Narayanasamy’s ACCESS model (1998).
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83768-117-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-116-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-118-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a15f5d35a75d3dfee7d27e19238306b0",bookSignature:"Dr. Rakhab Mehta",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12014.jpg",keywords:"Baseball, Volleyball, Soccer Ball, Tennis Ball, Cricket Ball, Golf Ball, Fluid Mechanics, Forces and Moments, Flight Trajectory, Control and Stability, Aerodynamic Coefficients, Atmospheric Conditions",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"20 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Participated in the aerodynamic design of launch and reentry vehicles. The post-flight analysis is carried out to evaluate the vehicle's aerodynamic performance. An inverse heat conduction algorithm was developed to predict the convective heat transfer in a rocket nozzle.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"56358",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mehta",slug:"rakhab-mehta",fullName:"Rakhab Mehta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/56358/images/system/56358.jpeg",biography:"R. C. Mehta obtained his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. He has worked as the Head of Aerodynamics\r\nDivision of Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre/Indian Space Research Organization and has participated in the design of launch and reentry vehicles. He has served as a Senior Fellow in the School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. 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According to the definition made by Turkish Language Institution Culture, the culture is described as the sum of all the material and spiritual values created in the process of social development and the tools that are used to create and hand these values down to next generations and show the extent of the man’s authority and control over their natural and social environment [1].
\nAccording to another definition, the culture is the general total of beliefs, attitudes and behaviors, customs and traditions, learned and shared values, and sustains its existence through learning and teaching of attitudes, actions and role models [2].
\nAs it can be understood from these definitions, culture is a non-written link from the past to the present day, bridging the individuals in society. As a phenomenon, The term “culture,” which diversifies in each community and so is experienced differently, also affects the way individuals perceive the phenomena such as health, illness, happiness, sadness and the manner these emotions are experienced [3].
\nCulture is a relative concept that varies according to health cultures as well as affecting the perception of health [4].
\nHealth is determined by biological and environmental factors as well as by cultural practices [5].
\nCulture affects many aspects of human life, such as parental attitudes, child rearing patterns, how to speak, what language to speak, how to dress, believe, treat patients, what to do with and how to feed them and to deal with funerals [6, 7].
\nIndividuals’ health behaviors and health perceptions are regarded inseparable from each other. Communities having endeavored to maintain their cultural characteristics for centuries have passed down this on their health behaviors and strived for finding cures to their health problems in their cultural lives. Types of food, cooking methods, sleeping habits, dressing patterns, forms of treatment of diseases, housing and residence, perception of diseases, modes of acceptance of innovations are characteristics varying from culture to culture and intertwined with culture. It is known that people cannot act independently of the culture they live in [8].
\nCulture is influential at many levels in health, ranging from the formation of new diagnostic groups, to the diagnosis of disease to the determination of what is called a disease or not symptoms and disease cues [6, 7].
\nHowever, in almost all regions of the world, wars, ethnic conflicts, repressive regimes, environmental and economic crises along with globalization have forced many people to abandon their country and migrate in their country or to immigrate other countries as refugees. As a result, multicultural populations comprised of individuals, families and groups from different cultures and subcultures are rapidly emerging all around the world [9, 10, 11].
\nIn order to improve the health behaviors of the community, cultural factors affecting health behavior and health care services need to be clearly recognized [12, 13].
\nThe individuals’ beliefs about health, attitudes and behaviors, past experiences, treatment practices, in short their culture, play a vital role in improving health, preventing and treating diseases [14].
\nCultural variables can be motivational factors in health-disease relationships, [8].
\n\n
Socioeconomic status
Family pattern
Gender roles and responsibilities
Marriage patterns
Sexual behavior
Preventive patterns
Population policy
Pregnancy and birth practices
Body
Nutrition
Dressing/wearing
Personal hygiene
Housing arrangements
General health regulations
Professions
Religion
Habits
Culture-induced stress
Status of immigrants
Substance use
Leisure time habits of
Pets and birds
Self-healing strategies and therapies [8].
Today, health-related cultural traits are under the influence of a medical approach that may be considered as highly conservative almost all around the world. There is an increasing tendency to perceive and evaluate health and disease-related processes explained in medical terms. The rigid medical approach, engaged in extending human life with costly inventions, with a narrow level of knowledge and practices, makes it impossible for individuals to use the potential for qualified living. Modern medicine overwhelms the will of people to experience their own facts and solve their problems. On the other hand, the concept of health should be regarded as a dynamic phenomenon in life and be removed from some patterns of thought. Hence, healthcare should be assessed with a comprehensive understanding of culture in order to promote the art of living healthily among people [15].
\nIndividuals who embrace contemporary public health, evaluate health with a holistic approach, give the other individuals an opportunity to participate in their health care issues, and have the potential to solve problems with appropriate preferences can only be the output of cultural constructs supporting health, values, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors and norms. Health culture is concerned with every individual’s or the society’s patterns of living, celebrating, being happy in life, suffering and dying. It is not enough for the individual to acquire only health-related information, but basic skills such as comprehending health-related values, developing a healthy lifestyle and self-evaluation must be developed. The main purpose of developing health culture is to raise the level of health in the country scale. This can only be ensured by the fact that health education standards be established by well-trained and conscious individuals into practice with the help of their knowledge and skills [15].
\nIt is vital that health services are also appropriate for the target cultures to the extent that they are compatible with contemporary medical understanding. People’s beliefs and practices are part of the culture of the society in which they live. Cultural characteristics should be seen as a dynamic factor of health and disease. In order to be able to provide better health care, it is necessary to at least understand how the group receiving care perceives and responds to disease and health, and what cultural factors lie behind their behaviors [7, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20].
\nUnless health care initiatives are based on cultural values, it will be impossible to achieve the goal and the care provided will be incomplete and fail [2, 21].
\nFor this reason, healthcare providers should try to understand the cultural structure of a society. Health workers must collect cultural data to understand the attitudes of towards coping with illness, health promotion and protection [2, 21].
\nCultural differences and health beliefs have been recognized for many years as prior knowledge in practice. Despite that, cultural health care is unfortunately not part of a routine or common health practice. Knowing cultural beliefs related to health can enable us to build a framework for data collection in health care [2, 22].
\nToday, health policies focus primarily on the prevention of health-related inequalities and discrimination, especially ethnic characteristics. In order for the societies to regulate health care that will meet the needs of different groups in terms of culture, all health team members must be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills [23, 24].
\nThe term health, with its changing nature and meanings from one culture to another, requires care, including cultural recognition, value and practice. The main element in the transcultural approach in which every health professional has an active role is the individual. The transcultural approach can be applied at all levels of health care institutions; but nurses are in a privileged position in this approach. According to Leininger’s model, only nurses can provide transcultural health services. Because the main aim of nursing is to provide a caring service that respects people’s cultural values and lifestyles. Nurses should offer acceptable, affordable and culturally suitable care to individuals under the conditions of the day [2].
\nKnowing what cultural practices are applied in the societies receiving healthcare services and identifying the cultural barriers to accessing health care services positively affects the caring process [25].
\nThe nursing profession, which plays an important role in the health team, is a cultural phenomenon. The patient’s cultural values, beliefs and practices are an integral part of holistic nursing care [26, 27].
\nThe nurses should explore new ways of providing cultural care in multicultural societies, understand how cultures affect health-disease definitions, and bridge the gap between care for individuals in different cultures [13, 28, 29].
\nTranscultural nursing provides effective nursing care to meet the cultural needs of individuals, families and groups [30].
\nThe concept of “Transcultural Nursing” derived from the need to care for individuals in different cultures in nursing was first used by Madeleine Leininger in 1979 [30, 31, 32].
