fundamental in developing a sustainable resilience [36].
Of the 400,000 plants species in existence today, only actinorhizal plants and legumes have evolved nitrogen-fixing nodules [44]. The primary role that legumes play is to fix atmospheric nitrogen through their symbiotic relationship with
The use of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers has increased exponentially over the last 50 years, but just 30–50% of crop yields are sustained by inorganic fertilizers, although between 1960 and 2000, the efficiency of nitrogen for global cereal production decreased from 80 to 30%. Moreover, more than 50% of nitrogen fertilizer applied was lost from cereal crops between 1961 and 2010, and in some cases more than 80% is lost [46]. As a result there has been a 5% increase year by year of carbon dioxide equivalent emission [47]. These data show an unsustainable trend for African farmers. Increases of atmospheric carbon dioxide benefit cereal growth, and it decreases protein content in the grain, as opposite to what has been observed in cereal grains produced followed by legume crops. Therefore, intercropping or rotation of grain legumes with cereals or other non-leguminous crops increases nitrogen-use efficiency, reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It is estimated that grain legumes can offer 20–40% wheat nitrogen needs [48]; thus, intercropping is important for the development of sustainable systems, particularly in systems with limited external inputs [49]. About 21 Mt. of nitrogen is fixed annually by legume-rhizobia symbiosis, returning 5–7 Mt. of nitrogen to soils from about 190 million ha of grain legumes [48]. Without a doubt, cultivation of grain legumes is a very promising approach to increase farmers’ income, especially when compared to cereal monoculture that was boosted by the “Green Revolution” [50]. Grain legumes are a very important food crop in many parts of Africa, as they are a source of nitrogen-rich edible seeds, providing high-protein products. Grain legume yields vary more than staple crops, mostly due to environmental constrains such as drought that limits symbiotic nitrogen fixation [51, 52], which in turn diminishes nutrient grain quality [53]. Soybean has clearly dominated yields, with increases of 2.9% year by year, whereas cowpea yield is stable but occupying 4.3% more land every year, trying to minimize the loss to diseases as well as insect pests and drought, low soil fertility, other abiotic stresses, and low availability of seed of improved varieties [47].
There is fast evidence that intercropping and rotation with grain legumes are beneficial as legumes improve soil structure, increase organic matter [54, 55], and provide food and feed to the most widespread farming system in Africa, the mixed-crop-livestock farming system. Moreover, intercropping or rotation with grain legumes improves water efficiency by saving water for subsequent crops or by providing soil coverage, minimizing soil evaporation, erosion, and weeds, which makes feasible the production of grain legumes in dry, drought-vulnerable, and low-labor availability areas. Residue from grain legumes provides an excellent source of high-quality feed to livestock especially during the dry season, when animal feeds are in short supply. Synergies between crops and livestock offer various opportunities for raising productivity and increasing efficiency of resources, thus increasing household incomes and securing availability and access to food [36]. Moreover, the residues from grain legume cultivation will preserve soil moisture, prevent soil erosion, and increase yields in the same piece of land, which are all big constraints of SSA farming systems that are constantly facing anthropic pressure.
Farmers have been neglecting these native grain legumes, as they are incentivized to produce common bean and soybean. However, with climate change and most of SSA agriculture being rainfall dependent, future is compromised. Many grain legume breeding programs are suffering from low genetic diversity and several bottlenecks that occurred during and after domestication. Thus, it is vital to consider the considerable large genetic variability in native crops that have the ability to withstand extreme temperatures, drought, and other environmental constrains. In agricultural statistics
There is a lack of consensus in the definition and what orphan or neglected and underutilized species (NUS) should be referred to. These crops have been referred by different names, such as orphan crops, neglected crops, underutilized crops, forgotten crops, and minor crops. In this study we will refer this group as NUSs, under the definition of plants with prospective value as crops but which have been paid limited attention by agricultural researchers, plant breeders, seed companies, and policymakers [56]. However, due to the potential that these crops hold as food, nutritional content, and economic security of the developing and undeveloped parts of the world, they are appropriately referred to as crops for the future [57]. As such, these crops represent an opportunity for innovation in research, capacity building, social empowerment, and food value chains (i.e., production, processing, consumption, marketing, and product development). Understanding the importance that these crops hold, the African Orphan Crop Consortium (AOCC) was established with the full support of the African Union in 2011, assigned to work on 101 selected crops originated or naturalized in Africa (http://africanorphancrops.org) by investing in training, products, tools, services, practices, and processes to mainstream them into the African agro-food system [58]. In conjunction with this initiative, the FAO builds the database named International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS) listing more than 1000 unique NUS (http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/food_composition/documents/Copy_of_INFOODS-List-of-underutilized-species-2_0_Jan15.xls). The AOCC partnership works to make high-nutritional-value crops grown by African farmers available to rural and urban consumers by promoting the adoption of modern breeding methods for crop improvement purposes. Under these pillars, genomic resources through next-generation sequencing from the collection of 101 African NUS are being generated (see http://africanorphancrops.org/meet-the-crops/), which included important annual and perennial (tree) species, e.g.,
Scientific name | Common name | Assembled | Stages of assembly | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Jack tree | Reference genome | [58] | ||
Breadfruit | Reference genome | [58] | ||
Acacia (apple ring) | Reference genome | [69] | ||
Drumstick tree | Reference genome | [69] | ||
Marula | Reference genome | [69] | ||
Fonio | Reference genome | [58] | ||
Finger millet | Reference genome | [58] | ||
Reference genome | [70] | |||
RNAseq | [71] | |||
African eggplant | Reference genome | [72] | ||
Bambara groundnut | Reference genome | [70] | ||
RNAseq | [71] |
Present status and progress of AOCC developing genomic resources—reference genome sequencing of 100 accessions/species for 101 crops [58].
