Various strategies that were found to enhance neuroplasticity.
\n\n
\n\nThe project work was funded by the European Commission (EC) 7th Framework Programme (FP7), under the 9th Call for projects on Information and Communication Technologies. The publishing of this book was funded by the EC FP7 Post-Grant Open Access Pilot programme. 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Nguyen received his M.A. in Mathematics, and his Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics from the Claremont Graduate University; M.S.E.E. in Communication Systems Theory from University of California San Diego; and B.S.E. in Electronics and M.S.E. in Electromagnetic Field Theory from California State University Fullerton (CSUF). He also completed all course requirements and passed the comprehensive exam for his M.S.E.E. in Digital Signal Processing from California State University Long Beach. Dr. Nguyen is an expert in Satellite Operations (SATOPS), Satellite Communications (SATCOMs), advanced mathematical modeling for complex systems-of-systems, sensing and communication networks.\nCurrently, he serves as Adjunct Research Professor at CSUF, Mathematics Dept. Concurrently, he is also with the Aerospace Corporation, serving as a Deputy Chief System Architect in Space Systems Architect, Global Partnerships Subdivision. He has more than 13-years of service at Aerospace, and prior to his current position; he has served as Sr. Engineering Specialist, Sr. Project Lead, Section Manager, Associate Director, Interim Director, and Principal Technical Staff (the highest technical level at the corporation). At Aerospace, he invented HPA linearizer, GMSK synchronizers and developed advanced optimization techniques using game theory for achieving affordable and low-risk acquisition strategy. Prior to CSUF, he had also held a Research Assistant Professor at the Catholic University of America in concurrent with The Aerospace Corporation positions. \nHe was a Engineering Fellow from Raytheon, where he had 10-year of services at Raytheon, serving as Program Area Chief Engineer, Program Chief Engineer, PI, Technical Director, Program Manager, Lead Architect and Lead System Engineer for many advanced programs and pursuits related to sensing and communication networks. At Raytheon, he invented radar-communication technology and gun barrel detector using millimeter-wave. Previous to Raytheon and Aerospace Corporation, Dr. Nguyen was with NASA/JPL for more than 11-years, where he served as the NASA delegate to the international Consultative Committee for Space Data System (CCSDS). Many of his works on RF and Modulation were adopted as the CCSDS standards for USB waveforms and space RF systems. At JPL he invented QPSK phase ambiguity resolver and developed innovative optimization technique for simultaneous range-command-telemetry operation. He built the first laser lab and automated manufacturing lab when he was with ITT Technical Services in the early ’80s. \nHe has published more than 250 technical reports and papers. His work has appeared in NASA TechBrief, textbook, Open Access Book, SIAM Publication, CCSDS Blue Book, and Wiley & Sons Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. He was selected as a Vietnamese-American Role Model by KCSI-TV, Channel 18 in 2002, and Recognition Honoree at 50-Year Celebration of CSUF in 2007. He received numerous Raytheon, Aerospace and NASA awards, and Air Force commendations. He holds 16 patents and has 01 patent pending. His biography has been listed in Marquis Who’sWho in Science and Engineering in America.",institutionString:"The Aerospace Corporation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"California State University, Fullerton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"72485",title:"Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components",slug:"satellite-control-system-part-i-architecture-and-main-components",totalDownloads:157,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72443",title:"Effective Algorithms for Detection Outliers and Cycle Slip Repair in GNSS Data Measurements",slug:"effective-algorithms-for-detection-outliers-and-cycle-slip-repair-in-gnss-data-measurements",totalDownloads:71,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72147",title:"Future Satellite System Architectures and Practical Design Issues: An Overview",slug:"future-satellite-system-architectures-and-practical-design-issues-an-overview",totalDownloads:132,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-nguyen",fullName:"Tien Nguyen"}]},{id:"72340",title:"Game Theoretic Training Enabled Deep Learning Solutions for Rapid Discovery of Satellite