\nIn addition to Leininger, a pioneer model of transcultural nursing, many nurses worked in the field of cultural care. Giger and Davidhazar developed the “Cross-Cultural Diagnosis Model” to assess various variables related to health and illness and provide a practical diagnostic tool for nursing so that culturally competent care could be offered [33].
\nCampinha-Bacote described the cultural competence model [34].
\nCulturally competent nurses are in contact with cultural experiences and aware of their own personality traits and contribute to socio-cultural knowledge in nursing care by providing individualized care [35].
\nNurses who are aware of cultural differences and the effects of these differences on the health of the individual enhance the therapeutic environment by communicating more effectively with the patients [13].
\nThe role and significance of transcultural nursing has been increasingly recognized in the world challenged by cultural diversity. Cultural differences can be seen among ethnic groups as well as within any ethnic group [36].
\nIt has been reported that cultural differences may exist among individuals who live in the same or different regions in Turkey [37].
\nAlthough studies on cross-cultural nursing care in our country are limited, several studies have examined the views of nursing and midwifery students regarding patient care [37, 38, 39].
\nIn a study conducted, the views of nurses working in two different hospitals on the cultural problems they faced in patient care were compared [11, 36].
\nIn recent years, it has been recognized that nurses must explore new ways of providing cultural care in culturally diverse societies, understand how culture affects disease-health definitions, and act as a bridge between the biomedical system and care for individuals in different cultures [2, 40].
\nThe nature and importance of providing culturally sensitive nursing services is multidimensional, including individual and professional aspects. The transcultural approach allows nurses to broaden their horizons and perspectives in addition to making them competent in offering creative care to individuals. Culturally based approaches and knowledge can enhance both the nurse’s and the patient’s self-esteem [2, 41, 42].
\nThe American Nurses Association (ANA) refers to three reciprocal interactions: the culture of the individual (patient), the culture of the nurse, and the culture of the environment in relation to the patient-nurse:
\nIndividuals’ beliefs about health, culture, past illness/health experiences form a wholistic structure and play a vital role in improving the health of individuals [43].
\nCulture is influential in how people think, speak the language, how to dress, believe, treat their patients and how to feed them and what to do with their funerals etc. Moreover, it plays a significant role in a variety of aspects such as new diagnostic methods, prognosis, symptomatic patterns and determination of whether there is an illness or not [7].
\nIt is essential for nurses to be able to offer appropriate holistic care to patients from different cultures and to know how the transcultural approach is to be put into practice, as it provides guidance on how to behave in the case of these situations.
\nTranscultural nursing is sensitive to the needs of families, groups and individuals who are representatives of groups with different cultures in a community or society. This sensitive approach provides support for the individual in achieving the well-being and happiness [2].
\nCulturally sensitive nursing practices involve the identification of cultural needs, the understanding of cultural links between family and individuals to provide care without affecting the cultural belief system of the family, and the use of emotional strategies for caregivers and patients to reach reciprocal goals. Building therapeutic relationships, offering appropriate and responsive care and treatment can be accomplished through transcultural nursing approach [2].
\nIt is necessary for nurses to recognize individuals in their own cultural patterns, examine them in their own culture, and take these into account in the nursing approach [2, 7, 22].
\nNursing is a developing profession that can continuously adapt to changing situations. Changes in social rules and expectations, the advent of new medical treatments, and improvements in technical systems have helped shape contemporary nursing practices [4, 44, 45].
\nNursing has been significantly influenced by the fact that an increasing number of societies around the world have become multicultural and cultural specific care has been recognized [4].
\nThe concept of cultural competence is a relatively new concept commonly used in the academic disciplines from the beginning of 1989 [4, 46, 47].
\nIn multicultural societies, health care professionals need to be culturally competent, which is expected by the society. Interest in cultural competence has been manifested in the studies conducted on the cultural characteristics of the patients [46].
\nThe nurses’ understanding of the cultures of patient groups is very important for the provision of meaningful effective nursing care [48].
\nThe study performed by Chenowethm et al. titled as the “Cultural Proficiency and Nursing Care: With an Australian Perspective” and Giger and Davidhizar’s study titled as “Culturally Adequate Care: The Afghan, Afghan Origin American and the Importance of Understanding Islamic Cultural and Islamic Religion” can be cited as examples of conducted research on this subject [4, 33, 49].
\nProviding culturally adequate care is an obligation imposed by increased cultural diversity and disclosure of identities, an understanding of home care and inequalities in health care. Cultural competence is a dynamic, variable and continuous process. Although cultural competence is a basic component of nursing practice, this concept has not been clearly explained or analyzed but defined in many ways. At times, various terms such as “transcultural nursing”, “culturally appropriate nursing care” or “culturally sensitive nursing care” were used instead of the term cultural competence [46].
\nThe literature review reveals that there is a common definition of cultural competence the term among researchers and a general consensus on the term. For example, the concepts of “ethnic nursing care”, “cultural care”, “cultural appropriateness” or “culturally appropriate care” are seen as terms close to cultural adequacy [4, 47].
\nCultural competence is the application of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and personal manners anticipated from nurses to provide services and care appropriate to the cultural characteristics of the patients.
\nBaşalan İz ve Bayık Temel reported that Vydelingum [47] made use of Murphy and Macleod-Clark, Bond, Kadron-Edgren and Jones, Spence, Blackford’s findings in his study. In Murphy and Macleod-Clark’s study on ethnocentric views, it was stated by nurses that patients from a minority group were generally regarded as a problem and these patients were perceived as inappropriate for daily routine, and there was lack of holistic care among nurses working to develop a therapeutic relationship with minority groups. Bond, Kadron-Edgren and Jones conducted a study evaluating the knowledge and attitudes of nursing students and professional nurses regarding patients from different cultures. This study has shown that undergraduate and post-graduate nursing programs are partially limited in terms of the knowledge and skills about special cultural groups. Spence, in his study on nurses’ experiences in caring for people from other cultures in New Zealand found that they experienced tension and anxiety when they encountered with an odd case. The subject of cultural well-being and nursing approaches in nursing education was reported in a study carried out by Blackford in Australia. The necessity of care structured under the roof of the white race culture has revealed that it does not consider the health care culture. The lack of cultural adequacy in the care of patients from different cultures has been recognized as an great challenge to all these studies. Cultural conflict has been shown as an output of ethnocentric focus, resulting in a lack of cultural competence, misunderstanding, lack of confidence, communication and obstacles to establishing a positive relationship [4].
\nThe nurse experiencing cultural conflict must first recognize his/her subconscious cultural behaviors in order to understand the reason for the cultural conflict [13].
\nIn a cultural conflict, the nurse can respond negatively from the cultural perspective in the following ways:
\n
The individual/patient’s own perspective and cultural beliefs must be respected and recognized.
The nurse should be competent and authorized to carry out professional actions and make decisions.
The nurse should help the individual to develop new patterns to lead a satisfying and healthy life in the case of harmful behaviors [50].
The nursing care plan must be individual, holistic and contemporary. Interpreters or religious leaders may need to be included in the caring plan if there are any linguistic problems. The patient’s view on the cause of his or her illness is also a key element in planning the care [49].
\nIn preparing the nursing care plan, basic principles related to culturally sensitive nursing practices can be followed.
\n\n
The importance and influence of the culture should be considered,
Cultural differences should be valued and respected,
Cultural influences in the manners of individuals should be understood,
An empathic approach should be put into action towards individuals with cultural diversity,
Individuals’ cultures should be respected,
Health professionals should be patient with individuals in cultural issues,
Individuals’ behaviors should be thoroughly analyzed,
Cultural knowledge should be increased and enhanced,
Adaptation and orientation programs about cultural diversity should be offered [2, 7, 22].