In the pipeline or soon:
Lablab [
Finally, the characterization of orphan legumes on the “omics” level is still starting, and these legumes remain unexplored on the genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic level, despite the efforts such as the African Orphan Crops Initiative (http://africanorphancrops.org), which are starting to fill the genomic information gap.
In sub-Saharan Africa, countries rely mostly on agriculture as economic revenue and as a base for smallholder farmers, for both household income and food. Considering the diversity of the farming systems along the different agroecological zonings, evaluating its performance under climate changes is key to determine its future sustainability for alleviating poverty and food security. Overall, major farming systems in SSA are under threat since they are rainfall-dependent and thus pose a scenario of food insecurity if no proper agriculture management and solutions are taken. In this chapter, the potential of pulse crops as a viable and sustainable strategy for upholding farming systems’ intercropping and production indices was highlighted. The promotion of legumes adapted to semi- and arid conditions will contribute to the diversity of cropping systems and diets of African people living in rural areas. However, there is a need to address critical knowledge gaps that will allow the full use and advantages to introduce successfully the so-called neglected and underutilized crops, native to Africa, within agricultural and food systems. By exploring native legumes adapted to arid conditions, namely, low rainfall periods, it will be a key tool for adaptation to climate change. This will also contribute to improve soil fertility and enhance food, forage, and mulching quality, which is of main importance particularly for the developing countries. Therefore, promoting its cultivation and implementing different farm management practices will contribute to the resilience of SSA farming systems. As the world celebrated the International Year of Pulses in 2016, there is a need to establish the potential and invest in the innovation of undervalued role that pulses can play in the post-2016 agenda. In spite of their recognized importance, some African native legumes are still underutilized or overlooked crops, and its use is a viable option to raise farming productivity.
The work was funded by the Portuguese Rural Development Program (PDR2020) for the Operational Group STEnCIL, Initiative 27 [PDR2020–1.0.1-FEADER-031465], within the European Innovation Partnership (EIP-AGRI) supported by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development and undertaken in the scope of project CajOmics [PTDC/AGR-PRO/5727/2014] funded by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT)-FCT/MCTES/PIDDAC, Portugal, and the project CVAgrobiodiversity/333111699 funded by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) and Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN). The work was supported by FCT funds, to the following research units: LEAF [UID/AGR/04129/2019] and cE3c [UID/BIA/00329/2019]. FM was individually funded by FCT-awarded postdoctoral fellowship SFRH/BPD/115162/2016.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is one of the most frequent reasons for urgent neurological care, it is one of the main causes of death and disability in adults and it entails an enormous human and economic cost in developed countries. In recent decades, various advances have been made in the treatment of stroke, such as early medical-surgical care, the creation of stroke units in health centers and rehabilitation treatment. Neurorehabilitation, applied in the different evolutionary stages of stroke, is one of the most decisive interventions when it comes to addressing neurological injuries and their functional repercussions of stroke [1]. Ischemic stroke is responsible for most cerebrovascular accidents, with hemorrhagic stroke being the second most frequent. The annual incidence of stroke in Spain is 156 new cases per 100,000 inhabitants and its prevalence is 500–600 cases per 100,000 inhabitants [2].
Occlusion of the middle cerebral artery produces ischemia in the affected territory, followed by an inflammatory and immune response [3]. Neurological deficits are usually present from the first moment.
In various studies on the gut microbiota (GM) in stroke patients, the presence of dysbiosis, altered intestinal permeability, the passage of bacterial lipopolysaccharides through the intestinal barrier into the bloodstream, the maintenance of a systemic low-grade inflammatory state (SLGIS) and neuroinflammation [4].
Given this state of knowledge, we have to find out what is the degree of contribution of SLGIS and neuroinflammation to the establishment of stroke? Can nutritional intervention to achieve intestinal eubiosis contribute to improving stroke prognosis and/or better functional recovery? Translational research and clinical evidence offer us the opportunity to systematically intervene in the stroke neurorehabilitation process with nutritional support in order to reverse the inflammatory state and facilitate the recovery process. To achieve this goal, it would be necessary to include a nutritionist-dietician in the multidisciplinary team that cares for these patients. We cannot forget the application of a holistic approach to the entire neurorehabilitation process, based on clinical and scientific evidence, all within the context of integrative medicine.
