Some records of global
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6964",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cell Culture",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cell culture is one of the major tools used in cellular and molecular biology, delivering an excellent model for studying the normal physiology and biochemistry of cells. This book covers some advanced aspects in cell culture methodologies. The book has four sections discussing different types of cell culture models, including 3D cell culture techniques, their advantages, and limitations in comparison to traditional 2D culturing; cell viability, autophagy, in vitro toxicity tests and live cell imaging; stem cell culture for cell-based therapeutics; and specific applications and methodologies for hybrid cell lines and cancer models. This book provides a comprehensive overview of some of the advanced cell culture methodologies and applications. It serves as a valuable source for scientists, researchers, clinicians and students.",isbn:"978-1-78984-867-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-866-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-748-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73709",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cell-culture",numberOfPages:292,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"045f3a964a9628162956abc06ef5777d",bookSignature:"Radwa Ali Mehanna",publishedDate:"January 23rd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6964.jpg",numberOfDownloads:18026,numberOfWosCitations:34,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:59,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:115,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 19th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 2nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 1st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 19th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 18th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"182118",title:"Dr.",name:"Radwa Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Mehanna",slug:"radwa-ali-mehanna",fullName:"Radwa Ali Mehanna",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182118/images/system/182118.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Radwa Mehanna PhD, Assistant Professor of Medical Physiology, Stem cells and Cell culture laboratories coordinator in the Center of Excellence for Research in Regenerative Medicine and its Applications (CERRMA), Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University. \nDr. Radwa had a postdoctoral research visits in McGill university, Canada and the European Collection of Cell Culture (ECACC), UK. She is a member in the Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine International Society (TERMIS), Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine Egyptian Society and Egyptian Association of Advancement of Medical Basic Sciences (EAMBS). Dr. Radwa has a number of publications in international peer-reviewed journals in the fields of stem cells and cell culture and is a reviewer in many international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:"Alexandria University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"47",title:"Cell Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-cell-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"63158",title:"2D vs. 3D Cell Culture Models for In Vitro Topical (Dermatological) Medication Testing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79868",slug:"2d-vs-3d-cell-culture-models-for-in-vitro-topical-dermatological-medication-testing",totalDownloads:2104,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to ethical concerns regarding animal testing, alternative methods have been in development to test the efficacy and safety of pharmaceutical products and medications, specifically topical (dermatological) medications. Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) skin cell cultures are examples of in vitro methods used as an alternative to animal testing. The first skin cells cultured were keratinocytes, a type of cell predominantly in the epidermal layer of the skin. However, with differences in skin characteristics and pathophysiology of different skin conditions, various skin cell cultures and models to better mimic these differences have been developed. These cell cultures include not only keratinocytes but also other skin cell types, such as fibroblasts, which are predominantly in the dermal layer of the skin, and certain immune cells and even melanocytes. To have a better understanding of the type of cell cultures used for testing dermatological products, this chapter aims to outline the differences between 2D and 3D skin cell cultures while considering the advantages and disadvantages of each culture. Different types of cell culture models used for wound healing and for inflammatory skin conditions such as psoriasis will also be discussed.",signatures:"Arezou Teimouri, Pollen Yeung and Remigius Agu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63158",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63158",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64565",title:"Two-Dimensional (2D) and Three-Dimensional (3D) Cell Culturing in Drug Discovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81552",slug:"two-dimensional-2d-and-three-dimensional-3d-cell-culturing-in-drug-discovery",totalDownloads:3389,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:42,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cell culture is an indispensable in vitro tool used to improve our perception and understanding of cell biology, the development of tissue engineering, tissue morphology, mechanisms of diseases and drug action. Efficient cell culturing techniques both in vitro and in vivo allow researchers to design and develop new drugs in preclinical studies. Two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures have been used since 1900s and are still a dominant method in many biological studies. However, 2D cell cultures poorly imitate the conditions in vivo. Recently three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures have received remarkable attention in studies such as drug discovery and development. Optimization of cell culture conditions is very critical in ensuring powerful experimental reproducibility, which may help to find new therapies for cancer and other diseases. In this chapter, we discuss the 2D and 3D cell culture technologies and their role in drug discovery.",signatures:"Jitcy Saji Joseph, Sibusiso Tebogo Malindisa and Monde Ntwasa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64565",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64047",title:"Time-Lapse Microscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81199",slug:"time-lapse-microscopy",totalDownloads:1418,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Time-lapse microscopy is a powerful, versatile and constantly developing tool for real-time imaging of living cells. This review outlines the advances of time-lapse microscopy and refers to the most interesting reports, thus pointing at the fact that the modern biology and medicine are entering the thrilling and promising age of molecular cinematography.",signatures:"John L. Collins, Bart van Knippenberg, Kai Ding and Alexander V.\nKofman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64047",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64047",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63703",title:"Cell-Based Assays for Evaluation of Autophagy in Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80088",slug:"cell-based-assays-for-evaluation-of-autophagy-in-cancers",totalDownloads:1165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Autophagy is a cellular mechanism that degrades damaged organelles and misfolded proteins to maintain cellular homeostasis. Autophagy in cancers is drawing increasing attentions due to its multifaceted roles in cancer development, progression, and treatment. There are several key autophagy effectors that are being extensively studied to understand the role of autophagy in cancer as well as their potential value as predictive and/or prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic target. These include ATG4A, ATG4B, Beclin-I, p62, LC3A, LC3B, LC3C, and LAMP. While having its own sophisticated pathway, autophagy has been reported to associate with multiple oncogenic pathways such as NF-kB, mTOR, and PI3K signaling. This chapter aims to provide a detailed protocol for researchers to investigate the role of autophagy using in vitro cell line as model. Here, we demonstrate several techniques including Western blot (WB), immunofluorescence (IF), and