The scope of cultural nursing practice can be:
identification of cultural needs
understanding the cultural connections of the individual and the
using emotional strategies for the caregivers and the patients to reach the reciprocal goals
Thus, the cultural approach will guide the nurses in planning nursing interventions. In this case, nursing care can be provided without harming the cultural belief system of the family [13, 51].
\nThis short review provides the basis for a deeper cultural assessment that the nurse can do in the future. The nurse has the opportunity to communicate effectively with the individual through brief cultural assessment data collected [7, 13, 22, 52].
\nNurses should make cultural evaluations when they first communicate with individuals. This evaluation may be in-depth, or a brief review that will form the basis for an in-depth assessment to be done later. In a brief review, several questions about health practices, diet, religious preference, ethnic background and family can be asked to the individual. This short review provides the basis for a deeper cultural assessment to be done by the nurse in the future. Thıs, the nurse has a chance to communicate effectively with the individual through brief cultural data [7, 13, 22, 52].
\n\n
Demographic data
Regional population density
Population density entering the region
Age distribution of the residents in the region
Distribution of demographics such as education, job, income etc.
The national origin of the population living in the region
Traditional health beliefs
Definition of illness
Definition of health
Health-related behaviors
Reasons for your illness
Poor eating habits/nutrition
Bad eating arrangements
Viruses, bacteria and other organisms
A punishment/curse from Allah (the God)
Being affected by the evil eyes
Magic, charm, spell or jealousy
Witchcraft
Environmental changes
Sorrow or loss
Excessive or little labor
Methods for maintaining health
Health protection methods
Methods of restoring health-home treatments/household recipes
Utilization of health care resources and visitations
Traditional healers favored by sick people
Health beliefs and practices related to childbirth
Health beliefs and practices related to raising children
Traditional practices and ceremonies arranged for dying individuals and related to death
In addition to recognizing the cultural characteristics of the community, by depending on these data, nurses should recognize traditional medicines, places of worship and sacredness, and other such organizations and, if possible, should visit and observe such places in order to identify the service group.
\n\n
The nurses should be knowledgeable about the community receiving care services provided by themselves.
The nurses should identify the social gathering environments such as schools, hospitals, places of worship of the community they serve care.
The nurses should define the specific areas they want to focus on prior to cultural evaluation.
The nurses should determine the strategies that can help them collect data about cultural values.
The nurses should define the items that may act as bridges between the cultures.
The nurses should be able to ask appropriate questions without hurting the individuals.
The nurses should cooperate with colleagues and other health workers.
The nurses should discuss with the community leaders, whether official or non-official, about cultural characteristics deemed important in the lifestyle of the society.
The nurses should not resort to unethical traps to make an early generalization based on the cultural data of the society.
The nurses should be honest, open and sincere towards the individuals and the self.
The nurses should obtain both objective and subjective data and verify them to be correct before implementing nursing care [7, 13].
Additionally, the nurses should at least learn some relevant vocabulary and common phrases used in caregiving that will facilitate communication [7, 13].
\n\n
Nurses are transcultural care personnel.
An individual is considered as a cultural asset and cannot be separated from his/her own cultural heritage and background.
Environment is a structure or framework
Transcultural care is a sensitive nursing care service addressing to the needs of individuals from different cultural groups [18].
A manual of guidelines has been prepared by International Nurses Association (ICN), American Nursing Academy, Transcultural Nursing Association, with the aim of creating a common language for nursing practice all over the world and providing a holistic and cultural content care that respects social equality, justice and individual differences. There are 12 items in the manual given in the following:
Social Justice and Equality
Critical Perspective
Cultural Awareness
Cultural Based Care
Cultural Based Health Care Systems and Organizations
Patient Advocacy and Empowerment
Multicultural Workforce
Cultural Based Care in Education and Training
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural Leadership
Policy Development
The foundations of transcultural nursing were laid in the mid-1950s. In nursing, Peplau first mentioned in 1950 that the cultures were an important variable affecting mental health. The growing interest in Leininger’s transcultural nursing model has begun with population changes and migration. Leininger tried to promote transcultural nursing movements. Much more attention was paid to the care of individuals from different cultures in the 1960s. Since 1960s, nurses have been carrying out studies aimed at providing particularly cultural care to people from all communities/cultures. In 1962, King stated that psychopathological behaviors differ from culture to culture. In 1969, the International Council of Nursing (ICN) began using cultural content in nursing. The Transcultural Nursing Society (TCNS) was established in 1974 to train nurses in this area.
\nThis organization aims to provide the nurses and other health care professionals with the basic knowledge necessary to develop cultural skills in culturally sensitive practice, education, research and management [2].
\nSince 1989, “Journal of Transcultural Nursing” has been published, aiming to train nurses about transcultural care and improve their practice. Evidence-based studies have been conducted in this area. Today, there are about 25 books and over 800 articles covering research, theory and applications related to transcultural nursing [2].
\nThis is a promising field of study with which Turkish nurses have recently started to be familiar. Now that globalization is inevitable, studies on transcultural care practices will broaden the horizons of Turkish nurses and the others all around the world.
\nIn addition to Leininger, a pioneer model of transcultural nursing, many nurses worked in the field of cultural care including Boyle, Campinha-Bacote, Yahle Langenkamp, Giger and Davidhizar, Juntunen, Leuning, Swiggum et al., Purnell, Ryan, Carlton and Ali.
\nAmong these, there are researchers arguing that the models and theories of two modelists (Giger and Davidhizar and Purnell) who do myriads of studies on cultural care are extremely simple, comprehensible and suitable for use in many different fields and cultures [5].
\n\n
Burchum JLR; Cultural competence: Evolutionary dimension.
Campinha-Bacote J; Cultural competence in providing health care services: Culturally adequate care model.
Cross T., Bazron B; Dennis K., Isaacs M.; Towards a culturally adequate care process: Effective services for minority children with emotionally serious illness.
Kim-Godwin YS; Clarke PN & Barton L.; Providing culturally adequate public care model.
Leininger MM; The differences in cultural care and the theory of universality.
Leininger M; Cultural care theory and ethnocentric research method.
Leininger M; Evaluation of culture care for appropriate and adequate practices.
Orque M.; Orque’s ethnic/cultural system: Conceptual framework for ethnic nursing care.
Pacquiao DF; Cultural competence in ethical decision making.
Papadopoulos I. & Lees S; Training culturally competent researchers.
Purnell LD. & Amp; Paulanka BJ; Ppur model for cultural competence.
Suh EE; Cultural competence model through evolutionary concept analysis.
Wells M; Beyond cultural competence: a model for individual and institutional cultural development [4, 46].
\n
Giger JN. & Davidhizar RE; Transcultural nursing; Evaluation and intervention
Spector RE; Cultural difference in health and disease.
\n
Andrews MM; Culturally adequate nursing care.
Andrews MM; History of health and cultural competence in physical examination.
Bloch B; Bloch’s assessment guide for ethnic/cultural diversity.
Boyle JS & Andrews MM; Andrews/Boyle assessment guide.
Spector RE; Cultural care: guidelines for inheritance, assessment and health traditions [4, 46].