The intestine and the brain are in constant communication and for this they use different pathways such as endocrine, nervous and immune signaling. The balance between the different symbiotic bacterial species that populate the GM contributes to homeostasis through its participation in various metabolic pathways, the supply of nutrients such as vitamins and short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), stimulating the immune system, facilitating metabolism of substances not digestible by the host, acting on the metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics, while avoiding colonization by pathogenic species [5].
This exchange of information occurs both via the nerves via neurotransmitters and via the blood (hormones, cytokines, metabolites …). The central nervous system (CNS), the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the enteric nervous system (ENS), the neuroendocrine and neuroimmune systems contribute to this process, forming a fluid exchange network [6, 7].
In murine models, it has been proven that, by stimulating the afferent pathways of the vagus nerve, through the production of metabolites (neurotransmitters, hormones, SCFA) or through interactions with the immune system, GM is capable of modulating brain activity. Similarly, signals are emitted from the CNS that affect the MI [8].
An important pathway by which gut microbes and their metabolites communicate with the CNS involves the cells that make up the gut endocrine system [9]. This communication is mediated by several microbially derived molecules including SCFA, secondary bile acids, and tryptophan metabolites [10]. SCFAs have been implicated as the main signaling molecules that mediate host-microbe communication through enteroendocrine cells (EECs) and enterochromaffin cells (ECCs). SCFAs are generated by the microbial fermentation of resistant starch and non-starch polysaccharides that reach the intestine. These molecules play a role in host energy computation, as well as other functions such as stimulation of local blood flow, fluid and electrolyte absorption, and intestinal mucosal proliferation [11].
SCFAs propagate signals primarily through interaction with EECs, ECCs, and the mucosal immune system. Some cross the intestinal barrier, enter the systemic circulation, and can cross the blood-brain barrier [12]. It has been shown that SCFA production stimulates L cells located in the distal ileum to secrete peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), which induce satiety and behavioral changes [13]. Among other SCFAs, acetate, butyrate, and propionate modulate GLP-1 expression and secretion via free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2)/G protein-coupled receptor 43 (GPR43) and FFAR3/GPR41 in L cells [13]. Vagal receptors detect gut regulatory peptides, inflammatory molecules, dietary components, and bacterial metabolites and send this information to the CNS [14].
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) regulates the transit of molecules between the circulatory system and the cerebrospinal fluid of the CNS. In murine models, GM can regulate the expression of intestinal cell-to-cell tight junction proteins, including occludin and claudin-5, allowing BBB permeability to be reduced [15]. Systemic immune activation can cause disruptive changes in the BBB and is often modeled using lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Studies evaluating the effects of LPS in vivo on BBB function only showed disruption 60% of the time [16].
The presence of intestinal dysbiosis can affect the proper functioning of the body and is associated with the development of digestive pathologies, as well as other apparatus and systems such as the immune, metabolic, cardiocirculatory or nervous. In recent years, numerous studies have found links between GM alterations and the most frequent neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, autism spectrum disorder, psychosis and demyelinating pathology such as multiple sclerosis [17, 18]. It has been shown that nearly 90% of stroke cases may be related to behavioral factors including poor diet, smoking, and low physical activity, as well as obesity, hypertension, and/or diabetes mellitus. Several studies consider GM as a risk factor for stroke [19].
Under normal conditions, commensal microbes inhabit the outer layer of the colon. The mucus that covers it, rich in glycoproteins, is a source of energy for the microbiota when the amount of fiber in the diet is not sufficient. This circumstance favors the possibility of colonization by pathogenic microorganisms [20]. The inner layer is generally free of bacteria and serves to protect epithelial cells from microbial contact through physical separation and innate immune mechanisms including antimicrobial peptides and adaptive immune mechanisms such as secretory IgA [21].
In murine models it has been shown that stress can cause alterations in the intestinal barrier by directly modulating epithelial permeability and by altering the properties of the intestinal mucosal layer. This fact produces a greater translocation of intestinal microbes or molecules associated with microbes [22]. In these models, it has been shown that the permeability of the jejunum and colon increases in response to either acute or chronic stress [23]. Bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, and their products, as well as bacterial LPS, lead to a pro-inflammatory environment in the gut. Stress-induced changes in the expression of messenger RNA encoding tight junction proteins have also been described in the colon and jejunum [24]. In addition, stress leads to a less protective mucus layer through catecholamine signaling, which alters the composition and size of secreted mucus, as the ANS modulates mucus secretion by intestinal goblet cells, thereby affecting the thickness and quality of the intestinal mucus layer [25].
It is possible that the changes in GM composition observed in murine models of brain injury are the result of altered mucoprotein production and goblet cell population size mediated by increased sympathetic nervous system signaling [26]. Furthermore, epinephrine and norepinephrine have been shown to increase the virulence properties of various enteric pathogens as well as non-pathogenic microbes through stimulation of natural immune sensing mechanisms [27]. Substantial roles for gut microbial regulation of autoimmunity, inflammation, and immune cell trafficking have been identified in mouse models of multiple sclerosis and stroke [28, 29]. Toll-like receptors 3 and 7 recognize viral RNA, and Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 recognize peptidoglycan and LPS. These receptors are expressed in both the murine and human ENS [30].