Behaviors",slug:"game-theoretic-training-enabled-deep-learning-solutions-for-rapid-discovery-of-satellite-behaviors",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72725",title:"Communication Subsystems for Satellite Design",slug:"communication-subsystems-for-satellite-design",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72839",title:"Overview of Existing and Future Advanced Satellite Systems",slug:"overview-of-existing-and-future-advanced-satellite-systems",totalDownloads:58,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72620",title:"Dynamic Link from Liftoff to Final Orbital Insertion for a MEO Space Vehicle",slug:"dynamic-link-from-liftoff-to-final-orbital-insertion-for-a-meo-space-vehicle",totalDownloads:58,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72311",title:"System Designs of Microsatellites: A Review of Two Schools of Thoughts",slug:"system-designs-of-microsatellites-a-review-of-two-schools-of-thoughts",totalDownloads:154,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"72742",title:"Design of Intelligent and Open Avionics System Onboard",slug:"design-of-intelligent-and-open-avionics-system-onboard",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74274",title:"Analysis of Spatiotemporal Variability of Surface Temperature of Okhotsk Sea and Adjacent Waters Using Satellite Data",slug:"analysis-of-spatiotemporal-variability-of-surface-temperature-of-okhotsk-sea-and-adjacent-waters-usi",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56893",title:"Water Cycle Process Research: Experiments and Observations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70545",slug:"water-cycle-process-research-experiments-and-observations",body:'\nAn understanding of water cycle processes is essential for assessing water resources as well as the changes to the resources caused by changes in the land use or climate. Experimentation and observation are central activities within the water cycle process research. The range of measuring and monitoring instrumentation and techniques for defining water cycle process variables is immense. Hence, this chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive overview of such instrumentation and techniques, but to present the specific instruments and techniques developed during the long-term monitoring phase of field experimental stations and the establishment phase of indoor experimental laboratory in the Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes (KLWCRLSP), Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research (IGSNRR), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).
\nTo investigate the dynamic changes in land surface water cycle and the related geographic processes, the KLWCRLSP established two field experimental stations and one indoor experimental laboratory. One station is Dongtaigou Field Station and the other is Chongling Field Station. The experimental laboratory is experimental hall of water and soil process. To clearly demonstrate the water cycle principle, we present a chapter introducing experimental approaches. This chapter is valuable for studying mechanism of water cycle processes in situ as well as in the laboratory. The goal of this chapter is to illustrate the development and application of innovative experimental techniques broadly across the areas of subsurface and surface hydrology and hydrometeorology.
\nDongtaigou Field Experimental Station is one of the field stations of IGSNRR, CAS, in Dongtaigou catchment (Figure 1). It was established in 2003 and designed for the long-term observation of water cycle processes impacted by soil and water conservation projects.
\nLayout of the Dongtaigou experiment catchment, showing measurement instrumentation and structures.
Dongtaigou catchment is a part of the Baihe watershed in the northern part of Yanshan Mountain in Northern China (40° 45′N, 116° 37′E). A detailed water cycle experiment has been initiated in a 0.64 km2 research catchment [1].
\nThe slopes in the catchment are steep, with an average of 30° and altitude of 290–530 m. The south-north oriented catchment is in the temperate zone and a semi-humid monsoon climate, with average annual temperature of 9–9.5°C and precipitation of 511 mm. The precipitation occurs mainly in June–September with the type of storms which take up 81.2% of the total amount of the year. The bedrock of the region is mainly andesite, covered with meager cinnamonic soil. Constrained by the natural conditions, the catchment has a single and simple vegetation with the coverage of 70%. It is covered with perennial shrubs and herbs such as twigs of the chaste tree, axillaries, and apricot and a small amount of other economic trees such as hawthorn and pear.