The conceptualization of the cultural competence model in nursing has emerged after 1989. Leininger, Campinha-Bacote, Giger and Davidhizar, Orque, Purnell and Paulanka, Spector, Andrews and Boyle are regarded as the pioneers contributing to the accumulation of the relevant data. Orque is a leading figure in developing a cultural model for nursing with “the conceptual framework of the ethnic system”. The use of nursing theories and models in nursing researches offers unparalleled contribution to the health care system through the practices of the nurse as a professional. Cultural competence models developed by nurse researchers can be transferred not only to nursing but also to other disciplines.
\nLeininger describes transcultural nursing as a branch of nursing or nursing school based on comparative research and analysis of different cultures which provides cultural universalism and cultural independence in nursing care and focuses on comparative studies and analyzing differences in cultures around the world in a respectful manner in view of health, illness, care, beliefs and values [3, 5, 13].
\nThe aims of transcultural nursing are to provide sensitive and effective nursing care to meet the cultural needs of individuals, families and groups, to integrate transcultural concepts, theories and practices into nursing education, research and clinical applications, to improve transcultural nursing knowledge, and to incorporate this knowledge into nursing practice.
\nThe International Nurses Association (ICN) invited the nurses from the World Health Organization (WHO) member countries to work on adaptable models to their communities at the 1989 Seoul Conference. The studies conducted in Turkey show that the nurses need to have classification lists and guidelines to be used in care, and thus a more systematic care will be provided in less time for individual patients and more data will be collected. In Turkey internationally developed models and classification systems in nursing care are translated into Turkish, or new guidelines specific to clinics are developed and used. These include NANDA’s diagnosis, Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns, NIC, NOC and Daily Living Activities and the OMAHA system [55].
\nThe use of transcultural nursing models, classification systems and guidelines is becoming widespread. These models focus on the relationship of nursing to concepts and theories related to life, health, disease and society, facilitate organizing their thoughts, and provide a common language among professional members.
\nWhile there has been an increased awareness of the importance of cultural care and collecting cultural data in recent years in Turkey, no models or guides have been developed in Turkey [55].
\nThe “Culture Care Diversity and Universality” theory developed by Leininger in 1960, the first nurse who made the first work in this field and received the title of anthropologist, is the first theory developed in the field of transcultural nursing and still used worldwide. This theory focuses on exploring different and universal cultures and providing comparative care. It adopts a multi-factorial approach affecting health and care such as environmental conditions, ethnography, language, gender, class, racism, social structuring, belief, politics, economics, kinship, technology, culture and philosophy. This model includes technological, religious and philosophical, kinship and social factors, cultural values and lifestyle, political and legal, economic and social factors [50], which have been used in many studies in the west and in other countries since 1960 (Figure 1).
\nLeininger’s sunrise model. Reference: [
Narayanasamy described the model in 1998 with the letters ACCESS (Assessment, Communication, Cultural negotiations and Compromise, Establishing respect, Sensitivity and Safety) to form the framework of cultural care practices [42] (Table 1).
\nTranskültürel Hemşirelik | \n|
---|---|
Assessment | \nCulturally focusing on the patient’s life style, beliefs and practices related to health | \n
Communication | \nAwareness of the variety of verbal and nonverbal reactions | \n
Cultural Negotiation and Compromise | \nBecoming more aware of the other people’s cultures and exploring their problems as well as understanding the patient’s opinion, | \n
Respect | \nDescribing therapeutic relationship relevant to the patient’s cultural beliefs and consensus values | \n
Sensitivity | \nApplying the sensitive care model to culturally different groups | \n
Safety | \nMaking the patient feel safe in the culturally sensitive care | \n
The model developed in 1988 was first published in 1990. This model is a tool developed to assess cultural values and their effects on health and disease behavior [33] (Figure 2).
\nGiger and Davidhizar’s transcultural assessment model. Reference: [
This ethnographic model created to promote cultural understanding of people’s status in the context of health promotion and illness is based on ethical perspectives of individual, family and community. It can be used in primary, secondary and tertiary protection stages [56] (Figure 3).
\nPurnell’ s model for cultural competence. A care preparation that is accepted as appropriate from a cultural perspective requires that the nurse personally develops, perfects and uses specific skills. Reference: [
\n
Having the ability to understand complex cultural dimensions,
Assuming a holistic approach to care instead of biophysical approach,
Showing efforts to reach rapidly increasing cultural beliefs and activities that are unique to distinct groups and individuals
Being able to change the idea of believing that individuals’ own race is superior to others,
Being able to make cultural evaluations,
Developing communicative and scientific language skills,
Being able to deal with cultural differences in real terms and make interpretations,
Being able to use appropriate cultural teaching techniques
Compromising cultural beliefs and studies with the general state of provision of health care,
Respecting for the sociocultural diversity of women, newborn babies and their families [8, 57].
The ability of nurses to change their current and future nursing practices through transcultural nursing care approach in the nursing care system can be achieved through cultural specific transcultural nursing education programs [22, 58].
\nRegardless of their ethnic characteristics, nursing educators have great responsibilities to develop positive attitudes towards intercultural nursing care as a role model for their students [29, 58].
\nIn addition, registered nurses should be aware of these issues and develop their knowledge and competence. Educators and administrators need to know, understand and believe in the importance of intercultural nursing care in order to be role models for students. The first step in the development and implementation of intercultural nursing education programs in nursing institutions is to evaluate the curriculum. It is recommended that the review in nursing schools be started with an examination of the mission statement. It should be examined whether the significance of cultural differences, care and education are explained in the mission statement [58, 59].
\nThe multicultural education approach and educational program should replace the dominant cultures in nursing schools. With the help of this approach, school administrators and academics should observe whether content issues are appropriate and adequate in terms of multicultural education in current educational programs [58].
\nIn terms of multiculturalism, important main subjects, concepts, theories should be defined and integrated into the curriculum [59].
\nThe terms such as cultural competence, multiculturalism, cultural diversity, cultural awareness, cultural safety should be intertwined with other professional subjects into the curriculum.
\nAn educational environment should be created in which racial differences are accepted and respected in nursing education. Within the scope of the program, generalizations and conceptualizations specific to different cultural groups should be introduced in theoretical and practical courses. During the courses social problems, experiences brought about by different racetracks such as racism, prejudicial discrimination, language problems, communicative difficulties, lack of obtaining information, health services that do not meet the needs, lack of recognition or determination of diagnosis, and incorrect nursing diagnosis should be discussed [58, 59, 60, 61].
\nStudents can examine and evaluate their racial characteristics in the communication and skills lab. In addition, similarities and differences between ethnic groups should be emphasized in all lectures [58, 59].
\nIn intercultural nursing education, the students’ ethnocentric worldview “just like me” should be replaced by the view “not like me”. It is stated in the nursing education that it is very useful for the student to assume some duties and responsibilities in community services and health education programs to develop cultural competence [58].
\nIn addition, it has been shown that the exchange of national and international students and teaching staff in nursing schools is a very useful way to build cultural awareness and sensitivity by experiencing, working, and living in another culture, in order for students to find intercultural opportunities in different cultural settings [58, 62, 63].
\nIt is stated that it is a useful teaching method for nurses to teach nursing diagnoses with case studies involving different cultural items in education programs. In nursing programs focusing on intercultural education, nursing educators use methods and tools such as critical reflection, discussion groups, role playing, observations, simulation exercises, clinical scenarios as well as written materials, videos, film monitoring and audio tapes [58].
\nAlthough transcultural nursing has an important role in the holistic approach, it is criticized at some points and is also mentioned in opposing views.