Under normal conditions, various types of microorganisms and macromolecules manage to cross the intestinal barrier through the M cells, which are part of the lymphoid tissue associated with the intestinal mucosa. This activity allows the constant checking of microorganisms and various molecules [31]. On the other hand, Paneth cells detect bacteria autonomously through the activation of the Toll-like receptor dependent on the MyD88 gene, responsible for the innate immune response to pathogens, which triggers antimicrobial factors and, ultimately, limits the penetration bacteria in host tissue [32]. Microbes and microbial-derived ligands help maintain the tight junctions between cells that are critical for the integrity of the intestinal barrier [33]. All these mechanisms and their alteration for different reasons, make it possible for information to reach the CNS and various types of reactions to occur, such as neuroinflammation and accelerate brain aging, contribute to the genesis of various neuropsychiatric diseases and hinder or delay recovery of ABI.
Increasing evidence suggests that intestinal inflammation together with the immune response plays an essential role in the pathophysiology of stroke and this may become an important therapeutic target for the treatment of ABI [34]. The different communication pathways between the microbiota, intestine and brain, the increase in intestinal permeability and the passage of molecules through the BBB would make it possible to activate the immune cells of the CNS [35].
The BBB is made up of blood vessels that allow substances to pass into the CNS in a very selective manner to maintain correct homeostasis, guaranteeing correct neural function. The properties of this barrier are due to its architecture and the cells that make it up, the most important being the endothelial cells (EC), which have a great capacity to very selectively regulate the movement of ions, molecules and cells between the blood and the brain. Specific transporters are expressed in these cells that allow a selective passage of substances in both directions. To limit passage of immune cells into the CNS, ECs express very few leukocyte adhesion molecules. The set of all these properties allows the maintenance of cerebral homeostasis in a healthy situation [36].
The inflammatory process during cerebral ischemia involves the participation of glia and microglia, mediating the migration, infiltration, and accumulation of leukocytes to the brain parenchyma during ischemia. In ABI, the expression of cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα, IFNγ) and chemokines such as CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL5 (RANTES) and CXCL1 (GRO-α) has been demonstrated, which precedes the infiltration of leukocytes towards ischemic injury, acting through its receptors CCR2, CCR5 and CXCR2, respectively. Inflammation contributes to tissue injury during the early phase of the hypoxic-ischemic response and during the healing process in the late phase of cerebral ischemia. Thus, chemokines exert an inflammatory action against brain damage, although some of them have a neuroprotective effect by inducing the synthesis of growth factors that contribute to brain regeneration based on neuroplasticity, all if the attention process of the patient is carried out in the optimal time and circumstances [37].
The changes in GM in patients who have suffered a stroke have been documented in several studies [38], but it is in murine models that the sequence of events and the repercussions for the evolution and functional recovery of the stroke have been appreciated. In murine models using two types of acute middle cerebral artery occlusion, large stroke lesions were found to cause intestinal dysbiosis, which in turn affected stroke outcome through immune-mediated mechanisms. Reduced species diversity and bacterial overgrowth of Bacteroidetes were identified as hallmarks of post-stroke dysbiosis, which was associated with intestinal barrier dysfunction and reduced intestinal motility following injury progression. The impact of the microbiota on immunity and stroke outcome was transmissible by microbiota transplantation [39].
The composition of GM is defined by many factors, including the way of being born, the consumption of antibiotics, infection processes, stress, customs, ethnicity, habitat, hygienic habits, genetics and diet among others. Although used infrequently as an intervention specifically targeting GM, diet can have profound, rapid, and reproducible effects on GM structure in humans and animals [40]. Clinical experience and published studies, both in humans and in murine models, invite us to implement the analysis of GM in patients who have suffered a stroke and, in the case of intestinal dysbiosis, to intervene with the modification of the diet until eubiosis is acquired. At this level, there are still some doubts such as the optimal time to start the dietary intervention to act on dysbiosis, that is, in what phase of the stroke would it start? Table 1 shows the stroke phases, their approximate duration and the units where they are treated according to Murie-Fernández et al. [1].
Phase | Duration | Unit of stay |
---|---|---|
Acute | 2–3 months | Hospitalization |
Subacute | 6 to 18 months | Rehabilitation, day hospital |
Chronic | From 24 months | Residency, physiotherapy |
Phases of stroke, duration and where it is treated according to Murie-Fernández et al. [1].
If we are willing to intervene in stroke patients, it would be convenient to add the figure of the nutritionist-dietician in the team that cares for stroke patients. Table 2 shows the members of the multidisciplinary team in stroke rehabilitation according to Murie-Fernández et al. [1], to which we include the figure of the degree in human nutrition and dietetics.