small-interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown using colorectal cancer cell lines as samples. This chapter provides information to researchers especially those in their early- and mid-career to plan and design their experiments to study the autophagy events in their area of interests.",signatures:"Siew-Wai Pang, Noel Jacques Awi, Hooi-Yeen Yap and Sin-Yeang\nTeow",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63703",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63703",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63968",title:"In Vitro Toxicity Testing of Nanomaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80818",slug:"in-vitro-toxicity-testing-of-nanomaterials",totalDownloads:1221,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cell culture-based techniques are employed world-wide to assess risks to optimize design and handling of materials. Nano-scale particles particularly pose a challenge to the predictability of toxicity. This is due to the interplay of several factors including size, shape, surface properties, micro-environment, charge, electronic species etc., that affect the degree of cellular stress. Numerous assays could be employed to understand the nature of toxicity. Some of these include cytotoxicity, metabolic kinetics, modulation in cellular morphology. Various models such as primary cell culture and cell lines can also be employed that best suits a study. Signaling cascades could also be monitored in better understanding cellular responses holistically. Fluorescence microscopy can further be attempted in studying spatial and temporal variations of bio-markers. Ultimately any plethora of dose-response data, need to be streamlined for developing toxicity evaluation protocols that are accurate, cost effective and time saving.",signatures:"Ansie Martin and Angshuman Sarkar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63968",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63496",title:"Culturing Adult Stem Cells for Cell-Based Therapeutics: Neuroimmune Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80714",slug:"culturing-adult-stem-cells-for-cell-based-therapeutics-neuroimmune-applications",totalDownloads:1370,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pluripotent stem cells can be successfully isolated from a variety of tissues from adult organisms. This fact opens the exciting possibility of cell-based therapies for a large number of clinical treatments. However, the development of optimized protocols to obtain, grow, and cryopreserve cells, as well as that of effective clinical treatment procedures, is no easy task. The therapeutic potential of cells expanded in vitro depends on a multitude of factors including isolation procedures, donor and tissue types, expansion and preservation methods, etc. Researchers are investing great efforts to determine which of these many variables significantly impact downstream performance of in vitro expanded stem cells by studying associated changes in molecular profiles and their effect on the host immune system. This chapter reviews the current status of stem cell production and its derivatives, which are paving the way to different treatments in the clinic. Due to the research interests of our labs, particular emphasis is placed on the potential benefits of stem cell-based therapeutics for the treatment of spinal cord injuries and the neuroimmune disease myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) not only derived from differentiation and cell engraftment mechanisms but also due to the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory capacities of these cells.",signatures:"Victoria Moreno-Manzano and Elisa Oltra García",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63496",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63496",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63877",title:"Morphological Comparison of Stem Cells Using Two- Dimensional Culture and Spheroid Culture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81471",slug:"morphological-comparison-of-stem-cells-using-two-dimensional-culture-and-spheroid-culture",totalDownloads:1065,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mesenchymal stem cells are of great interest, especially in regeneration medicine. Mesenchymal stem cells have the ability to differentiate into several tissues including bone and fat. The stem cells can be obtained from various tissues including bone marrow, periosteum, gingiva, and tooth. Traditionally, two-dimensional culture has been applied for stem cell research. However, more recently, a three-dimensional model has been of great interest for studying the stem cells because it mimics the physiological conditions. Spheroid culture is one way of applying three-dimensional culture. This report describes the two-dimensional culture and spheroid culture and the morphological comparison will be performed between two-dimensional culture and spheroid culture.",signatures:"Sae Kyung Min, Hyunjin Lee, Minji Kim and Jun-Beom Park",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63877",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63598",title:"Authenticating Hybrid Cell Lines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80669",slug:"authenticating-hybrid-cell-lines",totalDownloads:1036,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Hybrid (both intra-species and inter-species) cell lines arise through intentional or nonintentional fusion of somatic cells having different origins. Hybrid cell lines can pose a problem for authentication testing to confirm cell line identity, since the results obtained may not conform to the results expected for the two parental cell types. Thus, depending on the identity testing methodology, a hybrid cell may display characteristics of one of the parental cell type or of both. In some instances, the hybrid cell line may display characteristics that are different from those displayed by either parental cell type; these differences may not necessarily indicate cellular cross-contamination. Testing should be performed as soon as possible after an intended fusion has occurred, so that a baseline reference profile is available for later comparison. In this article, we describe the various approaches that have been used for identifying hybrid cell lines and the results that might be expected when using various technologies for this purpose.",signatures:"Raymond W. Nims, Amanda Capes-Davis, Christopher Korch and\nYvonne A. Reid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63598",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63598",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62466",title:"Air Pouch Model: An Alternative Method for Cancer Drug Discovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79503",slug:"air-pouch-model-an-alternative-method-for-cancer-drug-discovery",totalDownloads:1431,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The tumor microenvironment (TME) is composed of cancer, immune, and stromal cells that interact through cell-to-cell contact and a diverse milieu of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and proteases. Several reports have linked the presence of specific cell subtypes with tumor stages, prognosis, and patient survival. Understanding cancer cell behavior and their response to treatment within the tumor microenvironment is essential to prevent establishment, growth, and progression of tumors. Many synthetic and biological agents have been tested using cell-based assays, which do not provide reliable predictive capacity for drug candidate performance in vivo. In this chapter, we discuss about the benefits of an air pouch tumor model, in which tumor cells are inoculated inside an air pouch created on the back of the mouse. The air pouch cancer model serves as a confined/localized tumor microenvironment, where direct contact of drug candidates and tumor cells is guaranteed in a tumor microenvironment context. Therefore, the efficacy of the therapeutic agent can be accurately assessed in vivo.",signatures:"Moisés Armides Franco-Molina, Silvia Elena Santana-Krímskaya and\nCristina Rodríguez-Padilla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62466",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62466",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"62823",title:"Optimization of the Self-Assembly Method for the Production of Psoriatic Skin Substitutes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79843",slug:"optimization-of-the-self-assembly-method-for-the-production-of-psoriatic-skin-substitutes",totalDownloads:1117,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tissue engineering of the skin is used for various applications. However, to develop treatments for skin pathologies