\nIn the case of launching nationalist initiatives in intercultural care, it has been stated that stereotyped images may emerge, and that particular attention may be paid to certain cultural individuals in the caring process. Given the presence of some 3000 cultures around the world, it is impossible for healthcare professionals to have knowledge of all cultures. It also requires the specialization of health personnel in order to provide qualified, culturally specific care. Despite the desire to create multicultural societies in the world in which there are liberal immigrant policies, it cannot be argued that there is an accepted standard in health care, in terms of the socioeconomic status, ethnic characteristics, sexual behavior and lifestyle preferences. There is a cultural crisis in health care services. Individualized intercultural care is a nurse’s responsibility as both a human and a professional. However, it is noted that nurses may be ethnocentric with cultural knowledge, understanding, awareness, education, cultural competence and lack of faith [58].
\nIt is argued that extraordinary endeavors in cultural sensitivity can result in the classification of cultures, thereby leading to stereotyped behaviors in certain cultures, races and religions. Another criticism is that paying particular attention to the patient of a particular culture, and focusing on that side can cause limitations in care. It is emphasized that the patient may feel “special”, “needing protection” or “patronized”. In addition, it has been pointed out that concerns about transcultural care in the field of health will only lead to formation of specialization in transcultural care that could increase responsibilities for nurses, which in turn will put a burden on them [2].
\nThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
No outside funding was received for this study.
Organoids are miniature 3D models of
Organoid formation from stem and progenitor cells. Following tissue dissociation, adult stem cell/ progenitor cells from normal or patients are isolated. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells are subjected to guided differentiation, followed by growing them on extracellular matrix in 3D culture system using specific culture media to begin organoid culture. The lower right section shows the different aspects of organoid commercialization, including molecular profiling of the collected cells, long term storage of cells with appropriate patient consent and information. These biobanked organoids can then be used for functional studies related to potential applications like disease modeling, therapeutic development, regenerative medicine, toxicology, and personalized medicine.
Tissue specific organoid bioenginnering and different basic biomedical and commercial applications.
Backed by some significant observations in the proliferative nature of adult tissue stem cells in 2009, the cardinal notion enveloping organoid technology is that stem cells have ingrained potential to self-assemble into 3D constructs with similitude with human organs [5]. As time rolled on, the modus operandi has been implemented to produce several human and murine organoids out of epithelial tissues of various organs such as the liver, intestine, kidney, skin [6, 7, 8, 9]. Another breakthrough entails the evolution of organoids obtained from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), which can circumvent the toil to avail specific tissues like the heart or brain. This prodigious prospect, reinforced with genetic engineering, permits the mutational corrections in patient-derived iPSCs expediting differentiation to generate a specific type of cells [10, 11, 12, 13]. Scrupulous experimental manipulation while maintaining sensitive biological complexity allows organoid technology to bridge the gap between 2D cell culture and 3D models [14]. It has also proved to better simulate human physiology than animal models and has shown the promise to substitute animals in preclinical biology [15, 16].
As ratiocinated from the trends, there will be a steady increase in the demand for organoid technology in the following years [3, 16]. As per reports published in various media, around 20 companies are into business with this technology—their activities include biobanking, manufacturing, commercialization, the implication of robotics for the development of organoids, organoids on a chip, etc. Statistically, priorities are given to heart, brain, intestine, and kidney organoids [3]. Financial models adopted by these companies are—(i) venture capitals, (ii) partnerships (iii) direct collaboration with the originators. Routine use of animals for disease modeling has always been afflicted with stringent moral and ethical queries. Usage of embryonic stem cells has also faced stormy skirmishes regarding the moral status of the embryos. Likewise, the moral and legal status of the organoids has been called in regulatory questions, to mention a few—ownership, consent, IP rights, safety, commercialization, etc. Utilization of ‘matrigel’ (extracellular matrix obtained from animals) has raised some safety concerns regarding compatibility with the human system. The debate revolving around the exchange or donation of human tissue as a commodity is still ongoing. To resolve this, few regulations should be declared and accepted by the global intellect [17]. Quibbles for intellectual property (IP) generation with human tissue should cease to persist, showing proper dignity and preserving the donor\'s rights. Consent should become a requirement avoiding de-identification of the donor [18, 19, 20, 21]. In the present chapter, we shall highlight the usage of the organoid, organoid cell atlas, followed by shedding light on the commercialization aspect of the technology and future directionality.
Researchers traditionally used
With the advent of tumor organoid culture, patient-derived tumor organoids (PDTOs) have become popular tools to study molecular tumorigenesis, understand tumor heterogenity, predict drug responses, immunotherapy, and precision cancer therapy. At the moment, several tumor organoid biobanks have been developed catering to a variety of cancer types, including lung [31], breast [32], gut [33], and brain [34], liver [35], colorectal [36], pancreas [37], prostate [38], and ovary [39]. The role of tumor immune microenvironments (TIME) is significant in improving cancer immunotherapies, and PDTOs have started playing a crucial role in modeling the tumor-immune landscape. PDTO-based TIME studies can help evaluate immunotherapies such as checkpoint inhibition and adoptive T-cell treatment [4]. Thus, optimizing the tumor organoid culture method is critical for developing organoid-guided customized cancer immunotherapy [40].
Human organoids are suited for genetic modification and customization and bridge the gap between fundamental research and clinical practice. This technique has aided oncology, biological, pharmacological, regenerative, and personalized medicine studies [1]. Despite the initial advances, the technology is still nascent and is expected to be employed in various applications such as developmental and stem cell biology, toxicology, drug discovery, personalized medicine, disease modeling, immune interaction, and regenerative modeling (Figure 2). Healthy human organoids from different tissues may be utilized to test comparative therapeutic toxicities in combination with disease-related organoids. Cardiac organoids, liver organoids, kidney organoids, and other organoids are now used to dictate intolerable adverse effects, such as hepatotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and other tissue toxicity [41]. Patient-specific relevant organotypic models will go a long way in reframing basic findings, testing innovative ideas in 3D, and validating crucial data without sacrificing animal life for science. This aspect is dealt with in other publications [42, 43].
The lack of a physiologically relevant model system has delayed the therapeutic development process, and many candidates have failed in clinical trials [4]. Cancer organoids are near-physiological replicas of their parent tumors and bridge the gap between drug screening and clinical trials. Organoids have been utilized to examine personalized cancer patient responses in several research [32, 44, 45]. It may also be utilized to look at the epigenetic and genetic changes that cause drug resistance [46]. Tumor organoids can accurately predict chemotherapeutic response and resistance for certain drugs in some cancers [47, 48]. Finding the right therapeutic combination can be a challenge, and tumor organoids can help solve this dilemma and can make personalized medicine a reality [49]. The advances in genetic engineering technologies like CRISPR-Cas9 are implemented on organoids further to confirm medication sensitivity to specific mutations [50]. Organoids may also be used for pharmacokinetic research, critical in drug development. Results suggest that drug-transporters, their efflux transport functions, drug-metabolism can be efficiently studied using organoids [51]. In addition to cancer biobanks, organoids have a significant role to play in immunotherapy, a kind of cancer treatment in which the patient\'s immune system is used to eliminate tumor cells [52]. Organoid-based models are explored to study the effect of tumor-immune cell interaction using a coculture system with both components [53].
