These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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Various novel neuroimaging modalities have\nbecome of paramount importance, not only in establishing diagnosis but also in\nguiding surgical intervention, and in evaluating the treatment effect. Advanced MR\nbased techniques such as Fractional Anisotropy, Diffusion Tensor Imaging, Proton\nSpectroscopy, and task-generated as well as resting-state functional MRI have tremendously increased the power of the modern neuroscientist’s armamentarium.\nThe employment of advanced neuroimaging techniques have been expanded in the\nscientific fields of neuropsychology, consumer’s psychology, and forensic medicine.\nOur current textbook presents exactly a collection of such innovative work, and\nexplores new frontiers, and future applications of neuroimaging",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0923-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7060-0",doi:"10.5772/2558",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"novel-frontiers-of-advanced-neuroimaging",numberOfPages:234,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b44af88b9211d7eb323f845f5e37ef05",bookSignature:"Kostas N. 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by",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11375",leadTitle:null,title:"Enterobacteria",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe members of the Enterobacteria are prevalent and involved in different types of infections (nosocomial, urinary tract infections, respiratory infections, gastroenteritis, food poisoining, different outbreaks, etc.), and they need to be reviewed after a period of time as different variants and species evolve and cause different infections that need to be studied thoroughly.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book aims to cover all members of the genus Enterobacteria (E.coli, Proteus, Salmonella, Shigella, Klebsiella, Citrobacter, Edwardsiella, etc.) with respect to classification, identification, and new methods of identification for any new species identified. Explanations on the pathogenecity and variants of each of the members of enterobacteria are welcome, as well as any vaccines or prevention strategies, and outbreaks of infection reported for each of the members of Enterobacteria. The book hopes to serve as a complete resource on Enterobacteria for students, scientists, clinicians, and medical microbiologists.
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1. Introduction
Dysphagia is defined as difficulty in swallowing. It is commonly caused due to neuromuscular (stroke, dementia, Parkinson’s disease, myasthenia gravis, etc.), mechanical (oral cancer, oesophageal cancer, etc.), or other causes (radiotherapy treatment, gastroesophageal reflux disease, thrush, etc.). It risks aspiration and associated bronchopulmonary infections, fluid depletion, and under nutrition. It can alter nutritional equilibrium and can affect organ function and ultimately clinical outcome. To improve clinical outcomes, it is important to screen all at risk patients in order to identify patients at nutritional risk due to dysphagia [1–4]. Most dysphagia resolves within few weeks, but in some cases it may persist. This may affect the nutritional state of the individual who is already facing an illness or injury in first instance [5, 6]. Dysphagia and accompanying malnutrition is associated with excess morbidity and increased mortality rates [7, 8]. This chapter will focus on general principles of nutritional management in any patient including patients with dysphagia.
2. Nutritional screening and assessment
Up to 30% of all acute hospital admissions are malnourished and this is further deepened during hospitalisation [9]. Hence, all the patients should be screened for risk of malnutrition.
Did you experience a decreased appetite over the past month?
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Did you use supplemental drinks or tube feeding over the past month?
\n\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t
\n\t
Table 1.
Short Nutritional Assessment Questionnaire a
a Patients who scored 0 or 1 points were classified as well-nourished and did not receive intervention. Patients who scored 2 points were classified as moderately malnourished and received nutritional intervention. Patients who scored 3 points were classified as severely malnourished and received nutritional intervention and treatment by a dietician.
Nutritional assessment is a more detailed process and is done in patients screened at risk or when metabolic or functional problems prevent a standard plan being carried out. There are few tools for evaluating the nutritional status of hospitalised patients. SGA, short nutritional assessment questionnaire, mini nutritional assessment (MNA), and corrected arm muscle area (CAMA) are tools used for nutritional assessment [18]. The assessment of nutritional status includes a nutritional history and physical examination in conjunction with appropriate laboratory studies [Figure 2]. Regurgitation, hoarse voice, coughing during or after swallowing, globus sensation, nasal regurgitation, recurrent chest infections, and frequent throat clearing symptoms may indicate dysphagia [19]. In all patients with dysphagia, a complete evaluation of the cause of dysphagia must be performed and for the purpose of this chapter we will only discuss nutrition-related assessment.
Figure 1.
‘MUST’ flowchart
Figure 2.
Nutritional assessment
The nutritional history should evaluate the following:
Food intake
A change in the dietary pattern due to dysphagia should be ascertained.
Body weight
The presence of unintentional weight loss over past six months should be ascertained. 10% or greater unintentional weight loss over the past six months is categorised as severe weight loss and is associated with a poor clinical outcome. In a study involving 3,047 patients enrolled in 12 chemotherapy protocols of Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group, Dewys WD, et al. has shown that chemotherapy response rates and median survival rates were lower in patients with weight loss [20]. The functional status of the patients (e.g., bedridden) and metabolic stress due to accompanied illness or injury also need to be ascertained.
Physical examination
Body mass index (BMI): Patients are classified by BMI as underweight (<18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5–24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25.0–29.9 kg/m2), class I obesity (30.0–34.9 kg/m2), class II obesity (35.0–39.9 kg/m2), or class III obesity (≥40.0 kg/m2) [21].
Hand grip strength, gait speed, triceps skin fold thickness, mid-arm circumference, mucosal xerosis, and edema are some of the physical signs which could help establish malnutrition in patients with dysphagia. Handgrip strength reflects, in part, the association of muscle strength and lean body mass with malnutrition [22]. In a study conducted by the International Academy on Nutrition and Aging (IANA) Task Force, gait speed at usual pace is found to be a consistent risk factor for disability, cognitive impairment, falls, institutionalisation, and/or mortality and at least as sensitive as composite tools [23].
Laboratory studies
Measurements of serum albumin, prealbumin, retinol-binding protein, transferrin, createnine height index, createnine extretion in urine and total lymphocyte count have been shown to correlate with clinical outcome. In a study involving 17 critically ill patients, Apelgren KN et al. have shown that a serum albumin <2.5 g/dL concentration is associated with an increased incidence of medical complications and death and it correctly separated 93% of patients in terms of survival prognosis [24]. Serum albumin levels are often used as a surrogate for preoperative nutritional assessment, but it is confounded by coexisting inflammation [25, 26]. Injury and inflammation decreases synthesis, increases degradation and transmembrane losses from the plasma compartment. In addition, albumin is also lost from open wounds (burns, etc.), peritonitis and through the gastrointestinal tract and/or kidneys in certain diseases. The association between hypoalbuminemia and poor clinical outcome is independent of both nutritional and inflammatory status [27]. Serum albumin is a good predictor of clinical outcomes but is a poor marker for nutritional assessment.