such as psoriasis, robust pathological skin models are needed. The purpose of the work presented in this chapter was to optimize the production of more reproducible psoriatic skin substitutes by modifying the original self-assembly method. Substitutes were produced according to the self-assembly method partially modified. The culture flasks of 25 cm2 were replaced by 6-well and 12-well plates. Fibroblasts were cultured in 6-well and 12-well plates with ascorbic acid until they form manipulable sheets, which were superimposed and incubated for 7 days to form a dermal layer. Afterwards, keratinocytes were seeded on the dermal layer forming an epidermal layer. Then, the substitutes were raised to the air-liquid interface and cultured 21 days before being analyzed. Analyses demonstrated that psoriatic substitutes have a significantly thicker epidermis than healthy substitutes and the persistence of nuclear structures in corneocytes, with original and both modified methods. Immunofluorescence markers such as filaggrin, loricrin, and keratin 14 have confirmed these results. However, some differences were observed in substitutes produced with 12-well plates. Modifications made to the original method for the production of psoriatic substitutes are effective and lead to highly reproducible substitutes more suitable for pharmacological testing.",signatures:"Alexe Grenier, Isabelle Gendreau and Roxane Pouliot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62823",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62823",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"60390",title:"Monolayers of Carbohydrate-Containing Lipids at the Water- Air Interface",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76440",slug:"monolayers-of-carbohydrate-containing-lipids-at-the-water-air-interface",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glycolipids are important members of the glycoconjugate family that are distributed on cell surfaces and are important in aspects of cellular behavior including signal transduction, protein trafficking, cell surface recognition and cell adhesion. Errors in the synthesis or mutations of these glycoconjugates are often linked with various human pathological conditions. The complex nature of their molecular structures coupled with the complexity of cellular structure make their study a challenging process, which can be simplified by fabrication of model membrane systems. Liposomes and monolayers of lipids at the air-water interface are two of the most frequently used model membrane systems. Techniques for fabrication of monolayer models and methods used for their studies are discussed with a focus on glycolipids.",signatures:"Bishal Nepal and Keith J. Stine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60390",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60390",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63327",title:"Erythropoiesis and Megakaryopoiesis in a Dish",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80638",slug:"erythropoiesis-and-megakaryopoiesis-in-a-dish",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Erythrocytes and platelets are the major cellular components of blood. Several hereditary diseases affect the production/stability of red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets (Plts) resulting in anemia or bleeding, respectively. Patients with such disorders may require recurrent transfusions, which bear a risk to develop alloantibodies and ultimately may result in transfusion product refractoriness. Cell culture models enable to unravel disease mechanisms, and to screen for alternative therapeutic products. Besides these applications, the ultimate goal is the large-scale production of blood effector cells for transfusion. Cultured RBCs that lack many of the common blood group antigens and Plts-lacking HLA expression would improve transfusion practice. Large numbers of RBCs and Plts can already be generated using hematopoietic stem cells derived from fetal liver, cord blood, peripheral blood, and bone marrow as starting material for cell culture. The recent advances to generate blood cells from induced pluripotent stem cells provide a donor-independent, immortal primary source for cell culture models. This enables us to study developmental switches during erythropoiesis/megakaryopoiesis and provides potential future therapeutic applications. In this review, we will discuss how erythropoiesis and megakaryopoiesis are mimicked in culture systems and how these models relate to the in vivo process.",signatures:"Eszter Varga, Marten Hansen, Emile van den Akker and Marieke von\nLindern",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63327",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63327",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",slug:"keratin",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",bookSignature:"John N. 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Small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are more likely to experience
Year | Foodstuff implicated | Country of outbreak |
---|---|---|
2017 | Creamy, soft, raw-milk cheeses [2] | USA |
2016 | Frozen vegetables [62] | USA |
2016 | Raw milk chocolate milk products [63] | USA |
2016 | Packaged salad [64] | USA |
2015 | Soft cheese [65] | USA |
2015 | Ice cream [66] | |
2014 | Commercially produced, pre-packaged caramel apples [67] | USA |
2014 | Mung bean sprouts [68] | USA |
2014 | Soft cheese [69] | USA |
2014 | Cheese products [70] | USA |
2017–2017 | Various food products [71] | South Africa |
2017 | Not determined [72] | Australia |
2014 | Various food products [73] | 28 EU/EEA countries |
Some records of global
RTE foods, which are often stored at low temperatures, are the type most susceptible to contamination with
Globally, billions of people are at risk every year and thousands die as a result of consuming unsafe food [12]. In the United States of America (USA), listeriosis has been identified as the third leading cause of death from food-borne illness, after non-typhoidal
In humans, invasive listeriosis is characterized by septicemia, meningitis, and abortion in pregnant women [15]. Listeriosis in pregnant women can result in premature labor, stillbirth, abortion, and neonatal infection, with high neonatal mortality [16]. It should be noted that
Listeriosis may have an economic impact in the form of costs incurred by the government in funding health institutions to deal with the problem [18]. Other costs can take the form of legal costs emanating from lawsuits imposed on food production companies arising from illness and death due listeriosis [19].
RTE foods have gained considerable popularity in many developing and developed countries because of their perceived better flavor, affordability and accessibility [28]. However, numerous
Food groups | Susceptible food products |
---|---|
Meat | Processed meat products such as ground beef, sausages, deli ham, beef hot dogs and meat-related sandwich products (e.g., pork, beef) |
Poultry | Processed chicken such as deli chicken, deli turkey, eggs, and related sandwich products |
Fish | Cooked shrimps, sushi, smoked salmon, seafoods, and related sandwich and salad dishes |
Dairy | Cheese, yogurt |
Fruit and vegetables | Cabbage, lettuce, cucumber, frozen green beans, peanut butter, vegetable salads, raw sprouts, cantaloupe melon and related salad dishes |
Cereal and baked products | Pasta, cakes, pies, sausage rolls |
The presence of
Inadequate cleaning procedures and hygiene practices can promote the formation of biofilms on food contact surfaces in food service establishments, thereby increasing the chances of
Inadequate hygiene practices in domestic kitchens may contribute to the persistence of food-borne pathogens, thereby compromising the safety of foods produced there [42]. Home kitchens have been found to be a significant location where food-borne illnesses are acquired. A survey conducted in the domestic kitchens of consumers aged 60 and above in the UK indicated that a large number of foods in home refrigerators were beyond the use-by date and up to 66% of opened RTE foods had been stored beyond the recommended 2 days after opening [43]. A study of the occurrence of
Most food legislation stipulates the microbial criteria for food-borne bacteria such as
The Food Safety Standard of Ireland has prescribed the following in relation to
During immunoassay, monoclonal antibodies specific to
PCR-based techniques involve the amplification of a specific gene segment of
The prevention and control of
Establishing the design and adequacy of a production facility: proper location and layout, and adequate equipment and facilities such as water supply, drainage, toilets, temperature control, storage, and hand washing basins.