Discipline | Function | Intervenes in phase |
---|---|---|
Neurology | Diagnostic | Acute |
Nursing | Acute hospitalization care | Acute |
Neurosurgery | Clot removal (if applicable) | Acute |
Nutrition and dietetics | Diet planning according to the patient’s evolution | ? |
Physical medicine and rehabilitation | Treatment protocol | Acute/subacute |
Physiotherapist | Techniques, treatments and strategies to recover damaged functions | Subacute |
Neuropsychologist | Action on behavior, emotions, etc | Acute/subacute |
Speech therapy | Acting on dysphagia, dysphonia, dysarthria, aphasia, etc | Subacute |
Occupational therapy | Stimulation, reeducation,... | Subacute |
Orthopedic technician | Adaptations | Subacute/chronic |
Social work | Comprehensive management | Subacute |
Multidisciplinary team in stroke rehabilitation according to Murie-Fernández et al. [1] and completed by A. Ursa and E. Guzón.
A diet adapted to each patient who has suffered a stroke with intestinal dysbiosis, with adequate dietary fiber, the administration of probiotics, symbiotic, etc., could contribute to a better evolution and functional recovery to the current on neuroinflammation [41, 42]. More studies are still needed to expand knowledge, clear up doubts and design protocols adaptable to different patients and contexts.
Acute brain injuries such as stroke induce gut dysbiosis and, in turn, changes in GM influence neuroinflammation and thus function in ABI. GM is a key regulator in preparing the neuroinflammatory response to brain injury. These findings highlight the role that GM plays as a therapeutic target to protect brain function after acute brain injury. Dietary intervention in patients with stroke, either by nasogastric tube in case of unconsciousness or orally if there is no alteration of consciousness, would contribute to a better evolution of the stroke and functional recovery. Much remains to be discovered about the specific mechanisms by which GM is involved in the gut-brain axis and in disease development. Current evidence encourages us to continue researching on this topic.
This chapter has been funded by the Institute of Integrative Medicine (Valladolid, Spain).
There is no conflict of interest.
CVA | cerebrovascular accident |
ABI | acquired brain damage injury |
GM | gut microbiota |
SLGIS | systemic low-grade inflammatory state |
SCFA | short chain fatty acids |
CNS | central nervous system |
ANS | autonomic nervous system |
ENS | enteric nervous system |
EEC | enteroendocrine cells |
ECC | enterochromaffin cells |
GLP-1 | glucagon-like peptide 1 |
FFAR2/3 | free fatty acid receptor 2/3 |
GPR 43/41 | G43/41 protein-coupled receptor |
BBB | blood-brain barrier |
LPS | lipopolysaccharides |
EC | endothelial cells |
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Flawed sample preparations can undermine the quality of results and lead to false conclusions. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to equip researchers, post graduate students and technicians with essential knowledge required to prepare samples for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigations in the life sciences.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mogana Das Murtey and Patchamuthu Ramasamy",authors:[{id:"176330",title:"Dr.",name:"Mogana",middleName:"Das",surname:"Murtey",slug:"mogana-murtey",fullName:"Mogana Murtey"},{id:"181159",title:"Mr.",name:"Patchamuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"patchamuthu-ramasamy",fullName:"Patchamuthu Ramasamy"}]},{id:"26791",doi:"10.5772/28067",title:"Optical Vortices in a Fiber: Mode Division Multiplexing and Multimode Self-Imaging",slug:"optical-vortices-in-a-fiber-mode-division-multiplexing-and-multimode-self-reproducing",totalDownloads:4552,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:null,book:{id:"2018",slug:"recent-progress-in-optical-fiber-research",title:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research",fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Optical Fiber Research"},signatures:"S.N. Khonina, N.L. Kazanskiy and V.A. Soifer",authors:[{id:"72613",title:"Prof.",name:"Svetlana",middleName:null,surname:"Khonina",slug:"svetlana-khonina",fullName:"Svetlana Khonina"}]},{id:"30963",doi:"10.5772/34176",title:"Microstructural and Mineralogical Characterization of Clay Stabilized Using Calcium-Based Stabilizers",slug:"microstructural-and-mineralogical-characterization-of-clay-stabilized-using-calcium-based-stabilizer",totalDownloads:6804,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:null,book:{id:"1505",slug:"scanning-electron-microscopy",title:"Scanning Electron Microscopy",fullTitle:"Scanning Electron Microscopy"},signatures:"Pranshoo Solanki and Musharraf Zaman",authors:[{id:"20942",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranshoo",middleName:null,surname:"Solanki",slug:"pranshoo-solanki",fullName:"Pranshoo Solanki"},{id:"20945",title:"Prof.",name:"Musharraf",middleName:null,surname:"Zaman",slug:"musharraf-zaman",fullName:"Musharraf Zaman"}]},{id:"49655",doi:"10.5772/61830",title:"Electrical Discharge in Water Treatment Technology for Micropollutant Decomposition",slug:"electrical-discharge-in-water-treatment-technology-for-micropollutant-decomposition",totalDownloads:5027,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"Hazardous micropollutants are increasingly detected worldwide in wastewater treatment plant effluent. As this indicates, their removal is insufficient by means of conventional modern water treatment techniques. In the search for a cost-effective solution, advanced oxidation processes have recently gained more attention since they are the most effective available techniques to decompose biorecalcitrant organics. As a main drawback, however, their energy costs are high up to now, preventing their implementation on large scale. For the specific case of water treatment by means of electrical discharge, further optimization is a complex task due to the wide variety in reactor design and materials, discharge types, and operational parameters. In this chapter, an extended overview is given on plasma reactor types, based on their design and materials. Influence of design and materials on energy efficiency is investigated, as well as the influence of operational parameters. The collected data can be used for the optimization of existing reactor types and for development of novel reactors.