3. Nutritional pharmacology
If a patient is identified as at risk of malnutrition, appropriate intervention should be done to improve outcomes. Nutritional pharmacology is an emerging science over the last two decades. Nutrients such as arginine, glutamine, and long chain fatty acids (both omega 3 and omega 6) have been shown to improve clinical outcomes in diverse group of patients [28]. Arginine exhibits diverse effects including wound healing, protects against ischemia-reperfusion, improves macrophage function after injury, blocks adhesion molecules, inhibits lipid peroxidation, and improves cerebral and myocardial perfusion [28]. In a double blind randomised controlled trial involving 32 malnourished patients with head and neck cancer, Buijs N et al. concluded that perioperative arginine-enriched enteral nutrition improved long term overall survival and long term disease specific survival [29]. Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid and is a fuel of neutrophils, lymphocytes, and enterocytes. Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid in situations of stress. A recent Cochrane review including 4,671 patients with critical illness or elective major surgery concluded that glutamine supplementation reduced the infection rate and days on mechanical ventilation in critically ill or surgical patients [30]. Long chain fatty acids are important in function of cell membranes and act as intracellular messengers.
4. Enteral nutrition
Enteral route is physiologic and ‘A functioning gastrointestinal system should be used to prevent its malfunction’. Oral nutritional is ideal. Patients with dysphagia are at risk of aspiration pneumonia. Authors recommend a swallowing history and assessment prior to oral feeding. Until safety of oral feeding is established, tube feeding should be considered. Figure 3 outlines a simplistic approach in decision making for nutritional supplementation.
4.1. Formula feeds
There are various feeding formulas and selection should be based on fluid electrolyte and metabolic needs, digestion and absorption capacity, caloric and protein density of formula, physical characteristics of formula (osmolality, viscosity etc.), and cost. General purpose feeding formulas contain intact proteins and need an intact digestive and absorptive function of gastrointestinal system. Semi-elemental feeds contain free amino acids with minimal fat and are used in patients with compromised gastrointestinal function. There are also various disease-specific feeds available for patients with hepatic, renal, or pulmonary dysfunction. In addition, nutrient composition of the formulas can be altered to tailor individual patients need and such modular feeds require mixing by local pharmacy and are costly [31]. Once the feeding formula is decided and the nutritional requirement calculated, the rate and delivery of the feeding is established.
Figure 3.
Algorithm of nutritional supplementation
4.2. Feed delivery
Intermittent bolus feeding is convenient to administer by nasogastric or percutaneous gastric tube and is suitable in ambulatory patients. Although there are no definitive studies, bolus feeding reduces lower esophageal sphincter pressure and may increase the chance for reflux and aspiration [32]. Intermittent cyclic feeding is indicated during weaning from tube feeding to oral feeding. It can be pump-assisted or gravity-assisted and feeding cycles of varying duration of period can be planned. This feeding is advantageous when an overnight tube feed is administered and the patient continues his normal oral intake during the day. Constant feeding infusion assisted by pump or gravity is indicated in bedridden patients with critical illness. Nasal tubes are associated with discomfort, excoriation and bleeding, and anosmia. Hence, when long-term feeding is required, percutaneous gastrostomy or jejunostomy tubes should be used. In a United Kingdom study involving 1,327 patients including 1,027 patients with gastrostomy tube insertion, Kurien M et al. has demonstrated that patients who undergo gastrostomy have significantly lower mortality than those who defer the procedure (11.2% vs. 35.5% at 30 days and 41.1% vs.74.3% at 1 year, p<0.0001) [33]. The most common indication of feeding gastrostomy remains inadequate swallowing as a result of a neurological event, oropharyngeal or esophageal cancer, or facial trauma [34]. Traditionally, tube feeding is delayed until the next day after the procedure. Authors’ personal preference is to institute the feeding at the next opportunity. In a meta-analysis of six randomised controlled trials involving 467 patients, Bechtold ML et al. has shown that early feeding (defined as within 4 hrs) after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy placement was safe [35]. In patients with restricted mouth opening, oral cavity is inaccessible and a surgical gastrostomy needs to be created. Feeding gastrostomy is associated with the risk of aspiration and is not possible in patients with gastric outlet obstruction, gastroparesis, or gastric resection. In such patients, feeding jejunostomy is an alternative. Percutaneous feeding jejunostomy can also be inserted via the existing gastrostomy site. Percutaneous placement of feeding jejunostomy is technically difficult compared to gastrostomy. In a study involving 150 patients without a previous history of major abdominal surgery, Shike M et al. found that direct percutaneous endoscopic jejunostomy was successful in 129 procedures (86%) and aspiration occurred in 3% of patients [36]. Enteral nutrition preserves the gut integrity, reduces bacterial translocation, maintains the gut immune function, is easily administered and monitored, and cheaper compared to parenteral nutrition. However, it can also lead to complications.
4.3. Enteral nutrition: Common issues
Enteral nutrition causes mechanical problems with tube placement (migration, clogging etc.), metabolic problems (osmotic diarrhoea, overhydration, etc.), and is labour intensive (tube management, infusion pump device usage, etc.). In patients with tube feeding, prior to commencing feeding, a radiological confirmation of tube placement must be checked. Tube clogging could be prevented by using a wide tube, flushing the tube with water after medicine administration, minimising gastric aspirates to keep pH levels low, and using pancreatic enzymes mixed with bicarbonate [37]. Peristomal wound infections and leakage are also common problems associated with tube feeding and add to patient and family anxiety along with the nursing care burden [38]. In a Cochrane review with a pooled analysis of 1,271 patients from 12 randomised controlled trials, Lipp A et al. have shown that administration of prophylactic systemic antibiotics for percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy tube placement reduces peristomal infection rates (OR 0.36, 95% CI: 0.26–0.50) [39]. Peristomal leakage can be reduced by appropriate fixation technique and antisecretory agents. In patients with persistent leakage, the tube should be withdrawn and replaced after few days or a new tube placed at the separate site, but no attempt should be made to control the leakage with a wider tube as it may exacerbate the leakage [40–42]. Diarrhoea remains the commonest gastrointestinal side effect of enteral tube feeding [43, 44]. Addition of fibre and probiotics has shown to reduce diarrhoea in enteral feeding. In a systematic review and meta-analysis including 51 studies, 43 randomised control trials and 1,762 subjects (1,591 patients and 171 healthy volunteers), Elia M et al. have shown that fibre supplementation was generally well tolerated and the incidence of diarrhoea reduced (OR 0.68, 95% CI: 0.48–0.96; 13 randomised control trials) [45]. In a randomised double blind placebo controlled trial involving 62 patients, Heimburger DC et al. have shown that most cases of diarrhoea in tube fed patients are caused by factors extraneous to tube feeding and lactobacillus treatment did not alter the risk of diarrhoea [46]. Patients on enteral feeding are also at risk of aspiration pneumonia. There are various strategies recommended to reduce the risk of aspiration namely head end of bed elevation, gastric residual volume measurement and postpyloric feeding. In a prospective randomized study involving 38 patients in medical and surgical intensive care units, endoscopically placed feeding jejunal tube-fed patients had a lower rate of pneumonia (nil vs. 10.5%) compared to patients fed by continuous gastric tube feeding [47]. In a literature review of 45 studies including patients with neurogenic oropharyngeal dysphagia over a period of 1978 to 1989, authors were not able to derive any meaningful conclusions with regard to superiority of postpyloric feeding due to limitations of individual studies with small sample size, inconsistent definitions of aspiration, varying feeding protocols, unspecified time frames, and heterogeneous populations [48]. Monitoring enteral nutrition involves fluid electrolyte balance, weight chart, serum electrolyte and glucose measurement, and stool charting. Refeeding syndrome is characterised by electrolyte depletion, fluid shifts, and glucose derangements that occur on reinstitution of nutrition in malnourished patients [49]. Chronically malnourished patients (e.g., patients with dysphagia) are at high risk of refeeding syndrome. In a study involving 321 patients with 92 patients at risk of refeeding hypophosphataemia, Zeki S et al. has shown that refeeding hypophosphataemia is more common in enteral-fed patients compared to parenteral nutrition [50]. Gradual introduction and progression of feeding over a few days with close monitoring of fluid and electrolytes can help in the prevention and early recognition of refeeding syndrome.