Control of food safety hazards and implementation of hygiene practices throughout the food production line. Accredited HACCP implementation programme.
Establishment of adequate sanitary conditions and maintenance of the production facilities; effective cleaning programmes; pest control and proper waste management; and effective monitoring of cleaning programmes.
Ensuring adequate implementation of personal hygiene, health status, personal cleanliness and personal behavior of staff.
Ensuring adequate and properly functioning transport facilities; these should be well maintained and fit for purpose.
Continuous training of staff working in the food production environment, including refresher training.
While the food industry is taking numerous measures to protect foods from
Vulnerable consumer group | Reason for vulnerability | Recommended preventive food hygiene measures |
---|---|---|
Pregnant women | Weak immune system due to hormonal changes |
|
Unborn fetuses and newborn babies | Undeveloped immune system | |
People over the age of 65 | Weak immune system due to ageing | |
People with diseases such as cancer, leukemia, AIDS, diabetes, or liver or kidney disease | Weak immune system due to disease | |
People on drugs that can suppress the immune system such prednisone or cortisone | Suppressed immune system due to drugs | |
People undergoing organ transplant | Suppressed immune system due to drug administration |
Listeria in food: Advice to people vulnerable to listeriosis [75].
Continuous provision of food safety education to consumers through various channels such as social media increases consumer awareness of the need for safer food handling practices such as hand washing and safe storage of RTE food [60]. The food standard agency of the UK has identified and targeted consumers who are at risk of contracting listeriosis. Vulnerable people, many of whom live and obtain their food independently include those with various forms of cancer, diabetes, alcoholism and diseases of the kidneys, liver, cardiovascular system (e.g., heart disease), digestive system (e.g., Crohn’s disease) and musculoskeletal/connective tissue system (e.g., lupus) [61]. Even though most consumers of food sold by street vendors may not have confidence in the safety of RTE foods sold on the street, this often does not affect their preference for such foods because of their affordability, availability and convenience [28].
RTE foods have gained considerable popularity in many developing and developed countries because of their perceived better flavor, affordability and convenience. Consumers will continue to consume RTE foods despite their association with
I would like to acknowledge my wife, Wendy Tabit, for reading this manuscript and making suggestions.
I declare that I have no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this research chapter.
Cancer cells need to control their environment to survive. Under a nutrient-limited microenvironment, they compete for oxygen and micronutrients with normal cells to survive and maintain their malignancy potential. Thus, oncogene-directed metabolic reprogramming is needed for cancer cell survival. Since lipids are essential molecules for cancer cells, understanding lipid metabolism reprogramming might be a useful hallmark for cancer. Those hallmarks include sustaining growth signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting apoptosis programs, inducing angiogenesis, and activating invasion and metastasis.
In this chapter, we will focus on changes in fatty acid metabolism. Fatty acids are essential building blocks for some lipids with numerous essential roles in the human body. The body usually gains fatty acids from the diet, known as exogenous fatty acids. However, fatty acids can also be obtained endogenously through de novo fatty acid synthesis. In cancer conditions, a large number of fatty acids are needed. Changes in fatty acid metabolism are common to provide the needs of fatty acids for cancer cells.
A high rate of fatty acid metabolism must be followed by activating several enzymes involved in fatty acid metabolism. Overexpression of those enzymes might be useful as a marker for a cancer condition. Another benefit of understanding how a tumor cell influences the environment around it is also essential for developing new targeted therapies.
Lipids are molecules that have numerous essential roles in the human body. In intracellular activity, lipids act as a ligand and second messenger. Lipids are composed of water-insoluble molecules such as fatty acids, triacylglycerides, phospholipids, or cholesterol. Fatty acids are molecules consisting of a carboxylic acid group and a hydrocarbon chain. Fatty acids are classified based on their hydrocarbon chain length: short-chain fatty acids (less than six carbon atoms), medium-chain fatty acids (6–12 carbon atoms), long-chain fatty acids (12–21 carbon atoms), and very-long-chain fatty acids (22 or more carbon atoms) [1, 2, 3].
Fatty acids are essential building blocks for lipids such as phospholipids, sphingolipids, and more complex lipids such as diacylglycerides (DAGs) and triacylglycerides (TAGs), which are important in regulating biochemical processes in a normal cell. In mammals, the main source of fatty acids is gained from the microenvironment (exogenous) through some transporter: fatty acid translocase (FAT) or cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36), fatty acid transport protein family (FATPs), and plasma membrane fatty-acid-binding proteins (FABPpm). In some conditions, fatty acids can be synthesized through de novo synthesis inside the body [3].
In order to build some essential lipids, fatty acids are obtained from direct uptake from the microenvironment. Exogenous fatty acids are taken up to the plasma membrane by some transporters: CD36, FATPs, and FABPpm. Those fatty acids are then stored as lipid droplets, which can convert to nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and acetyl CoA via β-oxidation, or known as fatty acid oxidation (FAO) [1, 3, 4].
NADPH is then used as energy fuel for metabolism activity, meanwhile acetyl-CoA is used as a material for the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Acetyl-CoA is not only produced by β-oxidation, but is also generated from glucose and acetate metabolism. In the TCA cycle, acetyl-CoA is converted into citrate. When de novo fatty acid synthesis (FAS) is activated, those mitochondria-derived citrate together with glucose and amino acids then enter de novo FAS to produce fatty acids [3, 4].
De novo FAS is the formation of fatty acids from carbon atoms derived from carbohydrates such as glucose and amino acids, including glutamine. De novo synthesis occurs mainly in the liver and adipose tissue and is highly responsive to changes in dietary regimen. This pathway contributes to triacylglycerol’s homeostasis, where most of the TAG is obtained from the diet. A high-carbohydrate diet activates a lipogenic response in liver tissue to increase the synthesis and secretion of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and increase hepatic de novo synthesis contributing to hypertriglyceridemia [1, 2].