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Patrick Vanraes, Anton Y. Nikiforov and Christophe Leys",authors:[{id:"49112",title:"Prof.",name:"Christophe",middleName:null,surname:"Leys",slug:"christophe-leys",fullName:"Christophe Leys"},{id:"176861",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",middleName:null,surname:"Nikiforov",slug:"anton-nikiforov",fullName:"Anton Nikiforov"},{id:"176862",title:"Mr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Vanraes",slug:"patrick-vanraes",fullName:"Patrick Vanraes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49562",title:"Laser-Induced Plasma and its Applications",slug:"laser-induced-plasma-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:4805,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"The laser irradiation have shown a range of applications from fabricating, melting, and evaporating nanoparticles to changing their shape, structure, size, and size distribution. Laser induced plasma has used for different diagnostic and technological applications as detection, thin film deposition, and elemental identification. The possible interferences of atomic or molecular species are used to specify organic, inorganic or biological materials which allows critical applications in defense (landmines, explosive, forensic (trace of explosive or organic materials), public health (toxic substances pharmaceutical products), or environment (organic wastes). Laser induced plasma for organic material potentially provide fast sensor systems for explosive trace and pathogen biological agent detection and analysis. The laser ablation process starts with electronic energy absorption (~fs) and ends at particle recondensation (~ms). Then, the ablation process can be governed by thermal, non-thermal processes or a combination of both. There are several types of models, i.e., thermal, mechanical, photophysical, photochemical and defect models, which describe the ablation process by one dominant mechanism only. Plasma ignition process includes bond breaking and plasma shielding during the laser pulse. Bond breaking mechanisms influence the quantity and form of energy (kinetic, ionization and excitation) that atoms and ions can acquire. Plasma expansion depends on the initial mass and energy in the plume. The process is governed by initial plasma properties (electron density, temperature, velocity) after the laser pulse and the expansion medium. During first microsecond after the laser pulse, plume expansion is adiabatic afterwards line radiation becomes the dominant mechanism of energy loss.",book:{id:"5093",slug:"plasma-science-and-technology-progress-in-physical-states-and-chemical-reactions",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Plasma Science and Technology - Progress in Physical States and Chemical Reactions"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi and Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"},{id:"176867",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Zuhaib",middleName:null,surname:"Haider Rizivi",slug:"syed-zuhaib-haider-rizivi",fullName:"Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizivi"},{id:"176868",title:"Prof.",name:"Jalil",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"jalil-ali",fullName:"Jalil Ali"}]},{id:"52164",title:"An Overview on Quantum Cascade Lasers: Origins and Development",slug:"an-overview-on-quantum-cascade-lasers-origins-and-development",totalDownloads:3255,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"This chapter presents an introductory review on quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). An overview is prefaced, including a brief description of their beginnings and operating basics. Materials used, as well as growth methods, are also described. The possibility of developing GaN-based QCLs is also shown. Summarizing, the applications of these structures cover a broad range, including spectroscopy, free-space communication, as well as applications to near-space radar and chemical/biological detection. Furthermore, a number of state-of-the-art applications are described in different fields, and finally a brief assessment of the possibilities of volume production and the overall state of the art in QCLs research are elaborated.",book:{id:"5389",slug:"quantum-cascade-lasers",title:"Quantum Cascade Lasers",fullTitle:"Quantum Cascade Lasers"},signatures:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego",authors:[{id:"188866",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Pecharromán-Gallego",slug:"raul-pecharroman-gallego",fullName:"Raúl Pecharromán-Gallego"}]},{id:"49526",title:"Focused Ion Beams (FIB) — Novel Methodologies and Recent Applications for Multidisciplinary Sciences",slug:"focused-ion-beams-fib-novel-methodologies-and-recent-applications-for-multidisciplinary-sciences",totalDownloads:4325,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Considered as the newest field of electron microscopy, focused ion beam (FIB) technologies are used in many fields of science for site-specific analysis, imaging, milling, deposition, micromachining, and manipulation. Dual-beam platforms, combining a high-resolution scanning electron microscope (HR-SEM) and an FIB column, additionally equipped with precursor-based gas injection systems (GIS), micromanipulators, and chemical analysis tools (such as energy-dispersive spectra (EDS) or wavelength-dispersive spectra (WDS)), serve as multifunctional tools for direct lithography in terms of nano-machining and nano-prototyping, while advanced specimen preparation for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can practically be carried out with ultrahigh precision. Especially, when hard materials and material systems with hard substrates are concerned, FIB is the only technique for site-specific micro- and nanostructuring. Moreover, FIB sectioning and sampling techniques are frequently used for revealing the structural and morphological distribution of material systems with three-dimensional (3D) network at