National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) guidelines recommend that in an acute setting, if patients are unable to swallow safely or meet caloric needs orally, they should have an initial 2–4 week trial of nasogastric enteral tube feeding. Health care professionals with relevant skills and training in the diagnosis, assessment, and management of swallowing disorders should assess the prognosis and options for future nutrition support [19]. Before modifying nutritional support in a patient with dysphagia, level of alertness, need for feeding assistance, mobility, recurrent chest infections, metabolic needs, etc. should be considered [19].
5. Parenteral nutrition
In patients with short bowel or gastrointestinal intolerance, total parenteral nutrition is required. In general, parenteral nutrition should be considered if energy intake has been, or is anticipated to be, inadequate (<50% of daily requirements) for more than 7 days and enteral feeding is not feasible. Total parenteral nutrition requires labour-intensive monitoring for infection and haemodynamic stability. Metabolic complications, such as fluid overload, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercalcemia, hypoglycaemia, hyperglycaemia, and specific nutrient deficiencies, are usually caused by overzealous or inadequate nutrient administration. Catheter-related blood-borne infection is the most common life-threatening complication in patients who receive total parenteral nutrition and is commonly caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis or Staphylococcus aureus [51]. In a study involving 331 central venous catheters used for home parenteral nutrition with a median duration of 730 days, Buchman AL et al. have demonstrated increased rates of catheter-related blood-borne infections in patients receiving lipid emulsions, obtaining blood from catheter and administering medications via the catheter [52]. The incidence of most complications associated with the use of total parenteral nutrition is reduced with careful management and supervision, preferably by an experienced nutrition support team if available [53].
6. Nutrition support team
An interdisciplinary nutrition support team could include physicians, dieticians, pharmacists, and nurse clinicians. In a study involving 209 parenteral nutrition starts, Trujillo EB et al. have showed that non-indicated and preventable parenteral nutrition initiation, short-term (defined as less than 6 days) parenteral nutrition use and metabolic complications are less likely (34% vs. 66%, p = 0.04) when patients receive consultation by a multidisciplinary metabolic support service [54]. Nutritional support teams closely work with speech and swallowing assessment teams locally at Tan Tock Seng Hospital. In patients with non-obstructive dysphagia, videofluoroscopy swallowing study is conducted prior to determining the route of feeding. It is possible that patients may be permitted oral feeds and in addition enteral tube feeding to ensure their caloric requirements are met.
7. Conclusion
Dysphagia patients are at risk of malnutrition. Malnutrition worsens during hospitalisation. Nutritional screening and assessment are paramount to improve outcomes. There are various tools to assist in nutritional screening and assessment and it is advisable to use the locally validated tool in clinical practise. Patients with dysphagia have special needs and this need to be considered during initiation and modification of nutrition therapy. Enteral nutrition is recommended wherever feasible. Nutrition support teams and swallowing therapy experts should be involved in all patients with dysphagia who require nutrition therapy.
Supplement
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore, for permission to publish Tan Tock Seng Hospital Nutrition Screening Tool (TTSH NST).
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Shelat",slug:"vishal-g.-shelat",email:"vgshelat@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"National University of Singapore",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Singapore"}}},{id:"172153",title:"Dr.",name:"Garvi",middleName:null,surname:"Pandya",fullName:"Garvi Pandya",slug:"garvi-pandya",email:"garvi22@rediffmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Nutritional screening and assessment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Nutritional pharmacology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Enteral nutrition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Formula feeds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Feed delivery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Enteral nutrition: Common issues",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Parenteral nutrition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"6. Nutrition support team",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Supplement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Martino R, Pron G, Diamant N. Screening for oropharyngeal dysphagia in stroke: Insufficient evidence for guidelines. Dysphagia 2000;15(1):19-30.'},{id:"B2",body:'Brown T, Findlay M, Von Dincklage J, Davidson W, Hill J, Isenring E, Talwar B,Bell K, Kiss N, Kurmis R, Loeliger J, Sandison A, Taylor K, Bauer J. Using a wiki platform to promote guidelines internationally and maintain their currency: Evidence-based guidelines for the nutritional management of adult patients with head and neck cancer. J Hum Nutr Diet 2013;26(2):182-190.'},{id:"B3",body:'Garg S, Yoo J, Winquist E. Nutritional support for head and neck cancer patients receiving radiotherapy: A systematic review. Support Care Cancer 2010;18(6):667-677.'},{id:"B4",body:'Beaver ME, Matheny KE, Roberts DB, Myers JN. 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Risk factors for the development of catheter-related bloodstream infections in patients receiving home parenteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral nutr 2013;38(6):744-9.'},{id:"B53",body:'Nehme AE. Nutritional support of the hospitalized patient. The team concept. JAMA 1980;243(19):1906-8.'},{id:"B54",body:'Trujillo EB, Young LS, Chertow GM, Randall S, Clemos T, Jacobs DO, Robinson MK. Metabolic and monetary costs of avoidable parenteral nutrition use. JPEN. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1999;23(2):109-13.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Vishal G. Shelat",address:"vgshelat@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Tan Tock Seng Hospital, Singapore
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1. Introduction
Sample analysis consists of various analytical steps, including sampling, sample preparation, separation, detection and data analysis. One of the most important steps is sample preparation, which involves the extraction, isolation and concentration of target analytes from complex matrices. Sample preparation [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18] is the most labor-intensive and error-prone process in analytical methodology and markedly influences the reliability and accuracy of analyte determination. In addition, sample preparation requires large amounts of sample and organic solvents, and is therefore difficult to automate. An ideal sample preparation technique should be simple and fast; be specific for analytes through the efficient removal of coexisting components; provide high sample throughput; utilize fewer operation steps to minimize analyte losses; and be solvent-free, inexpensive, and compatible with chromatography systems. Online automated sample preparation [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29], in which sample preparation is directly connected to chromatographic separation systems, eliminates further sample handling between the trace-enrichment and separation steps. Online automated sample preparation methods usually improve data quality, increase sample throughput, reduce costs, and improve the productivity of personnel and instruments.
In-tube solid-phase microextraction (SPME), using a capillary tube as an extraction device, was introduced by Eisert and Pawliszyn [30] to overcome the problems inherent to conventional fiber SPME. These drawbacks included fragility, low sorption capacity, bleeding from thick-film coatings on fibers, limited effectiveness for extraction of weakly volatile or thermally labile compounds not amenable to gas chromatography (GC) or GC-mass spectrometry (MS), and reduced stability in solvents used in high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In-tube SPME was also developed to completely automate the sample preparation process and to enable direct online coupling of in-tube SPME with HPLC using capillary column switching systems [31].