\nDetailed observations of surface and subsurface water dynamics have been made at the catchment. The instruments hydrometrically observing the dynamics of soil water, groundwater, and stream flow response to rainfall and evaporation are described as follows:
\nThe Atmospheric Weather Observing System is located at the center of meteorological field at outlet of catchment (Figure 1). It is made by monitor sensor company (
There are six HOBO Logging Rain Gauges (Onset Computer Corporation) monitoring the precipitation of catchment (Figure 1). The rain gauge is a self-contained device that includes a high-quality tipping-bucket with an integrated data logger. The tipping-bucket mechanism is designed such that one tip of the bucket occurs for each 0.2 mm of rainfall. Each bucket tip is detected when a magnet attached to the tipping bucket actuates a magnetic switch as the bucket tips, thus effecting a momentary switch closure for each tip. The switch is connected to a HOBO Event Data Logger, which records the time of each tip.
\nIn the catchment, precipitation is sampled for hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes and main ions analysis. A rain collector consisting of a polyethylene bottle and funnel is placed outside and a ping pong ball is positioned at the funnel mouth to prevent evaporation during rainfall. After each rainfall event, rainwater is collected and immediately transferred to a bottle and sealed and stored [3].
\nAlong the channel region, four observing pots are arranged namely 1#, 2#, 3#, and 4#. The DataTaker DT50 (Thermo Fisher Scientific Australia Pty Ltd,
Soil water samples are collected after rainfall. Soil water is sampled at the depth same as that of sensor, using a suction lysimeter designed by IGSNRR, which was composed of a Teflon pipe and porous ceramic tube. A vacuum pump of about −0.8 MPa is applied to the suction lysimeter for 12 h of equilibrium to collect soil water [4]. The ground water sample is collected directly from pump discharge.
\nTwo small catchments are carefully selected as the contrastive study site. One is named Donggou in which 22 stonemasonry dams were constructed (R1), and the other is Xigou with conservation of the natural environment (R2). There are also two little similar branches in Donggou (R3 and R4). Four V-notch weirs mounted into the concrete are built at the outlet (Figure 1). Odyssey Capacitance Water Level Logger (Dataflow Systems PTY Ltd, New Zealand) is used to monitor the surface water level. The logger automatically records the water level at a 1-min interval. The surface water is sampled from the stream when flooding. The sampling container is completely filled and then capped and properly stored.
\nTwo experimental runoff plots (5 × 10 m) have been established on mid-slopes as indicated in Figure 2. The two plots are covered with shrubs mainly consisting of Vitex negundo var. heterophylla, wild jujube, wild grass, and two cypresses [5]. The plot borders are made of concrete. The edges of the runoff plots are about 50 cm above the soil surface to prevent input from splashes entering the plot from the surrounding areas and are sufficiently embedded into the bedrock so that the water insides and outsides will not exchange. In order to examine water horizontal processes on the overland, in the shallow soil, and the soil bedrock interface, three layers of water movement are monitored at the down slope end of the plot. A pipe is positioned at very layers, and a V-Notch (Triangular) Weir tank (410 mm long, 210 mm wide, and 305 mm deep) was installed to collect the runoff which would then be piped into a collecting cylinder [6]. The weirs from top to bottom are 210 mm high with 30, 20, and 20° V-notch thin-plate, respectively. The collecting cylinder is made of a metal sheet and covered with a sheet metal to prevent direct entry of rainfall. Runoff volume is calculated by measuring the head of water over the V-notch crest. The total volume of runoff is measured by volumetric method to calibrate the runoff calculated from the wire [7].
\nSchematic representation of two experimental runoff plots.
Meanwhile, a few measurements are also made to observe rainfall, soil water content, and soil water potential dynamics. An automatic recording tipping bucket rain gauge is installed some 3 m from side plot. In assessing the relationship between water content and capillary pressure head (tension), a comparison is made between the prevailing capillary pressure heads recorded by the automatic tension meters at the time of the TDR probe automatic measurements. The probes are installed at 10, 20, and 30 cm depths in two separate profiles up and down of plot. Campbell Scientific CR10X data loggers (Campbell Scientific Inc., USA) are employed to sample the TDR probes (20-min step), tension meter sensors (20-min step), and water level sensors of wires (1-min step).