De novo FAS requires some catalyst enzymes, such as ATP citrate lyase (ACLY), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), and fatty acid synthase (FASN). ACLY bridges glucose and FA metabolism by converting six-carbon citrate to oxaloacetate and two-carbon acetyl-CoA. The acetyl-CoA transforms into malonyl-CoA by ACC, which is regulated by citrate and glutamate. The next step produces 16-carbon palmitate from malonyl-CoA by FASN. Acetyl-CoA synthetase 2 (ACSS2) also plays a role in de novo FAS by converting acetate to acetyl-CoA before entering the TCA cycle [3, 5].
One of TCA products is mitochondria-derived citrate, which converts to acetyl-CoA by ACLY in the cytosol. This acetyl-CoA is fuel for de novo FAS as it converts into malonyl-CoA by ACC. Finally, malonyl-CoA converts into palmitate by FASN (Figure 1). Subsequently palmitate is then esterified to form triglycerides or cholesterol esters. Palmitate may also form new fatty acids by elongation of very-long-chain fatty acid protein (ELOVLs) [1, 3, 4].
Reprogramming of fatty acid metabolism in cancer cell [
The regulation of de novo lipogenesis occurs through the activation of sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs). There are three main transcription factors: SREBP1a and SREBP1c, and SREBP2. SREBPs are inactive 125-kDa precursors bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). When the concentration of intracellular cholesterol is high, insulin-induced genes (INSIGs) will bind to SREBP-cleavage-activating proteins (SCAPs) and localize the SREBP precursors to the ER. But, when the cholesterol concentration is low, SCAPs will facilitate the translocation of ER-bound SREBPs to the Golgi and then release the active N terminus. This N-terminal fragment translocates to the nucleus and induces the transcription of genes containing sterol regulatory elements (SREs), such as FASN, ACLY, and ACC. Some growth factors and estrogen receptors also regulate FASN expressions, such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), estrogen receptor, and progesterone receptor [3].
Fatty acid oxidation, known as fatty acid β-oxidation, is the degradation of long-chain fatty acids in mitochondria. The balance between exogenous fatty acid uptake, FAO, and de novo FAS depends on dietary intake and metabolic rate in mitochondria [4, 6].
Carnitine palmitoyl transferase (CPT) 1, CPT2, and carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase (CACT) are enzymes needed to catalyze the FAO (Figure 2). CPT1 is an outer membrane enzyme and has a role in translocating long-chain fatty acids into acyl-CoA across the membrane. In this process, acyl-CoA is converted into acylcarnitine. After successfully penetrating the membrane, the CPT2 as an inner membrane enzyme converts acylcarnitine back into acyl-CoA for oxidation [4, 6].
Role of CPT1 and CPT2 in FAO [
Tumor cells need to control their environment to survive. Under a nutrient-limited microenvironment, they compete for oxygen and micronutrients with normal cells to survive and even maintain their malignancy potential. Changes in lipid metabolism are common to provide the needs of fatty acids for cancer cells. Cancer cells require fatty acids to build the membrane and molecule signaling. Thus, fatty acid metabolism reprogramming is one of the hallmarks of the cancer condition. This reprogramming includes alteration of fatty acid uptake, de novo fatty acid synthesis, and fatty acid oxidation (FAO) [3, 4, 5].
Overexpression of CD36 has been correlated with breast cancer survival and leads to elevation of exogenous fatty acid uptake. This elevated exogenous fatty acid uptake is implicated in enhancing tumor growth and metastasis and providing the cancer cell with chemoresistance. Elevated lipid droplets resulting from excess fatty acids are used by cancer cells for various vital roles, such as maintaining lipid homeostasis and preventing cancer cells from death under metabolic stress [3, 4, 5].
The body usually uses exogenous fatty acids to maintain homeostasis in normal conditions. De novo FAS is present when the diet is not adequate. But in the presence of cancer cells, increased de novo fatty acid synthesis usually occurs to meet the demand for high fatty acids. This is thought to be part of the general metabolic shift from a nonproliferative catabolic phenotype to a proliferative anabolic phenotype [2, 4].
Cancer cells upregulate some critical enzymes, such as ACC, ACLY, and FASN, to enhance the rate of de novo FAS (Figure 3). ACLY has a role in glucose metabolism and FA metabolism by converting six-carbon citrate to oxaloacetate and two-carbon acetyl-CoA. ACLY overexpression and activity have been represented in some cancers: in the lung, prostate, bladder, breast, and liver. This overexpression was correlated with a poorer prognosis in lung adenocarcinoma. Thus, inhibiting ACLY may induce activation of p53, which plays a role in suppressing cancer cell proliferation [3, 7].
De novo FA synthesis alteration. GLUT1: glucose transporter 1, FASN: fatty acid synthase, ACLY: ATP citrate lyase, ACC: acetyl-CoA carboxylase, TCA: tricarboxylic acid.
FASN is a 270-kDa dimeric enzyme responsible for producing fatty acids from malonyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA. In breast cancer, HER2/neu increased FASN transcription and lipogenesis. In addition, a study found that HER2/neu directly phosphorylates FASN, and this phosphorylation increases FASN synthesis activity [2, 5, 8].
Overexpression of FASN has been known as a hallmark of phenotypic alteration for most human malignancies. This elevation of FASN leads to increase fatty acid synthesis and correlates with poor prognosis for many cancer types. FASN also promotes tumor angiogenesis since it correlates with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).
The level of fatty acids is also correlated with gynecological outcomes in epithelial ovarian cancer. A study reports that a higher level of fatty acids is correlated with suboptimal debulking in epithelial ovarian cancer patients. Increased FASN expression and activity were also found in early oncogenesis and correlated with cancer development. A study in ovarian cancer showed that overexpression of FASN is more correlated with tumor proliferation than tumor metastasis. Conversely, FASN inhibition leads to accumulating malonyl-CoA, which induces apoptosis [3, 5, 9, 10].
Cancer cells tend to upregulate ACC under metabolic stress or lipid depletion. These ACC then convert acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA to meet the high demand for fatty acids. On the other hand, ACC inhibition decreases palmitic acid and induces an apoptosis program. In a breast cancer cell, apoptosis triggered by depletion of ACC only occurs in the nonmalignant cell [3, 10].