This chapter reviews the configurations and characteristics of in-tube SPME technology and discusses current and future directions, including the strategies involved in extraction efficiency and method development. The details of in-tube SPME have been described in well documented reviews [27, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50].
2. Configurations of in-tube SPME
In-tube SPME is an efficient sample preparation technique for extraction in capillary columns using stationary phases coated on the inner wall of the capillary or on the surface of the packing material (Figure 1). Various in-tube SPME capillary devices have been developed, such as inner wall-coated fused-silica open tubular (Figure 1A), fiber-packed (Figure 1B), sorbent-packed (Figure 1C), and rod-type porous monolith (Figure 1D) capillaries [16, 31]. The capillaries are easily fixed with the autosampler injection system, and are generally reusable without plugging or breaking the column and without exfoliation of coating materials.
Figure 1.
Capillary devices for in-tube SPME: (A) polymer coated, (B) sorbent-packed, (C) fiber-packed, and (D) monolith capillary tubes.
2.1 Operating systems of in-tube SPME
Flow-through systems (Figure 2), in which sample solutions are continuously passed in one direction through a capillary column; or as repeated draw/ejection systems (Figure 3), in which sample solutions are repeatedly aspirated and dispensed from a capillary column, are used as an operating system of in-tube SPME [18]. These systems are operated by column switching techniques under computer control.
Figure 2.
Schematic diagrams of a flow-through extraction system used for online in-tube SPME. (A) Load position (extraction), and (B) injection position (desorption).
Figure 3.
Schematic diagrams of a draw/eject extraction system used for online in-tube SPME (reproduced from Ref. [37]). (A) Extraction and concentration step, and (B) desorption and injection step.
In flow-through systems, the complete analytical system consists of an automatic six-port valve, two pumps (a sample pump and a wash pump) and a liquid chromatography (LC) system. A capillary column is installed in the six-port valve or sometimes placed in the loop. Although one or two six-port valves are available, one valve mode is used more frequently than others. The procedure consists of four steps, conditioning, extracting, washing and desorbing. After conditioning of capillary column with water, the aqueous sample is pumped through the column under the load position (Figure 2A). Remaining matrix and residues in capillary are removed by washing with water. After switching the six-port valve to the injection position, the LC mobile phase is passed through the column (dynamic desorption), with the flow-rate of the LC pump (Figure 2B). The desorbed analytes are subsequently transferred to the analytical column for separation and detection. The flow-through extraction system, however, may include systematic troubles, such as contamination of the switching valve by sample matrix [18, 31, 37, 41].
Repeated draw/ejection systems include the placement of a capillary column for extraction between the injection loop and the injection needle of the autosampler. Since the sample solution moves only in the capillary, the metering pump and switching valve are not contaminated by sample matrix [18, 31, 37, 41]. A built-in UV diode array detector (DAD) or fluorescence detector (FLD) between the HPLC and the MS can enhance the multidimensional and simultaneous multi-detections, improving analyte identification. During the extraction and concentration step (Figure 3A), the injection syringe is programmed to repeatedly draw and eject sample solution from the vial until the concentration of the analyte reaches distribution equilibrium between the sample solution and the stationary phase. After switching the six-port valve to the injection position, the extracted analytes can be directly desorbed from the capillary coating by LC mobile phase flow (dynamic desorption) or by an aspirated desorption solvent (static desorption) (Figure 3B) [31]. The desorbed analytes are subsequently transferred to an LC column. The computer controls the drawing and ejection of sample solution; switching of the valves; control of peripheral equipment, such as the HPLC and MS; and analytical data processing, thus reducing labor and enhancing precision. In addition, the autosampler can automatically process a large number of samples without carryover, because the injection needle and capillary column are washed in methanol and the mobile phase before the sample is extracted.
2.2 Extraction sorbent materials
The amount of analyte extracted into the stationary phase of the capillary during in-tube SPME is dependent on the characteristics of the capillary coating and the target analyte. Among the commercially available GC capillary columns, silica modified columns have been found more suitable for the analysis of nonpolar compounds. Porous polymer type capillary columns such as Supel-Q PLOT (divinylbenzene polymer, film thickness 17 μm) have shown better extraction efficiencies due to their large surface area for most organic compounds than other liquid-phase type capillary columns, such as CP-Sil 5CB (100% polydimethylsiloxane, film thickness 5 μm), Quadrex 007–5 (5% phenyl polydimethylsiloxane, film thickness 12 μm), CP-Sil 19CB (14% cyanopropyl phenyl methylsilicone, film thickness 1.0 μm), and CP-Wax 52CB (polyethylene glycol, film thickness 1.2 μm). CP-Sil 19CB was superior for extraction of polyaromatic hydrocarbons, although the film layer was thin. In contrast, some compounds were effectively extracted with other PLOT type coatings, including Carboxen-1006 PLOT (carboxen molecularsives, film thickness 17 μm) and CP-Pora PLOT amine (basic modified styrene divinylbenzene polymer, film thickness 10 μm).
Several unique phases and technical solutions have been developed to improve extraction efficiency and selectivity when extended to microscale applications [44, 51, 52, 53]. These include polypyrrole (PPY) coated capillaries; PEEK tube capillaries packed with molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) particles [54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61]; and highly biocompatible SPME capillaries packed with alkyl-diol-silica (ADS) particles as restricted access media (RAM) [62, 63], immunosorbents [64], ionic liquids [65, 66, 67], monolithic materials [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73], carbon nanomaterials [74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82], silica-coated magnetite (SiO2-Fe3O4) [83, 84, 85, 86], and temperature responsive polymers [87, 88]. Novel extraction sorbent materials for in-tube SPME are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Novel extraction sorbent materials for in-tube SPME (eproduced from Ref. [37, 42, 84]). (A) Molecularly imprinted polymers, (B) restricted access media, (C) immunosorbents, (D) monolithic polymers, (E) carbon nanotubes, (F) silica-coated magnetite, and (G) temperature responsive polymers.
For example, chemically or electrochemically deposited PPY coatings have higher extraction efficiencies than commercial GC coatings due to the various types of interactions (e.g., π–π, polar, hydrogen bonding, and ionic interactions) between these multifunctional PPY coatings and the analytes. Capillary tubes have been coated with MIP, consisting of cross-linked synthetic polymers produced by copolymerizing a monomer with a cross-linker in the presence of a template molecule (Figure 4A), and PEEK tubes have been packed with MIP particles. By removing the template after polymerization, it is possible to leave open sites of a specific size and shape suitable for binding the same or similar chemicals in a sample. MIPs recognize chemicals through combination of shape, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions [16, 18, 31]. RAM materials possess defined diffusion barriers with small sized pores and biocompatible outer particle surfaces (Figure 4B). The bifunctionality of ADS particles used as a RAM SPME device can prevent fouling of the capillary by protein adsorption while simultaneously trapping the analytes in the hydrophobic porous interior. Furthermore, a simple SPME device has been fabricated for use in online immunoaffinity capillaries packed with immunosorbent materials, consisting of covalently immobilized antibodies (Figure 4C).