micro-/nanoscale.This book chapter includes many examples on conventional and novel processes of FIB technologies, ranging from analysis of semiconductors to electron tomography-based imaging of hard materials such as nanoporous ceramics and composites. In addition, recent studies concerning the active use of dual-beam platforms are mentioned",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Meltem Sezen",authors:[{id:"176338",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Meltem",middleName:null,surname:"Sezen",slug:"meltem-sezen",fullName:"Meltem Sezen"}]},{id:"50866",title:"Effects of Different Laser Pulse Regimes (Nanosecond, Picosecond and Femtosecond) on the Ablation of Materials for Production of Nanoparticles in Liquid Solution",slug:"effects-of-different-laser-pulse-regimes-nanosecond-picosecond-and-femtosecond-on-the-ablation-of-ma",totalDownloads:6112,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Ultra-short laser pulse interaction with materials has received much attention from researchers in micro- and nanomachining, especially for the generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments, because of the straightforward method and direct application for organic solvents. In addition, the colloidal nanoparticles produced by laser ablation have very high purity—they are free from surfactants and reaction products or by-products. In this chapter, nanosecond, picosecond and femtosecond laser pulse durations are compared in laser material processing. Due to the unique properties of the short and ultra-short laser pulse durations in material processing, they are more apparent in the production of precision material processing and generation of nanoparticles in liquid environments.",book:{id:"5236",slug:"high-energy-and-short-pulse-lasers",title:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers",fullTitle:"High Energy and Short Pulse Lasers"},signatures:"Abubaker Hassan Hamad",authors:[{id:"183494",title:"Dr.",name:"Abubaker",middleName:"Hassan",surname:"Hamad",slug:"abubaker-hamad",fullName:"Abubaker Hamad"}]},{id:"49537",title:"Electron Diffraction",slug:"electron-diffraction",totalDownloads:10155,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Electron microscopes are usually supplied with equipment for obtaining diffraction patterns and micrographs from the same area of a specimen and the best results are attained if the complete use is to be made of these combined facilities. Electron diffraction patterns are used to obtain quantitative data including phase identification, orientation relationship and crystal defects in materials, etc. At first, a general introduction including a geometrical and quantitative approach to electron diffraction from a crystalline specimen, the reciprocal lattice and electron diffraction in the electron microscope are presented. The scattering process by an individual atom as well as a crystal, the Bragg law, Laue conditions and structure factor are also discussed. Types of diffraction patterns such as ring pattern, spot pattern and Kikuchi pattern, and general and unique indexing diffraction patterns are explained. The procedure for indexing simple, complicated and imperfect patterns as well as Kikuchi lines and a combination of Kikuchi lines and spots is outlined. The known and unknown materials are identified by indexing patterns. Practical comparisons between various methods of analysing diffraction patterns are also described. The basic diffraction patterns and the fine structure in the patterns including specimen tilting experiments, orientation relationship determination, phase identification, twinning, second phases, crystallographic information, dislocation, preferred orientation and texture, extra spots and streaks are described in detail. Finally, electron diffraction patterns of new materials are investigated.",book:{id:"5075",slug:"modern-electron-microscopy-in-physical-and-life-sciences",title:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences",fullTitle:"Modern Electron Microscopy in Physical and Life Sciences"},signatures:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad and Mohammad Jafari Eskandari",authors:[{id:"176352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi Asadabad",slug:"mohsen-asadi-asadabad",fullName:"Mohsen Asadi Asadabad"},{id:"177600",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jafari Eskandari",slug:"mohammad-jafari-eskandari",fullName:"Mohammad Jafari Eskandari"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"20",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83061",title:"Dipole Solitons in a Nonlocal Nonlinear Medium with Self-Focusing and Self-Defocusing Quintic Nonlinear Responses",slug:"dipole-solitons-in-a-nonlocal-nonlinear-medium-with-self-focusing-and-self-defocusing-quintic-nonlin",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106207",abstract:"Stability dynamics of dipole solitons have been numerically investigated in a nonlocal nonlinear medium with self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity by the squared-operator method. It has been demonstrated that solitons can stay nonlinearly stable for a wide range of each parameter, and two nonlinearly stable regions have been found for dipole solitons in the gap domain. Moreover, it has been observed that instability of dipole solitons can be improved or suppressed by modification of the potential depth and strong anisotropy coefficient.",book:{id:"10958",title:"Vortex Dynamics - From Physical to Mathematical Aspects",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10958.jpg"},signatures:"Mahmut Bağcı, Melis Turgut, Nalan Antar and İlkay Bakırtaş"},{id:"82984",title:"Feedback Linearization Control of Interleaved Boost Converter Fed by PV Array",slug:"feedback-linearization-control-of-interleaved-boost-converter-fed-by-pv-array",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106355",abstract:"One of the powerful methods of nonlinear control is the feedback linearization technique. This technique consists of input state and input-output linearization methods. In this chapter, the feedback linearization technique, including input state and input-output linearization methods, is described. Then, input-output