Organoids holds promise as a propitious platform in biomedical research and applications for many decades to come. Human organoids currently have a few limitations that require to be circumvented to appreciate their full potential. Some technical and conceptual limitations may be addressed using single-cell sequencing and spatial profiling. Single-cell transcriptome/ epigenome sequencing and spatial profiling can provide a thorough idea about the composition of cells and the state of cells present within the organoids, which may help develop organoids as futuristic models of human biology. In combination with the Human organoids and single-cell technology, a pilot project has been launched within the Human Cell Atlas (HCA) as a “Biological network” (https://www.humancellatlas.org/euh2020/) [54]. HCA is a revolutionary global collaborative initiative aiming at advancing biomedical research opportunities and therapy using single-cell technologies (https://hca-organoid.eu/). This pilot project, under HCA, focuses on the single-cell characterization of organoids and other complex
It is one of the six pilot projects funded by the European Union (EU) Horizon 2020 Framework Programme, which will be helpful in developing the first version of the Organoid Cell Atlas, which may be used as a nucleus for a broader, collaborative, global initiative. The HCA-Organoid association has eight partner Institutions, including EMBL’s European Bioinformatics Institute institutions having experts in organoid technology, single-cell profiling, advanced imaging, and bioinformatics from Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and received €5 million by EU funding, as a part of the European contribution to the HCA project. Currently, the project mainly focuses on generating single-cell transcriptome, epigenome maps, and detailed imaging data in a selection of human organoids. The initial objective of the funded project is to derive and characterize two organoids, colon and brain, from 100 whole-genome-sequence individuals each, to have a record of normal population variation and have a reference for disease-centric research [56].
The colon and brain organoids were one of the first organs to which organoids were demonstrated, so comparatively, more advanced protocols for the two are available with HCA [2, 23]. Apart from this, the colon organoids are derived from adult stem cells while the brain is from the iPSCs, thus spanning the two primary sources of organoid derivation. Both of them have primarily been used for disease-centric studies. If the single-cell characterization of these organoids is done for many individuals, this can help facilitate various biomedical applications. Beyond the initial target, most of the data information in the project is generalized in a way to be applicable to various other types of human organoids. The HCA has also spoken about the possibility that they can collaborate with other institutes for different projects, which can pursue systematic single-cell profiling in other types of human organoids, to explore the possibility of interrelation with the Organoid Cell Atlas [56].
The main aim of the EU H2020 HCA-Organoid project is to build an Organoid cell atlas portal that may be equipped with the computational infrastructure and a web-based front end that makes the data easily accessible and analyzed. Some of the organoid-specific features that have been focused on while developing an Organoid portal include the interactive exploration of human organoid data, data-driven selection of organoids for functional experiments, and comparison of disease-specific organoids against reference collections of normal organoids.
This portal also focuses on providing the data of the corresponding primary tissues available in the HCA and also will work on showing interactive mappings between single-cell profiles of human organoids. These may be achieved using the algorithms that enable cell-cell alignments between these datasets. This portal is supposed to facilitate the use of organoids in biomedical experiments and encourage the use of organoids as models in various experiments like precision medicine, drug development, disease modeling, etc. Mapping and data integration may detect normal variation between individuals in an interactive manner showcasing organoid as the capable model for the corresponding variation in primary tissues. The analysis and interpretations of disturbances in the human organoids related to the primary tissues will be performed using cell-cell alignments [56].
A set of strategies have been laid to develop the atlas to be most productive and of high quality. Initially, it was thought to invest in validation and standardization for organoid-related research. Later, a contribution towards the HCA to establish community standards and software infrastructure for data processing and data annotation was strategized. Then the development and validation of computational methods for the comparison of cells between organoids and corresponding primary tissues and their flexible alignments were implemented. Finally, the implementation of interactive visualization tools that helps in establishing user-friendly quality control and exploratory analysis of single-cell organoid datasets contributed to the Organoid Cell Atlas [55].
With the development and successful commercialization of organoids, the most demanded sector in treating patients and pre-clinical trials in pharmaceutical industries will give a slanting graph in the market in the future [57]. In this present era, many specific and most suitable techniques have been developing over the years for organoid research, leading to competition among industries worldwide. The annual cost of treating brain diseases in Europe is $798 billion, and globally it amounts to $3 trillion. Over 90% of novel drugs that are being developed for brain diseases fail during the developmental process, which further reinforces the scope and opportunities for organoids [2]. The development of the living human brain (LHB) enables culturing of human-derived brain organoids from the cells of any individual; the University of Helsinki provides a new technical idea for preclinical trials of drugs in this area. Helsinki Innovation Services Ltd (HIS) supports the commercialization projects of the University of Helsinki from the funding application stage to completion.
Many startups such as XILIS, CELLESCE, SYSTEM1 BIOSCIENCES, 3DYNAMICS, PATH BIOANALYTICS, KNOWN MEDICINE, CYPRE, DYNOMICS are currently working in the domain of organoid technology. XILIS is developing a patient-derived miniature organoid technology to upgrade precision medicine and pharmaceutical drug discovery; their needed materials lead to 30× speed, 50× throughput, and 300× cost-saving (Hans Clever includes in the founding team of XILIS). CELLESCE is a UK-based startup that invented a bio-processing technology intended to grow and expand organoids in drug discovery and regenerative medicine. $25 million of Series A venture funding is raised in SYSTEM1 BIOSCIENCES incorporation with Charles River Ventures and Pfizer Ventures, upgrading neuro drug discovery through the combined action of human brain models, scaled biology, and machine learning to interpret brain disease from genetics to neural computation. Also, KNOWN MEDICINE raised a total of $2.4 M from Khosla, Cota Capital, and Y-Combinator, offering cutting-edge biology research and the latest AI techniques, giving oncologists an easy spot for treating patient\'s tumors with the best suitable drug. PATH BIOANALYTICS does bioanalysis of Phenotypic drug discovery and development. CYPRE is developing a tumor model platform intended for transformative 3D cellular research and clinical testing of cancer patients with seed funding from Hemi Ventures and others. DYNOMICS received $500K in pre-seed funding from Boost VC. The details of the organoid-specific startups are presented in Table 1. These different startups contribute a vast platform to save millions of people’s life [58]. Several companies are also operational in the tumor organoid domain, like Charles River and CROWNBio.
Company name | Country | Application area |
---|---|---|
XILIS INC. | Durham, North Carolina, USA | Micro-organospheres |
CELLESCE | Wales, UK | Patient-derived organoids (PDO) |
SYSTEM 1 BIOSCIENCES | San Francisco, CA, USA | Brain organoids |
3DNAMICS | Baltimore, Maryland, USA | Brain and liver organoids |
PATH BIOANALYTICS | North Carolina, USA | PDO for precision medicine |
KNOWN MEDICINE | Salt Lake City, Utah, USA | Patient-specific organoids for cancer drug development |
CYPRE | San Francisco, CA, USA | 3D tumor model |
DYNOMICS INC. | San Francisco, CA, USA | Human cardiac organoid |
CHARLES RIVER | Wilmington, MA, USA | Tumor organoid |
CROWNBio | San Diego, CA, USA | Tumor organoid |
The current leaders in the commercialization of organoids, their geographical location, and application areas.
Despite using pre-clinical trials in animal models, concerns are raised about whether the animals will be extinct if used over the years. This will lead to the depletion of species and a significant effect on the ecosystem. Moreover, they may lead to harmful effects on the environment once mutated and released. The Animal Welfare Act of 1970 was implemented in the United States and set standards for animal use and care in research. Three principles of the Act are (1) experiments must be proven necessary for instruction or to save or prolong human life, (2) animals must be appropriately anesthetized, (3) animals must be killed as soon as the experiment is over. Much to our intrigue, different types of organoids such as kidney organoids, lung organoids, liver organoids, intestine organoids, brain organoids, etc., can substitute such animal models in preclinical trials for drug discovery and precision medicine. Even self-organ plantation may occur with the continuous development of organoids.