Another reprogramming of fatty acid metabolism is increased fatty acid oxidation. The products of fatty acid oxidation such as NADH, NADPH, FADH2, and ATP are used for cancer cells as energy-carrying molecules, which are important for their survival. High levels of ATP from FAO are correlated with the proliferation of triple-negative breast cancer. Acetyl-CoA from the FAO also can be used by cancer cells to gain fatty acids through de novo FAS. An increase in CPT1 is common in cancer cells. CPT1 also provides neovascularization for the tumor microenvironment [4, 6].
CPT1C is one of the subtypes of CPTC, which is upregulated in some cancers and protects the cancer cells from metabolic stress such as hypoxia or glucose depletion. Elevation of CPT1C in cancer cells provides FAO and adaptation to metabolic stress and resistance to mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) inhibitor. Thus, increased FAO is essential not only for tumor growth but also for cancer chemoresistance [4, 6].
As mentioned above, fatty acid metabolism has some essential roles in helping the cancer cell to survive. Interestingly, fatty acids are involved in signaling pathways to regulate cellular homeostasis and create an appropriate microenvironment for tumor progression and metastasis. Those signaling pathways include phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (Akt), and mTOR signaling pathways [3, 11].
Synthesis of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids is increased due to the high rate of de novo FAS in cancer cells. Interestingly, a rigid and stable cell membrane is formed from de novo FAS products. This high cholesterol structure protects the cell from peroxidation and limits its ability to spread (Figure 4A). To reduce the rigidity and increase the fluidity of cell membranes, the cancer cell needs to release intracellular cholesterol. After decreasing cholesterol levels, the cell membrane is less rigid and more flexible in changing its shape, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) can occur [3, 11].
Role of fatty acids in signaling pathway [
EMT is an important mode for cancer cells to spread. As an enzyme involved in de novo FAS, FASN correlates with EMT. The level of FASN is increased in EMT cells. FASN can regulate the Wnt or (transforming growth factor β) TGF-β signaling pathways to alter cell membrane rigidity and increase the mobility of cancer cells. This opportunity gives the cancer cell ability to spread. But conversely, high cholesterol levels in cell membrane lead to cholesterol-rich lipid rafts formation and induce oncogenic signaling via PI3K-AKT (Figure 4B). With this contradictive theory, inhibiting cholesterol synthesis still can be considered as a therapy for early-stage cancer [3, 11].
Another signaling molecule, which contributes in tumorigenesis, is phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns). PtdIns is composed of two fatty acid chains bound to an inositol ring and glycerol. Some phosphoinositide species, such as phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate or PI(3,4), phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate or PI(4,5), phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate or PI(3)P, and phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate or PIP3, are generated from hydroxyl group of inositol ring. PIP3 activates oncogenic AKT and induces activation of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2), leading to tumorigenesis. On the other hand, PI(3)P induces tumorigenesis via serum- and glucocorticoid-induced protein kinase-3 (SGK3) activation.
Considering reprogramming fatty acid metabolism is an important hallmark for cancer development; targeting key enzymes involved in fatty acid metabolism is a promising strategy. Not only de novo FAS and FAO, but lipid uptake is also a potential target for cancer treatment.
CD36 inhibition might be useful for tumors with lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and CD36 overexpression. Anti-CD36 use implicates complete inhibition of metastasis in immunodeficient mice without any adverse effect. In prostate cancer, CD36 monoclonal antibody use can reduce exogenous fatty acid uptake and several oncogenic signaling lipids. Further study is still needed to reveal the side effects of long-term inhibition of CD36. Decreased lipid uptake into the cell using orlistat may also be used for targeted therapy. Orlistat is used to inhibit LPL in order to decrease exogenous fatty acid uptake [4].
Since the role of FASN is important in supporting both anabolic metabolism and oncogenic signaling, targeting FASN for cancer therapy might be promising. Inhibition of FASN leads to toxic accumulation of malonyl-CoA in inducing cell death. In cells derived from a lymph node metastasis of prostate carcinoma (LNCaP), RNA interference (RNAi) activity against FASN implicates cancer cell growth inhibition. First-line chemical inhibitors of FASN such as C75, orlistat, and cerulenin are shown to reduce and inhibit tumor growth by inducing cell-cycle arrest. Orlistat provides antitumor properties for some cancers such as breast cancer and melanoma. FASN inhibition was also sensitive for ovarian cancer cells by C75 and G28UCM. Using this first generation of FASN inhibitors had some adverse effects such as increased energy expenditure, loss of adipose tissue, and decreased body weight [3, 4, 5].
The next generation of FASN inhibitors, such as TVB-3166 and TVB-2640, has shown antitumor potential, higher specificity for FASN, and limited systemic toxicity in a preclinical study. Antitumor activity has been shown in breast cancer and colorectal cancer by TVB-3166 and TVB-3664 use in preclinical study. In a clinical trial, TVB- 3166 and TVB-2640 showed limiting systemic toxicity in early phase. The significant difference between the first and next generations is that the newer generation does not implicate indirect CPT1 in peripheral tissue. Omeprazole may also be used for FASN inhibitors and has entered clinical trials in triple-negative breast cancer patients [3, 4].
Some ACLY inhibitors have shown high efficacy in lowering LDL cholesterol. ETC- 1002 has entered clinical trial in phase 2/3, and hydroxy citrate has already entered randomized control trials. Thus, ACLY inhibitors can be considered as a therapeutic strategy for cancer therapy and have been demonstrated to reduce tumor proliferation in some cancers, such as breast cancer, lung cancer, and prostate cancer [4].
SCD1 inhibitors such as CVT 11127, MF-483 also have potential as an anticancer therapeutic target. The combination of SCD1 inhibitor with other drugs shows potency against cancer cell chemoresistance and enhances therapeutic efficacy. Commonly used drugs in combination with SCD1 are gefitinib, temozolomide, and temsirolimus [4].