An alternative approach consists of in-tube SPME using monolithic capillary columns comprised of one piece of organic polymer or silica rods with a unique flow-through double-pore structure (Figure 4D). Monoliths are also highly permeable to liquids and biological samples, enabling reduced solvent use, varied support formats, and/or automation. Monolithic capillaries are especially suitable for in-tube SPME media due to the low pressure drop, allowing a high flow-rate to achieve high throughput and a total porosity greater than that of particle-packed capillaries. Hydrophobic main chains and acidic pendant groups of poly (methacrylic acid-ethylene glycol dimethacrylate) enhance the ability to extract basic analytes from aqueous matrices. The physicochemical properties of graphene-based sorbents and carbon nanotubes (Figure 4E) enable their use in extraction, with these combinations showing excellent results when used for in-tube SPME. In addition, various cationic, anionic and zwitterionic liquid-mediated sol–gel coatings have been developed for effective in-tube SPME.
Other innovative extractive phases that enhance the affinity of the analytes include silica magnetite (SiO2-Fe3O4; Figure 4F) and poly (N-isopropylacrylamide; Figure 4G), which have been used in new microextraction processes involving magnetism and thermal energy, respectively. Magnetic and temperature controlled in-tube SPME are performed using flow-through systems, due to the need for additional equipment providing a magnetic or thermal field, which is easier to implement using flow-through devices. Other techniques include wire-in-tube SPME, using modified capillary columns with inserted stainless steel wires, and fiber-in-tube SPME, using PEEK tubes packed with fibrous rigid-rod heterocyclic polymers. These methods increase extraction efficiency by reducing capillary volume or increasing the extracting surface and have shown improved extraction efficiency when extended to microscale applications.
3. Method development and characteristics of in-tube SPME
3.1 Optimization of in-tube SPME
In-tube SPME depends on the distribution coefficient of each analyte. Extraction conditions may be optimized by increasing the distribution factor in the stationary phase. The selectivity and efficiency of extraction depend on the type of stationary phase and on the internal diameter, length, and film thickness of the capillary column. Sorption equilibrium is attained by optimizing various extraction parameters for each type of analyte. These parameters include extraction rate, sample volume, sample pH, flow-rate, number of draw/eject cycles (only draw/eject system), and desorption conditions. As described in the preceding section, the choice of capillary coating is important for optimizing extraction selectivity and efficiency. Generally, low and high polarity columns selectively retain hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds, respectively. Stationary phase consisting of a thicker film and longer column can extract larger amounts of compound, but quantitative desorption of compounds from capillary columns may be difficult. PLOT-type columns have a larger adsorption surface area and thicker film layer than liquid-phase-type columns, enabling more analytes to be extracted [16, 18].
Generally, the optimal length and internal diameter of a capillary column used in combination with HPLC is 20–80 cm and 0.25 or 0.32 mm, respectively. Although thick-film capillaries often show higher sample capacity and extraction sensitivity, it is extremely difficult to reliably bind thicker chemical coatings to the inner surfaces of fused-silica capillary tubes using conventional approaches. In contrast, thin-film capillaries can minimize the time to reach extraction equilibrium due to their low sample capacity. Capillary columns with chemically bonded or cross-linked liquid phases are very stable in water and organic solvents and can prevent loss of phase by LC mobile phase [18].
The volume of sample passed through a capillary is usually 0.2–2 mL in flow-through extraction systems, and their optimum extraction flow rates are 0.25–4 mL/min depending on the volume of the column. Although increases in the number and volume of draw/eject cycles can enhance extraction efficiency in draw/ejection systems, peak broadening is often observed [16]. Optimal conditions for a capillary column of inner diameter 0.25 mm and length 60 cm include a draw/ejection volume of 30–40 μL, a draw/ejection flow rate of 50–100 μL/min and 10–15 draw/ejection cycles. Below this rate, extractions require an inconveniently long time, and above this rate, bubbles form on the inside of the capillary, reducing extraction efficiency. Furthermore, the extraction efficiency of the analyte to the stationary phase varies with the pH of the sample solution. The presence of hydrophilic solvents such as methanol in the sample reduces the extraction efficiency. The analyte extracted on capillary coatings can be easily desorbed statically or dynamically without carryover [18].
3.2 Characteristics of the in-tube SPME technique
Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of in-tube SPME. The main advantage is that the series of processes can be automated, which enables continuous extraction, desorption and injection with column switching using a standard autosampler, and online coupling with the LC system [16, 18, 31]. In-tube SPME may be suitable for the determination of polar and thermolabile compounds. Compared with manual techniques, automated sample-handling procedures not only shorten the total analysis time but are more accurate and precise. Automated techniques are also suitable for miniaturization, high-throughput performance, and online coupling with analytical instruments, and reduce the consumption of solvent. Online procedures can limit contact with dirty and hazardous samples, reducing sample contamination and loss. Online column-switching systems are highly sensitive due to pre-concentration resulting from the injection of large sample volumes into the extraction support without loss of chromatographic performance. The main disadvantage is that the capillaries tend to clog, which may be avoided by removing interfering phases such as particles or macromolecules by filtration or centrifugation before extraction. Although the absolute recovery rate of the in-tube SPME method is generally low, it can be extracted and concentrated reproducibly using an autosampler, and all extracts can be introduced into the LC column [16, 18, 31].
Advantage
Disadvantage
Minimal sample adjustment
Large injection volume (flow-through system)
Applicable to polar and thermolabile liquid samples
Low solvent consumption
Decreased handling of biohazardous samples
Less sample loss due to online closed system
Lower likelihood of carryover
Higher mechanical stability of capillaries
Reusability of capillaries without plugging or breaking
Commercially available GC capillary columns
Applicability of various unique adsorbents to specific and efficient extraction
Easy on-line coupling with liquid chromatography
Enabling of full automation by column switching
Commercially available autosamplers
Improvements in selectivity and sensitivity
Better precision and accuracy
Tendency of the capillary to clog
Limited to particulate-free samples
Stripping of non-bonding thick-film coatings
Possible peak broadening
Switching of valves, extraction columns, and pumps required
Complicated switching system
Relatively low enrichment factor
Relatively long extraction time
Table 1.
Advantages and disadvantages of in-tube SPME.
The online in-tube SPME method can be applied to polar and nonpolar compounds in liquid samples, and can be coupled with various analytical methods, such as HPLC and LC–MS. Early applications of online in-tube SPME have involved draw/eject extraction systems and commercially available open-tubular GC capillaries such as Supel Q PLOT and Carboxen 1006 PLOT capillaries. The subsequent development of various operating systems and new sorbent materials improved extraction efficiency, such as sorption capacity and selectivity, and extended the range of applications. Last decade, numerous applications of online in-tube SPME methods have been reported to many types of pharmaceutical and biomedical [86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124], food [125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137], and environmental [138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178] analyses.