linearization method is used for output voltage control of interleaved boost converter. Firstly, mathematical model of the interleaved boost converter is derived after that the method is applied. Besides, the interleaved boost converter is fed by a PV array under irradiation level and ambient temperature change. As a result of the simulation study, output voltage control of interleaved boost converter under reference voltage change is realized as desired.",book:{id:"11499",title:"Nonlinear Systems - Recent Developments and Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11499.jpg"},signatures:"Erdal Şehirli"},{id:"82973",title:"Compact Incoherent Multidimensional Imaging Systems Using Static Diffractive Coded Apertures",slug:"compact-incoherent-multidimensional-imaging-systems-using-static-diffractive-coded-apertures",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105864",abstract:"Incoherent holographic imaging technologies, in general, involve multiple optical components for beam splitting—combining and shaping—and in most cases, require an active optical device such as a spatial light modulator (SLM) for generating multiple phase-shifted holograms in time. The above requirements made the realization of holography-based products expensive, heavy, large, and slow. To successfully transfer the holography capabilities discussed in research articles to products, it is necessary to find methods to simplify holography architectures. In this book chapter, two important incoherent holography techniques, namely interference-based Fresnel incoherent correlation holography (FINCH) and interferenceless coded aperture correlation holography (I-COACH), have been successfully simplified in space and time using advanced manufacturing methods and nonlinear reconstruction, respectively. Both techniques have been realized in compact optical architectures using a single static diffractive optical element manufactured using lithography technologies. Randomly multiplexed diffractive lenses were manufactured using electron beam lithography for FINCH. A quasi-random lens and a mask containing a quasi-random array of pinholes were manufactured using electron beam lithography and photolithography, respectively, for I-COACH. In both cases, the compactification has been achieved without sacrificing the performances. The design, fabrication, and experiments of FINCH and I-COACH with static diffractive optical elements are presented in details.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Vijayakumar Anand, Soon Hock Ng, Tomas Katkus, Daniel Smith, Vinoth Balasubramani, Denver P. Linklater, Pierre J. Magistretti, Christian Depeursinge, Elena P. Ivanova and Saulius Juodkazis"},{id:"82958",title:"Electromagnetic Relations between Materials and Fields for Microwave Chemistry",slug:"electromagnetic-relations-between-materials-and-fields-for-microwave-chemistry",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106257",abstract:"We consider the application of microwave energy to a material. The effects of the electromagnetic field on the material and of the material on the electromagnetic field will be described, focusing on the dielectric relaxation phenomenon of the liquid. The dielectric permittivity of mixtures is discussed by extending Debye relaxation to explain how the material behaves with respect to an electric field. We will also consider the energy that the electric field imparts to the material, both thermally and nonthermally. We will develop this relation and describe what form it should take if there is a nonthermal effect in the chemical reaction field under microwave irradiation.",book:{id:"11494",title:"Electric Field in Advancing Science and Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11494.jpg"},signatures:"Sugiyama Jun-ichi, Sugiyama Hayato, Sato Chika and Morizumi Maki"},{id:"82961",title:"Mixed Reality Applications in Business Contexts",slug:"mixed-reality-applications-in-business-contexts",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106582",abstract:"Mixed reality is becoming increasingly relevant in business. In the corporate environment, such as logistics or maintenance, the use of data glasses allows extensive possibilities for process optimization and quality assurance. In the area of construction, virtual models either as augmentation of reality or mapped in virtual reality offer new approaches to experience ability. The goal of this paper is to show the manifold possibilities of mixed reality in the enterprise environment. For this purpose, selected application scenarios with corresponding realization stages will be shown and analyzed regarding their added value.",book:{id:"11860",title:"Holography - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11860.jpg"},signatures:"Anett Mehler-Bicher, Lothar Steiger and Dirk Weitzel"},{id:"82951",title:"Decoupling Techniques for Coupled PDE Models in Fluid Dynamics",slug:"decoupling-techniques-for-coupled-pde-models-in-fluid-dynamics",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105997",abstract:"We review decoupling techniques for coupled PDE models in fluid dynamics. In particular, we are interested in the coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow and the fluid structure interaction (FSI) models. For coupled models for fluid flow interacting with porous media flow, we present decoupled preconditioning techniques, two-level and multilevel methods, Newton-type linearization-based two-level and multilevel algorithms, and partitioned time-stepping methods. The main theory and some numerical experiments are given to illustrate the effectiveness and efficiency of these methods. For the FSI models, partitioned time-stepping algorithms and a multirate time-stepping algorithm are carefully studied and analyzed. Numerical experiments are presented to highlight the advantages of these methods.",book:{id:"11862",title:"The Essence of Large-Eddy Simulations",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11862.jpg"},signatures:"Mingchao Cai, Mo Mu and Lian Zhang"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:43},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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