AKT/mTOR/SREBP-1 pathway is also interesting to point out as targeted therapy. The activity of fatty acid synthase may be reduced by reducing its transcription levels. Inhibiting SREBP-1 in cancer cells could decrease fatty acid synthase gene expression and prevent cancer cell growth. Among SREBP-1 inhibitors, betulin has increased the sensitivity of hepatocellular carcinoma cells to their first-line antitumor agent, sorafenib. On the other hand, a combination of the mTOR inhibitor everolimus and metformin can inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cells [4].
Limiting excess fatty acids by increasing fatty acid degradation by mitochondria β-oxidation can be beneficial in reducing the proliferation of cancer cells. Otherwise, the high rate of fatty acid oxidation could prevent cancer cells from metabolic stress by providing abundant ATP as an energy fuel. Thus, decreasing fatty acid oxidation might be a promising strategy against cancer cells [4, 5].
CPT1 is the first and rate-limiting step of fatty acid oxidation. The use of CPT1 inhibitors such as etomoxir may inhibit tumor cell proliferation. Perhexiline, aβ-oxidation inhibitor has also shown to be beneficial by inhibiting fatty acid utilization and tumor cell proliferation. In addition to perhexiline, sensitivity in gastrointestinal cancer for its first-line regimen therapy has increased (Figure 5) [4].
Therapuetic targets in fatty acid metabolism [
Fatty acids are essential building blocks for lipids, which have numerous essential roles in the human body. Fatty acids are needed for cell survival, not only in healthy cells but also in cancer cells. Thus, fatty acid reprogramming is a useful hallmark for cancer conditions. Understanding several enzymes involved in fatty acid metabolism, such as FASN, ACC, and ACLY, is also helpful in developing therapeutic targets for cancer.
This study was supported by a grant from the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, RSUP Dr. Hasan Sadikin and Universitas Padjajaran Bandung.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
The author declares all the figures as original and not published elsewhere.
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to President Director of RSUP Dr. Hasan Sadikin, dr. Azhar Jaya SKM, MARS, Dean of Faculty of Medicine Universitas Padjadjaran, Prof Dr. Yudi Mulyana Hidayat, dr., SpOG(K)-Onk, head of Obstetrics and Gynecology Department RSUP Dr. Hasan Sadikin, Dr. dr. Ruswana Anwar, Sp.OG-KFER., M.Kes, and my assistant Dr Ayu Insafi Mulyantari for guidance, support, and encouragement has been invaluable throughout this study.
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. 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Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. 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The correlation between stability and reactivity of coordination compounds has been described in this chapter. This chapter also enlists the factors influencing the stability of metal complexes such as the nature of metal ions, ligands, bonding between metal ions and ligands, etc. In addition, the methods available for the determination of stability constants are given in detail.",book:{id:"9190",slug:"stability-and-applications-of-coordination-compounds",title:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds",fullTitle:"Stability and Applications of Coordination Compounds"},signatures:"Senthilkumar Muthaiah, Anita Bhatia and Muthukumar Kannan",authors:null},{id:"60518",title:"Synthetic Methods for Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles: A Review",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-a-review",totalDownloads:5276,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Titanium dioxide (TiO2) semiconductor nanoparticles are one kind of important and promising photocatalysts in photocatalysis because of their unique optical and electronic properties. Their properties, which are determined by the preparation method, are very crucial in photocatalysis. In this chapter, an overview was carried out on the different methods that are used or have been used to prepare titanium dioxide nanoparticles. There are various methods that can be used to synthesize TiO2 and the most commonly used methods include sol-gel process, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and hydrothermal method among others. This review will focus on selected preparation methods of titanium dioxide photocatalyst.",book:{id:"6426",slug:"titanium-dioxide-material-for-a-sustainable-environment",title:"Titanium Dioxide",fullTitle:"Titanium Dioxide - Material for a Sustainable Environment"},signatures:"Pardon Nyamukamba, Omobola Okoh, Henry Mungondori,\nRaymond Taziwa and Simcelile Zinya",authors:[{id:"196100",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Taziwa",slug:"raymond-taziwa",fullName:"Raymond Taziwa"},{id:"219920",title:"Prof.",name:"Omobola",middleName:null,surname:"Okoh",slug:"omobola-okoh",fullName:"Omobola Okoh"},{id:"226567",title:"Dr.",name:"Pardon",middleName:null,surname:"Nyamukamba",slug:"pardon-nyamukamba",fullName:"Pardon Nyamukamba"},{id:"239758",title:"Mr.",name:"Simcelile",middleName:null,surname:"Zinya",slug:"simcelile-zinya",fullName:"Simcelile Zinya"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"158",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82118",title:"Surface Hardening of Stainless Steel",slug:"surface-hardening-of-stainless-steel",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105036",abstract:"The addition of nitrogen to stainless steel improves mechanical and corrosion properties. Nitrogen-bearing stainless steel (HNSS) is a new corrosion-resistant alloy class exhibiting better tribological properties. High-pressure and powder metallurgy techniques were developed for the fabrication of HNSS. Solid-state routes allow nitrogen introduction through thermochemical, implantation, or plasma surface treatments. High-temperature gas nitriding (HTGN), carried out in an N2 atmosphere in the 1000°C range, allows N uptake, obtaining thick, ~0.5–1.0 wt.% N austenitic cases. HTGN is different from conventional nitriding, performed in the 500°C range, where intense CrxNy precipitation occurs, impairing the corrosion resistance. Low-temperature plasma nitriding (LTPN) introduces more N in solution, and colossal supersaturated expanded phases (~45 at.%N) are formed. N supersaturation and compressive stresses increase the hardness of the surface layer to 10–14 GPa. Ferritic, martensitic, duplex, and precipitation-hardened stainless steels can be surface-treated by LTPN, obtaining expanded ferrite and martensite. However, single LTPN stainless steel may prematurely fail when submitted to high loading, as the thin and hard expanded layers collapse due to lack of load-bearing capacity. Duplex-nitriding treatment (HTGN + LTPN) results in a thick nitrogen-rich hardened austenite substrate layer, granting mechanical support and adhesion to the expanded austenite layer.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"André Paulo Tschiptschin and Carlos Eduardo Pinedo"},{id:"81579",title:"Welding Based Additive Manufacturing: Fundamentals",slug:"welding-based-additive-manufacturing-fundamentals",totalDownloads:34,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104768",abstract:"Additive Manufacturing (AM) has drawn abundant attention over the past decades in the manufacturing and fabrication industries, especially to make part models and prototypes. This chapter introduces a potential welding based AM process called Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for the fabrication of near-net shaped metal components including stainless steel components. To start with traditional AM processes, various fundamental traditional AM for the fabrication of components have been presented. Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has been explained with its variants, synonyms, different welding processes to suit WAAM particularly to weld stainless steel metal; primary process selections for working with WAAM, important metals, and alloys that could be used in WAAM have been elaborated. A case study for WAAM fabrication of AISI 316 L stainless steel plate is included to introduce the fabrication of metal components using WAAM. Further, the most common defects which possibly play a vital role in WAAM components fabrication and a few of the future challenges regarding WAAM development are discussed. Fundamental information covered in this chapter could be more beneficial to beginners for the understanding of WAAM process generally including stainless steel component fabrication in a lucid tactic.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Maruthasalam Sowrirajan, Selvaraj Vijayan and Munusamy Arulraj"},{id:"80664",title:"Dependence of Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steels on the Magnetic State of Austenite",slug:"dependence-of-corrosion-resistance-of-austenitic-chromium-nickel-steels-on-the-magnetic-state-of-aus",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102388",abstract:"Corrosive behavior of austenitic chromium-nickel steels from the magnetic state (parameter χ0) of austenite, pre-formed to interact with aggressive media are research. Correlation between the rate K of pitting corrosion and the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite was experimentally established. It is experimentally established that the corrosion resistance of austenitic steels AISI304, 08Cr18Ni10, AISI 321, 08Cr18Ni10Тi (containing a low amount of δ-ferrite ∼0.005…0.5%) depends on the magnetic state of austenite: the corrosion rate of steel decreases with increases χ0 austenite. The tendency of change in the corrosion rate of austenitic alloy with a high nickel content 06Crh28NiMoCuTi (not contain δ-ferrite) has the opposite character: with increasing χ0, the corrosion rate of the alloy increases is revealed. For austenitic chromium-nickel steels, the corrosion rates of the individual (austenite (A), δ-ferrite (F), strain-induced α′-martensite (M)) and total (A + F, A + M and A + F + M) phases are determined. It is proposed to predict corrosion according to the specific magnetic susceptibility χ0 of austenite and the amount δ-ferrite.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Gennadii Snizhnoi"},{id:"80199",title:"The Evaluation of the Comparative Corrosion Behaviour of Conventional and Low-Nickel Austenitic Stainless Steel: Hercules™ Alloy",slug:"the-evaluation-of-the-comparative-corrosion-behaviour-of-conventional-and-low-nickel-austenitic-stai",totalDownloads:56,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102381",abstract:"Austenitic stainless steels require approximately 8% Ni to maintain austenitic microstructure at room temperature for alloys such as 304 stainless steel (304SS). Ni contributes approximately 60% of the total material cost and its price fluctuates, making the cost of austenitic stainless steel unpredictable. The use of low-nickel austenitic stainless steels as a substitute has been considered in order to remedy costs associated with Ni price fluctuations. Alloying elements such as Mn and N have been considered, however they have been found to reduce corrosion resistance. A new alloy namely Hercules™ has been developed with reduced Ni content (1.8–2% Ni). This chapter presents a comparative study of the corrosion behavior of Hercules™ and 304SS in different solutions. The alloys were evaluated using cyclic polarisation technique and immersion tests. The results demonstrated that the corrosion resistance of Hercules™ is comparable to that of 304SS. This presents the alloys as potential industrial substitutes of each other.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Duduzile Nkomo and Nomsombuluko Masia"},{id:"80346",title:"Nitrogen Supersaturation of AISI316 Base Stainless Steels at 673 K and 623 K for Hardening and Microstructure Control",slug:"nitrogen-supersaturation-of-aisi316-base-stainless-steels-at-673-k-and-623-k-for-hardening-and-micro",totalDownloads:59,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102387",abstract:"The high-density plasma nitriding at 673 K and 623 K was employed to make 10% of nitrogen supersaturation on AISI316 base austenitic stainless steels. The processing parameters and nitrogen-hydrogen gas flow ratio were optimized to increase the yield of N2+ ion and NH-radical for efficient nitriding. The nitrided AISI316 specimens were prepared for multidimensional analysis to describe the fundamental features of low-temperature plasma nitriding. First, macroscopic evaluation revealed that nitrogen supersaturation induced the γ-lattice expansion and the higher nitrogen content than 4% of mass in depth. The mesoscopic analysis describes the holding temperature and initial grain-size effects on the microstructure changes. Plastic straining, grain-size refinement, and nitrogen zone-boundary diffusion processes advance with nitrogen supersaturation to drive the inner nitriding behavior. The microscopic analysis explains the microstructure refinement, the two-phase structuring, and the microstructure modification. Through this multi-dimensional analysis, the essential characteristics of the low-temperature plasma nitriding of 316 austenitic stainless steels were precisely understood to extend the engineering treatise on the bulk nitrogen stainless steels for surface modification and treatment of stainless steels by nitriding. This plasma nitriding was applied to strengthen and harden the AISI316 wire surfaces toward its application on surgery wires.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Tatsuhiko Aizawa, Tomomi Shiratori, Tomoaki Yoshino, Yohei Suzuki and Takafumi Komatsu"},{id:"79904",title:"Corrosion Resistance, Evaluation Methods, and Surface Treatments of Stainless Steels",slug:"corrosion-resistance-evaluation-methods-and-surface-treatments-of-stainless-steels",totalDownloads:106,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101430",abstract:"Stainless steels are widely recognized and find applications in many engineering industries and companies due to their excellent properties including high resistance to corrosion as a result of their minimum 10.5% chromium content, exceptional strength and durability, temperature resistance, high recyclability, and easy formability. In the present book chapter, the basic concepts of stainless steel including its applications, classifications, and corrosion properties will first be discussed. Thereafter, their corrosion behaviour will then be explained. The various methods by which the corrosion resistance behaviour can be significantly improved including surface treatments such as coatings/electrodepositions, alloying, mechanical treatment, and others will be discussed in detail.",book:{id:"11076",title:"Stainless Steels",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11076.jpg"},signatures:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. 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