4. Conclusions and future directions
The online in-tube SPME techniques described in this chapter have many desirable features for automated separation of analytes, using column-switching techniques. These methods are especially well suited to the analysis of samples requiring significant cleanup and concentration to improve their selectivity and sensitivity, as well as being useful for high-throughput sampling. Since the in-tube SPME method using capillaries as an extraction device is useful for online sample preparation to extract and concentrate polar and non-polar compounds from aqueous solution, it has become an effective technique for convenient analysis of a wide variety of compounds in complex matrices such as biological, pharmaceutical, food and environmental samples [31]. Furthermore, various operating systems and new sorbent materials have been developed to improve extraction efficiency and sorption capacity and selectivity, and to extend the range of applications. These include MIPs, RAM, immunosorbents, monolithic materials, carbon nanoparticles, ionic liquids, temperature responsive polymers and magnetic hybrid adsorbents.
The main future direction in sample preparation is the development of more sensitive and selective extraction sorbents [31]. Chiral active phases, ionic liquids, dendrimers, aptamer modified sorbents, magnetic materials, temperature responsive materials may be available as new polymer devices for effective sample preparation. Furthermore, biomimetic coating materials including ultrasound and light responsive polymers may be available as a selective extraction device in the future. These customized coating materials, differing in type, shape, and size, are expected to result in highly efficient extraction of various samples. Biocompatible RAM and monolithic sorbents are useful for direct analysis, without pre-treatment other than dilution and centrifugation of biological samples. As another future direction, better integration of sampling/sample preparation and instrumental analysis will allow wider use of automated online analysis. Especially, the use of column-switching systems involving microextraction techniques and/or microdevices will offer convenient integration of sample preparation with various analytical instruments such as HPLC as well as other chromatographic systems, electrophoresis, direct MS, etc.
Finally, this chapter provides an overview of the configurations and characteristics of in-tube SPME technology for online automated micro sample preparation for HPLC. We hope that this chapter will serve as a guide to choosing the most effective sample preparation techniques for the analysis of various complex samples.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Basic Scientific Research (C, No. 17 K08259).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"sample preparation, online automated analysis, column switching, in-tube solid-phase microextraction, high-performance liquid chromatography",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68865.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/68865.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68865",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68865",totalDownloads:945,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 16th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 8th 2019",datePrePublished:"August 29th 2019",datePublished:"June 24th 2020",dateFinished:"August 29th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sample preparation is one of the most labor-intensive and time-consuming operations in sample analysis. Sample preparation strategies include the exhaustive or non-exhaustive extraction of analytes from matrices. Online coupling of sample preparation with the separation system is regarded as an important goal. In-tube solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is an effective sample preparation technique that uses an open tubular fused-silica capillary column as an extraction device. In-tube SPME is useful for trace enrichment, automated sample cleanup, and rapid online analysis. Moreover, this method can be used to determine the analytes in complex matrices by direct sample injection or merely by simple sample treatment such as filtration. In-tube SPME is frequently combined with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) using online column-switching techniques. Various operating systems and new sorbent materials have been reported to improve extraction efficiency, such as sorption capacity and selectivity. This chapter discusses efficient micro sample preparation techniques for HPLC, especially online automated in-tube SPME.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68865",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68865",signatures:"Hiroyuki Kataoka, Atsushi Ishizaki and Keita Saito",book:{id:"8912",type:"book",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",subtitle:"Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",bookSignature:"Oana-Maria Boldura, Cornel Baltă and Nasser Sayed Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8912.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-857-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-856-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-903-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"189429",title:"Prof.",name:"Oana-Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Boldura",slug:"oana-maria-boldura",fullName:"Oana-Maria Boldura"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"88155",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kataoka",slug:"hiroyuki-kataoka",email:"hkataoka@shujitsu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Shujitsu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"308808",title:"MSc.",name:"Atsushi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishuzaki",fullName:"Atsushi Ishuzaki",slug:"atsushi-ishuzaki",email:"ishizaki@shujitsu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Shujitsu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"308809",title:"Dr.",name:"Keita",middleName:null,surname:"Saito",fullName:"Keita Saito",slug:"keita-saito",email:"ksaito@shujitsu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Shujitsu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Configurations of in-tube SPME",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Operating systems of in-tube SPME",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Extraction sorbent materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Method development and characteristics of in-tube SPME",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Optimization of in-tube SPME",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Characteristics of the in-tube SPME technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Conclusions and future directions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pawliszyn J, Lord H. Handbook of Sample Preparation. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons; 2010'},{id:"B2",body:'Papadoyannis IN, Samanidou VF. Sample preparation for HPLC. In: Cazes J, editor. Encyclopedia of Chromatography. 3rd ed. Vol. III. Broken Sound Parkway: CRC Press; 2010. pp. 2090-2105'},{id:"B3",body:'Ashri NY, Abdel-Rehim M. 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A. 2018;1571:29-37'},{id:"B127",body:'Wang J, Jiang N, Cai Z, Li W, Li J, Lin X, et al. Sodium hyaluronate-functionalized urea-formaldehyde monolithic column for hydrophilic in-tube solid-phase microextraction of melamine. Journal of Chromatography. A. 2017;1515:54-61'},{id:"B128",body:'Wu F, Wang J, Zhao Q , Jiang N, Lin X, Xie Z, et al. Detection of trans-fatty acids by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with in-tube solid-phase microextraction using hydrophobic polymeric monolith. Journal of Chromatography. B, Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences. 2017;1040:214-221'},{id:"B129",body:'Wang TT, Chen YH, Ma JF, Hu MJ, Li Y, Fang JH, et al. A novel ionic liquid-modified organic-polymer monolith as the sorbent for in-tube solid-phase microextraction of acidic food additives. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2014;406:4955-4963'},{id:"B130",body:'Asiabi H, Yamini Y, Seidi S, Esrafili A, Rezaei F. Electroplating of nanostructured polyaniline-polypyrrole composite coating in a stainless-steel tube for on-line in-tube solid phase microextraction. Journal of Chromatography. A. 2015;1397:19-26'},{id:"B131",body:'Ishizaki A, Saito K, Hanioka N, Narimatsu S, Kataoka H. Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food samples by automated on-line in-tube solid-phase microextraction coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection. Journal of Chromatography. A. 2010;1217:5555-5563'},{id:"B132",body:'Ishizaki A, Saito K, Kataoka H. Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contamination in tea products and crude drugs. Analytical Methods. 2011;3:299-305'},{id:"B133",body:'Ying LL, Wang DY, Yang HP, Deng XY, Peng C, Zheng C, et al. Synthesis of boronate-decorated polyethyleneimine-grafted porous layer open tubular capillaries for enrichment of polyphenols in fruit juices. Journal of Chromatography. 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School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, Nishigawara, Okayama, Japan
School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, Nishigawara, Okayama, Japan