Globally, the expenses of organ transplantation and post-transplantation maintenance treatment are quite expensive but varies according to variables such as geographical location, medical facility, transplant organ type, and access to insurance coverage [59]. Private hospitals in India now charge around INR 10 lakh to INR 30 lakh for a heart transplant, while in USA, the charges can be very high ~$1,664,800.00 (https://www.statista.com/statistics/808471/organ-transplantation-costs-us/). While the cost of a kidney transplant goes from INR 5 lakh to INR 20 lakh, while in USA it can be around ~$442,500.00. The cost of a liver transplant runs from INR 15 lakh to INR 35 lakh, and ~$878,400.00 in the USA. The eventuality of the unaffordability of such expensive treatment modalities led to the demise of a multitude. Furthermore, organ transplants from other donors are sometimes associated with organ rejection and the onset of auto-immune disease. It is not only the high cost of transplant but also the availability and transport of organs is a major issue in many countries. Though the number of donors have increased but the needs have also reached new heights [59]. One-third of all organ transplants fail due to rejection due to multiple reasons including HLA mismatch and alloantibodies [60]. While modern medicine has halted acute rejection but chronic rejection is a major challenge. The organoid technology may provide a realistic patform to design transplantable tissues in a dish thereby catering to the transplant problem in the near future as current limitation prevent organoids from meeting these expectations.
Another recent scientific area where organoids showed great potential was during the COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. SARS-CoV-2 causes respiratory illness and multi-organ dysfunction. Scientists were scrambling to test experimental COVID-19 systemic medicines. Organoids were used to study the adverse effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on human tissues and for the investigation of prospective therapeutic approaches. With the recent work on mini lungs organoids, a few of the drugs stemmed from the infection of the organoid models, representing a handful of possible treatments for COVID-19 [26]. Scientists must still develop methods to produce more complicated systems, such immune cells and blood arteries, to fully harness the technology [26]. Scientists must also find a way to swiftly and inexpensively produce thousands of identical organoids. Bioprinting is a potential new fast prototyping method that prints cells and accompanying matrices in 3D. Organoid bioprinting uses hydrogel-based bioinks to deposit various cell types that stimulate physiological signaling and can help commercialize the platform faster [61].
According to a study published by Fior Markets, the global organoids, and spheroids market is predicted to increase from USD 502.92 million in 2019 to USD 2794.79 million in 2027, with a CAGR of 23.91% from 2020 to 2027 [57, 62]. Till now, 19 companies are having an interest in organoid commercialization. Some of them are Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA), Merck (Kenilworth, NJ, USA), Corning (Corning, NY, USA), STEMCELL Technologies (Vancouver, Canada), Lonza (Basel, Switzerland), Prellis Biologics (San Francisco, CA, USA), Amsbio (Abingdon, UK), Cellesce (Cardiff, UK), DefiniGEN (Cambridge, UK), OcellO B.V. (Leiden, Netherlands), HUB Organoid Technology (Utrecht, Netherlands), 3Dnamics Inc. (Baltimore, MD, USA), Organoid Therapeutics (Pittsburgh, PA, USA), InSphero (Schlieren, Switzerland), etc. Organome (Baltimore, USA) and HUB (Hubrecht Organoid Technology) are dedicated to organoid biobanking, and other companies aim at manufacturing, organoid marketing, other related technologies. SUN Biosciences (Lausanne, Switzerland) and System1 Biosciences (San Francisco, CA, USA) use robotic automation tools for organoid generation. The semi-automated process enabled researchers to make retinal organoid production and selection faster using the algorithm. The MIMETAS (Leiden, Netherlands)—the organ-on-a-chip company, offers the second-best cell-based model after humans, using human cells growing in three-dimensional structures called Mimetas’OrganoPlates (microfluidics-based culture plates allowing culturing and screening of a range of organ and tissue models), which are affordable and available for nonspecialized end-users. With a consumption market share of about 46% in 2019, North America is the most important consumer of organoids, with Europe in second place. Key manufacturers of the global organoids market are Thermo Fischer Scientific, Merck, and Corning. The top three players took up a market share of about 75% in 2019. Byers of the report can access verified and reliable market forecasts, including those for the overall size of the global organoids’ market in terms of revenue. The Organoids’ market is segmented into 3D Organoid Culture and Biochemical Cues. In the case of Organoids application, the leading players are Biopharmaceutical Companies, Contract Research Organizations, Academics, and Research Institutes. The regional analysis covers North America (USA, Canada, and Mexico), Europe (Germany, France, UK, Russia, and Italy), Asia-Pacific (China, Japan, Korea, India, and Southeast Asia), South America (Brazil, Argentina, Columbia, etc.), Middle East and Africa (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Egypt, Nigeria, and South Africa) and predicts an upsurge in the usage of organoid technology across the globe in future.
Organoid Biobank is like a commercial bank with a similar modus operandi. In organoid biobank, collected samples from different sources such as stem cells, primary tissues, and biopsies were made into organoids and stored. The organoid samples can be taken from a healthy individual and a patient. These stored organoids are ready to use for different purposes. Organoid biobanks manage the database of organoids and a registry with all the patient details. These stored organoids can be tracked and used for wireless phenotyping with the help of radio-frequency identification (RFID) ultracompact chips inserted within them. The organoid biobanks store and transport organoids using liquid nitrogen.
The regulatory rules for organoid research use and commercialization are not very well laid in many countries and needs an update. The scientific, ethical, and regulatory problems related to organoid research are subject to extensive regulatory scrutiny and controlled partly by federal laws and state laws in the US and pertain to International laws in case of foreign collaborations. United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations are implemented in organoid research [63, 64, 65]. Organoid research is subject to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) approvals. Many institutions have Embryonic Stem Cell Research Oversight (ESCRO) or Stem Cell Research Oversight (SCRO) committees that oversee research utilizing human ESCs or iPSCs. These committees are outlined in the National Academies Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and help evaluate the scientific and ethical aspects. The special committees assess the current state of research, weigh the advantages and hazards, address related ethical problems, including informed consent from the donor, and evaluate suitable supervision methods as per the federal guidelines [63].
While in Europe, organoids research must be approved by the Research Ethics Committee (REC) as per the guidelines laid down by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). Different European countries also have their individual regulatory agencies. In India, the regulatory board is the Institutional Committee for Stem Cell Research (IC-SCR). At the same time, in China, the measures for Ethical Review of Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects and Ethical Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research, are used as guidelines [66]. The manufacturing process of organoids for commercial purpose must fulfill the same standards as other pharmaceutical drugs, following good manufacturing practices (GMP) [64, 65]. Additional hurdles exist at the convergence of organoid technology and commercial clinical use, global rules relating to the heterogeneity of approved quality standards, privacy laws and data protection, patent laws and identifying ownership. As a positive step in this direction, the International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) has set new stem cell research guidelines in 2021 [67, 68, 69]. It is expected that organoid-based biotechnology innovations would need updated global regulatory guidelines and governance in the future.
Organoid technology and biobanking have grown in recent years, paralleling the expansion of stem cell and organoid research. However, ethical, moral, and legal existential questions persist. One crucial aspect is establishing globally recognized consent procedures for research and clinical organoid biobanking protocol. Also, the ethical and moral implications for clinicians while using organ mimics should be called into question. Patenting concerns are bound to arise when organoids are distributed over the world. Collaborations between the public and commercial sectors may lead to data exchange, entitlement sharing, etc. Confidentiality decorum and global patenting rules for organoid rights are therefore evolving. Even the iPSC-based organoids bring new concerns around permission, commercialization, ownership, IP rights, safety, and marketing [70]. The proliferation of big data, genomics, biobanking, and the globalization of the biotechnology sector has complicated the task of setting universal ethical standards. The primary ethical consideration about organoids is who owns them and whether small organ mimics (similar to organs) can be traded? With the advances in organoid technology, where do we draw lines to differentiate between organoids and tissues/organs? Sample de-identification, donor consenting, and licensing rights need to be better defined, especially concerning organoid commercialization. Addressing these bottlenecks may allow quicker commercial application for drug discovery, disease modeling, and research and development.