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As a consequence, plants have acquired several sophisticated regulatory mechanisms that allow them to cope with such adverse conditions. Epigenetic regulation plays a key role in the mechanisms of plant response to the environment, without altering DNA sequences. Epigenetics refers to heritable alterations in chromatin architecture that do not involve changes in the underlying DNA sequence but alter gene expression through DNA methylation or histone modifications. The epigenetic regulation of the plant genome is a highly dynamic process that fine-tunes the expression of a pertinent set of genes under certain environmental or developmental conditions. Over the past two decades rapid advancements in the field of high throughput sequencing unveil epigenetic information at genome wide level in various plant species. 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As discovery of human miRNAs increased in the setting of disease, the research focus was gradually shifted towards miRNA therapeutic strategy for diagnostic and treatment of disease. Increasing evidences suggest that miRNAs are the next important class of antisense therapeutic molecules, which have significant advantage over antisense such as siRNAs because miRNAs are naturally occurring endogenous molecules. Aberrant alteration of the endogenous miRNAs has been linked to the development of certain diseases. Correcting these altered miRNAs by their mimics or inhibitors has been developed as potential therapeutic approaches. Some of the miRNA-based therapeutics are processed in preclinical and clinical trial for treatment hepatitis C, liver cancer, and other diseases. Currently, the major focus in the development of miRNA-based therapeutics is how to increase the miRNA stability and optimize delivery systems for specific disease with minimal off-target effect. This chapter will first overview the miRNA biogenesis, patho- and physiologic function, and regulation of miRNA molecules. Then, we discuss the miRNA-based potential therapeutic approaches and implication in disease.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Andrew Walayat, Meizi Yang and DaLiao Xiao",authors:[{id:"188957",title:"Dr.",name:"DaLiao",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",slug:"daliao-xiao",fullName:"DaLiao Xiao"},{id:"269866",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Walayat",slug:"andrew-walayat",fullName:"Andrew Walayat"},{id:"283826",title:"Dr.",name:"Meizi",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"meizi-yang",fullName:"Meizi Yang"}]},{id:"32799",doi:"10.5772/33525",title:"GC3 Biology in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes",slug:"gc3-biology-in-eukaryotes-and-prokaryotes",totalDownloads:1980,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:null,book:{id:"1723",slug:"dna-methylation-from-genomics-to-technology",title:"DNA Methylation",fullTitle:"DNA Methylation - From Genomics to Technology"},signatures:"Eran Elhaik and Tatiana Tatarinova",authors:[{id:"95992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:"Valerievna",surname:"Tatarinova",slug:"tatiana-tatarinova",fullName:"Tatiana Tatarinova"},{id:"105570",title:"Dr.",name:"Eran",middleName:null,surname:"Elhaik",slug:"eran-elhaik",fullName:"Eran Elhaik"}]},{id:"63488",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80874",title:"Nontransformative Strategies for RNAi in Crop Protection",slug:"nontransformative-strategies-for-rnai-in-crop-protection",totalDownloads:2042,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"RNAi in crop protection can be achieved not only by plant-incorporated protectants through plant transformation (transgenic) but also by nontransformative strategies such as formulations of sprayable dsRNAs used as direct control agents, resistance factor repressors, or developmental disruptors. Therefore, the RNAi-based biopesticides are expected to reach the market also in the form of nontransgenic strategies such as sprayable products, stem injection, root drenching, seed treatment, or powder/granule. While the delivery of dsRNA by transgenic expression is well established, it requires generations of crop plants and is costly, which may take years and delays for practical application, depending on the regulatory rules, plant transformability, genetic stability, and public acceptance of genetically modified crop species. DsRNA delivery as a nontransgenic approach was already published as a proof-of-concept work, so it is time to point out some directions on how the real potential for agriculture and crop protection is.",book:{id:"7331",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Deise Cagliari, Ericmar Avila dos Santos, Naymã Dias, Guy Smagghe\nand Moises Zotti",authors:null},{id:"65775",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84628",title:"The Role of DNA Repair in Cellular Aging Process",slug:"the-role-of-dna-repair-in-cellular-aging-process",totalDownloads:1272,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Aging is defined as the time-dependent decline of functional properties. One common denominator of aging is mitochondrial dysfunction and accumulation of genetic damage throughout life. In fact, the imperfect maintenance of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA likely represents a critical contributor of aging. Each day, the integrity and stability of DNA are challenged by exogenous physical, chemical, or biological agents, as well as by endogenous processes, including DNA replication mistakes, spontaneous hydrolytic reactions, and reactive oxygen species. In this way, DNA repair systems have evolved a complex network that is collectively able of dealing with most of the damages inflicted. However, their efficiency may decrease with age and, therefore, influence the rate of aging. Thus, the purpose of this work is to summarize the recent knowledge in cellular aging process and its link with DNA repair systems, with a particular emphasis on the molecular mechanisms associated.",book:{id:"8605",slug:"dna-repair-an-update",title:"DNA Repair",fullTitle:"DNA Repair- An Update"},signatures:"Francisco Alejandro Lagunas-Rangel and Rosa María Bermúdez-Cruz",authors:[{id:"205238",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Bermudez",slug:"rosa-bermudez",fullName:"Rosa Bermudez"},{id:"287111",title:"MSc.",name:"Francisco-Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Lagunas-Rangel",slug:"francisco-alejandro-lagunas-rangel",fullName:"Francisco-Alejandro Lagunas-Rangel"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66368",title:"Introductory Chapter: Gene Editing Technologies and Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",totalDownloads:1147,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Yuan-Chuan Chen",authors:[{id:"185559",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yuan-chuan-chen",fullName:"Yuan-Chuan Chen"}]},{id:"64290",title:"Strand Displacement Amplification for Multiplex Detection of Nucleic Acids",slug:"strand-displacement-amplification-for-multiplex-detection-of-nucleic-acids",totalDownloads:2167,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The identification of various targets such as bacteria, viruses, and other cells remains a prerequisite for point-of-care diagnostics and biotechnological applications. Nucleic acids, as encoding information for all forms of life, are excellent biomarkers for detecting pathogens, hereditary diseases, and cancers. To date, many techniques have been developed to detect nucleic acids. However, most of them are based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology. These methods are sensitive and robust, but they require expensive instruments and trained personnel. DNA strand displacement amplification is carried out under isothermal conditions and therefore does not need expensive instruments. It is simple, fast, sensitive, specific, and inexpensive. In this chapter, we introduce the principles, methods, and updated applications of DNA strand displacement technology in the detection of infectious diseases. We also discuss how robust, sensitive, and specific nucleic acid detection could be obtained when combined with the novel CRISPR/Cas system.",book:{id:"7331",slug:"modulating-gene-expression-abridging-the-rnai-and-crispr-cas9-technologies",title:"Modulating Gene Expression",fullTitle:"Modulating Gene Expression - Abridging the RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 Technologies"},signatures:"Lingwen Zeng, Omar Mukama, Xuewen Lu, Shilin Cao and Donghai\nLin",authors:null},{id:"63557",title:"Molecular Identification of Genetically Modified Crops for Biosafety and Legitimacy of Transgenes",slug:"molecular-identification-of-genetically-modified-crops-for-biosafety-and-legitimacy-of-transgenes",totalDownloads:1985,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Crops undergo artificially DNA modifications for improvements are considered as genetically modified (GM) crops. These modifications could be in indigenous DNA or by introduction of foreign DNA as transgenes. There are 29 different crops and fruit trees in 42 countries, which have been successfully modified for various traits like herbicide tolerance, insect/pest resistance, disease resistance and quality improvement. GM crops are grown worldwide and its area is significantly increasing every year. Many countries have very strict rules and regulations for GM crops and are also a trade barrier in some situations. Hence, identification and testing of crops for GM contents is important for identity and legitimacy of transgene to simplify the international trade. Normally, molecular identification is performed at three different levels, i.e., DNA, RNA and protein, and each level has its own importance in testing about the nature and type of GM crops. In this chapter, current scenario of GM crops and different molecular testing tools are described in brief.",book:{id:"8891",slug:"gene-editing-technologies-and-applications",title:"Gene Editing",fullTitle:"Gene Editing - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Shahid Nazir, Muhammad Zaffar Iqbal and Sajid-ur-Rahman",authors:null},{id:"38872",title:"Repetitive DNA: A Tool to Explore Animal Genomes/Transcriptomes",slug:"repetitive-dna-a-tool-to-explore-animal-genomes-transcriptomes",totalDownloads:4681,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2748",slug:"functional-genomics",title:"Functional Genomics",fullTitle:"Functional Genomics"},signatures:"Deepali Pathak and Sher Ali",authors:[{id:"33032",title:"Dr.",name:"Sher",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"sher-ali",fullName:"Sher Ali"},{id:"141455",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepali",middleName:null,surname:"Pathak",slug:"deepali-pathak",fullName:"Deepali Pathak"}]},{id:"64492",title:"Antisense Oligonucleotides, A Novel Developing Targeting Therapy",slug:"antisense-oligonucleotides-a-novel-developing-targeting-therapy",totalDownloads:3360,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have been validated as therapeutic agents and an important tool in molecular biology. Indeed, ASOs are used either in vitro or in vivo to generate mRNA selective knockouts. They can be used for human therapy since ASOs can inhibit specifically target genes especially whose are difficult to target with small molecules inhibitors or neutralizing antibodies. However, despite their specificity and broadness of use, some practical obstacles remain unsolved in antisense pharmacology, such as insufficient stability due to nucleases degradation activity, and poor cellular delivery as a result of low cellular uptake difficult biological membrane crossing. Moreover, in many cases, potential off-target effects and immunostimulation are also part of the problems derived from their use. In this review, we will discuss ASOs, their chemistry, limitation of use, some solutions to increase stability, and finally some of their therapeutical application.",book:{id:"6987",slug:"antisense-therapy",title:"Antisense Therapy",fullTitle:"Antisense Therapy"},signatures:"Sara Karaki, Clément Paris and Palma Rocchi",authors:[{id:"273516",title:"Dr.",name:"Palma",middleName:null,surname:"Rocchi",slug:"palma-rocchi",fullName:"Palma Rocchi"},{id:"275051",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Karaki",slug:"sara-karaki",fullName:"Sara Karaki"},{id:"282578",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"clement-paris",fullName:"Clement Paris"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"396",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81720",title:"Genetic Transformation in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells",slug:"genetic-transformation-in-prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103839",abstract:"Improving the quality and quantity of an organism and its products can be approached by molecular characters enhancement through the insertion of a gene of interest into cells of the desired organism. Genetic transformation of an organism involves isolation, identification, cloning a gene of interest into a vector, and transferring the gene to the target organism. This chapter reviews the process of genetic transformation into the organism’s cell from bacterial (Escherichia coli), yeast, plant (Onion, Tobacco, and Orchids), and mammalian. The discussion will be focused on the introduction of DNA molecules into plant cells and protoplast mediated by polyethylene glycol (PEG), electroporation, and gene gun using particle bombardment. Further discussion on the transient protein expression system of plant-based on protoplast, onion cell, and tobacco will also be covered in this chapter as well. The systems have been proven as a powerful tool for determining subcellular protein localization, protein-protein interactions, identifying gene function, and regulation. Finally, it can be clearly seen, the differences and similarities in the mechanism of genetic transformation both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Endang Semiarti, Yekti Asih Purwestri, Saifur Rohman and Wahyu Aristyaning Putri"},{id:"81604",title:"Nonribosomal Peptide Synthesis",slug:"nonribosomal-peptide-synthesis",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104722",abstract:"Nonribosomal peptides (NRPs) are a type of secondary metabolite with a wide range of pharmacological and biological activities including cytostatics, immunosuppressants or anticancer agents, antibiotics, pigments, siderophores, toxins. NRPs, unlike other proteins, are synthesized on huge nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) enzyme complexes that are not dependent on ribosomal machinery. Bacteria and fungi are the most common NRPs producers. Furthermore, the presence of these peptides has been confirmed in marine microbes. Nowadays, many of these peptides are used in the treatments of inflammatory, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and infectious disease for the development of new therapeutic agents. The structure, function, and synthesis of NRPs, as well as producer microorganisms and their several application areas, are covered in this chapter.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takci and Melis Sumengen Ozdenefe"},{id:"81051",title:"CRISPR Technology: Emerging Tools of Genome Editing and Protein Detection",slug:"crispr-technology-emerging-tools-of-genome-editing-and-protein-detection",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102516",abstract:"CRISPR technology has seen rapid development in applications ranging from genomic and epigenetic changes to protein identification throughout the last decade. The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and CRISPR-associated (Cas) protein systems have transformed the ability to edit, control the genomic nucleic acid and non-nucleic acid target such as detection of proteins. CRISPR/Cas systems are RNA-guided endonucleases exhibiting distinct cleavage activities deployed in the development of analytical techniques. Apart from genome editing technology, CRISPR/Cas has also been incorporated in amplified detection of proteins, transcriptional modulation, cancer biomarkers, and rapid detection of POC (point of care) diagnostics for various diseases such as Covid-19. Current protein detection methods incorporate sophisticated instrumentation and extensive sensing procedures with less reliable, quantitative, and sensitive detection of proteins. The precision and sensitivity brought in by CRISPR-dependent detection of proteins will ensure the elimination of current impediments. CRISPR-based amplification strategies have been used for accurate estimation of proteins including aptamer-based assay, femtomolar detection of proteins in living cells, immunoassays, and isothermal proximal assay for high throughput. The chapter will provide a comprehensive summary of key developments in emerging tools of genome editing and protein detection deploying CRISPR technology, and its future perspectives will be discussed.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Rita Lakkakul and Pradip Hirapure"},{id:"80374",title:"Viral Vectors in Gene Therapy and Clinical Applications",slug:"viral-vectors-in-gene-therapy-and-clinical-applications",totalDownloads:33,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102559",abstract:"Developments in gene therapy, coupled with advances in genome sequencing and a greater understanding of DNA sequences, have given rise to an exciting area of research. The use of viral vectors in gene therapy has become a very promising and fast-emerging technology over the past few decades. Despite previous setbacks, the approval of viral vector therapies worldwide, with many in late-stage clinical trials has led to a significant increase in research in this area of gene therapy. Retroviral, adenoviral, adeno-associated viral, and lentiviral vectors are all key vectors currently being researched and used in clinical trials. There are many challenges with the use of viral vectors that are yet to be overcome including cost of production, the immune response, and the ability to precisely regulate the expression of the transgene. However, with increased numbers of clinical trials showing efficacy, safety, and growing financial investment, the future use of viral vectors in gene therapy is increasingly promising.",book:{id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg"},signatures:"Alexandra L.G. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. 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Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. 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She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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