In the upcoming years, the designed pilot project focuses on substituting animal or human models with the organoid model by encouraging better research and accessibility of organoids. The HCA has been encouraging this shift of models by establishing a reference map of the entire human cells; which will be the first molecular picture of a human that will help the researchers to functionally dissect and systematically analyze human biological systems that would lead to a better exploration of organoids as a model. The initial version of the organoid cell atlas is planned to be established by the upcoming year that will be practically useful and open to advancements. These are thought to help maximize the impact of the project to become helpful in the field of basic biology and biomedical applications. To broader the reach, the single-cell profiles will be made public as soon as possible following HCA\'s ethical, social, and legal guidelines. Finally, the Organoid Cell Atlas Portal will be made “into a public, sustainable and widely used infrastructure for finding, accessing, analyzing and interpreting single-cell data from human organoids.” The goal of the Organoid Cell Atlas is to make advancements in the biomedical field and develop various regenerative therapies by encouraging and accelerating disease-centric research of rare genetic diseases, precision oncology, or other complex diseases that are yet less understood. So, to achieve all of their objectives, they have made the portal open to create an inclusive research environment that would help in collaborating with a broad range of researchers interested in the field, which would later lead to extremely well-defined growth in the field of organoids.
M.K.P. acknowledges S. Dubinett, B. Gomperts, and V. Hartenstein for providing constant support and mentoring.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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Repeated applications of the sludge on the same site tend to increase the accumulation of heavy metals in the soil, so that an cause toxicities for soil microorganisms, animals, and humans, via the food chain. However, it is important to specify that these nuisances mainly concerned industrial sludge, but the use of this sludge is strictly prohibited. In addition, the high doses used in our field experiments are significantly higher than those authorized in agricultural practice. Finally, the risk assessment by calculating both the level of consumer exposure and the number of years for soil saturation shows that the use of urban sludge is safe, especially in the short and medium-term. Nevertheless, the quality of the sludge to be spread must be constantly monitored.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Najla Lassoued and Bilal Essaid"},{id:"81249",title:"Electrospun Polymeric Substrates for Tissue Engineering: Viewpoints on Fabrication, Application, and Challenges",slug:"electrospun-polymeric-substrates-for-tissue-engineering-viewpoints-on-fabrication-application-and-ch",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102596",abstract:"Electrospinning is the technique for producing nonwoven fibrous structures, to mimic the fabrication and function of the native extracellular matrix (ECM) in tissue. Prepared fibrous with this method can act as potential polymeric substrates for proliferation and differentiation of stem cells (with the cellular growth pattern similar to damaged tissue cells) and facilitation of artificial tissue remodeling. Moreover, such substrates can improve biological functions, and lead to a decrease in organ transplantation. In this chapter, we focus on the fundamental parameters and principles of the electrospinning technique to generate natural ECM-like substrates, in terms of structural and functional complexity. In the following, the application of these substrates in regenerating various tissues and the role of polymers (synthetic/natural) in the formation of such substrates is evaluated. Finally, challenges of this technique (such as cellular infiltration and inadequate mechanical strength) and solutions to overcome these limitations are studied.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Azadeh Izadyari Aghmiuni, Arezoo Ghadi, Elmira Azmoun, Niloufar Kalantari, Iman Mohammadi and Hossein Hemati Kordmahaleh"},{id:"82145",title:"Slope Casting Process: A Review",slug:"slope-casting-process-a-review",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102742",abstract:"Semi solid processing is a near net shape casting process and one of the promising techniques to obtain dendritic free structure of metals. Semi solid casting gives numerous advantages than solid processing and liquid processing. Semi solid casting process gives, Laminar flow filling of die without turbulence, Lower metal temperature, Less shrinkage, Less porosity, Higher mechanical properties. Semi solid casting process is industrially successful, producing a variety of products with good quality. Slope Casting process is a simple technique to produce semi solid feed-stoke with globular microstructure and dendrite free structure castings. Slope casting process depends on different process parameters like slope length, slope angle, pouring temperature etc. The present study mainly focuses on review of various explorations made by researchers with different process parameters of the Slope casting process and explain the mechanisms that lead to microstructural changes which leads to good mechanical properties.",book:{id:"11119",title:"Casting Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11119.jpg"},signatures:"Mukkollu Sambasiva Rao and Amitesh Kumar"},{id:"81861",title:"Emerging Human Coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-2) in the Environment Associated with Outbreaks Viral Pandemics",slug:"emerging-human-coronaviruses-sars-cov-2-in-the-environment-associated-with-outbreaks-viral-pandemics",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103886",abstract:"In December 2019, there was a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, a city of about 11 million people in Hubei Province. The World Health Organization (WHO), qualified CoVid-19 as an emerging infectious disease on March 11, 2020, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which spreads around the world. Coronaviruses are also included in the list of viruses likely to be found in raw sewage, as are other viruses belonging to the Picornaviridae family. SRAS-CoV-2 has been detected in wastewater worldwide such as the USA, France, Netherlands, Australia, and Italy according to the National Research Institute for Public Health and the Environment. In addition, the SARS-CoV-2 could infect many animals since it has been noticed in pigs, domestic and wild birds, bats, rodents, dogs, cats, tigers, cattle. Therefore, the SARS-CoV-2 molecular characterization in the environment, particularly in wastewater and animals, appeared to be a novel approach to monitor the outbreaks of viral pandemics. This review will be focused on the description of some virological characteristics of these emerging viruses, the different human and zoonotic coronaviruses, the sources of contamination of wastewater by coronaviruses and their potential procedures of disinfection from wastewater.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Chourouk Ibrahim, Salah Hammami, Eya Ghanmi and Abdennaceur Hassen"},{id:"81797",title:"Study of Change Surface Aerator to Submerged Nonporous Aerator in Biological Pond in an Industrial Wastewater Treatment in Daura Refinery",slug:"study-of-change-surface-aerator-to-submerged-nonporous-aerator-in-biological-pond-in-an-industrial-w",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104860",abstract:"Daura refinery, with a capacity of 140,000 barrel per stream day as a refining capacity, wastewater discharged from refining and treatment processing units, polluted water as foul water, drainages, oil spills, blowdown of boilers and cooling towers, and many other polluted water sources, aims to remove pollutants and reject clean water to the river; wastewater treatment system takes place in this treatment process. Wastewater treatment system suffers from many problems and specifically biological stage; at this stage, activated sludge with bacteria, should be supplied with oxygen, aeration system done by surface aerators with four surface fans; these fans suffer from high vibration, loss support, and in consequence, lack in oxygen supply to aerobic bacteria less than 4 ppm. The nonporous aerator is suggested as an oxygen source for the biological pool. The pilot plant builds the aim to study the ability to apply the new aeration system at the biological pool, pilot plant build with 1 cubic meter capacity tank and continuous overflow of wastewater of 10 liters.min−1, air injected with the pressure of (0.5–0.75) bar(g), and airflow of (7.6–9.7) liter.min−1 respectively. Oxygen concentration was recorded as (3.4–6.0) ppm; in terms of consumption power, changing the aeration system reduces it to less than 20%.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Omar M. Waheeb, Mohanad Mahmood Salman and Rand Qusay Kadhim"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:27},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:14,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:16,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hassan M.",surname:"Heshmati"}],book:{title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. 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He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. 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Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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