\nChongling Field Experimental Station was constructed in 2004 by Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes (KLWCRLSP), cooperated with Baoding Soil and Water Conservation Station. It is also one of the field stations of IGSNRR, CAS and has been developed into a prime research location involving many institutions.
\nIt is located in Chongling catchment in Yixian County, Hebei province of China (115° 21′E, 39° 23′N). Chongling catchment is in the north of Taihang mountainous region, which is a tributary of north Yishui River. It covers a total area of approximately 6 km2, with a length of 4.4 km and a width of 1.5 km at an altitude of approximately 70–300 m above the sea level. The research catchment was chosen for studying on hydrological process affected by typical vegetation in North China.
\nThe area has a temperate climate with average annual air temperature of 11.6°C, and the maximum and minimum temperature is observed in July and January with extreme values of 40 and −23.4°C. There are dry season (from September to May) and rainy season (from June to August). The annual precipitation ranges from 217.0 to 1004.3, on an average of 641.2 mm. The mean annual evaporation is 1906 mm by E601B Evaporator. The soil type in the catchment is predominantly sandy loam soil and loess, which is mainly cumulated in the valley, with depth of 1–2 m. The vegetation coverage in this area is diversified, including woody plants (Acacia, Arborvitae, Poplar, Pine), shrubs (Vitex negundovar, Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. spinosa), and herbage (Carex humilis, Carex lanceolata, Bothriochloa ischaemum) [8].
\nThe catchment drains in a southeasterly direction and the contributing hillslopes are each divided into five gully channels from east to west of the watershed, that is, Yangshugou, Wanmulingou, Yanghuaigou, Langweibagou, and Huyaogou. There are also two little gully channels (Chenglingou and Langyaogou) in the southeast of the watershed.
\nA summary of the instruments observing the precipitation, surface water, soil water, groundwater, and so on is presented in Figure 3.
\nLayout of Chongling catchment showing the location of instruments.
A meteorological field (25 × 2 5 m) has been made at Chongling catchment since 2004, providing a continuous, very high-quality record as shown in Figure 3. The instruments include Vantage Pro2 Weather Station (Davis Instruments Corp., USA), E601B evaporation pan (China), Φ20 cm evaporation pan (China), eddy covariance (EC), and flux observation system.
\nThe Vantage Pro2 station includes a console and a versatile integrated sensor suite. The console displays and records the station’s weather data every 10 min, provides graph and alarm functions, and interfaces to a computer using the WeatherLink software. The sensor suite to the console is used to monitor wind speed and direction, temperature and humidity, wind chill, dew point, barometric pressure, ultraviolet radiation, heat index, temperature humidity sun wind (THSW) index, rain rate, and solar radiation.
\nEvaporation is determined by the water levels, which are monitored by automatic logger (E601B pan) and by manual measurement (Φ20 cm pan). For automatic measurement of the evaporation, use is made of an Odyssey Capacitance Water Level Logger (Dataflow Systems PTY Ltd, New Zealand). The sensor is supplied with Teflon-covered measuring element and the logger stores measurements at 1-min interval. Manual evaporation pan measurements are made by measuring the volume of water in the evaporation pan. Manual measurements are made twice a day, at 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., to see the difference between day evaporation and night evaporation.
\nThere is an eddy covariance and flux observation system in the northeast corner of the field [9]. The measurements of eddy covariance (EC) are made from the tower at 20 m height, and the setup consists of three-dimensional sonic anemometer (CSAT3, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA), an open-path CO2/H2O analyzer (Li-7500A, LI-COR, Inc., USA). The frequency of data acquisition is 10 Hz. In addition to the EC measurements, several meteorological variables, such as air temperature/relative humidity (HMP155A-L, Vaisala Oyj, Finland) and wind speed (010C-1, Met One Instruments, Inc. USA), are measured at about 2, 6, 12, and 20 m heights above the ground. Furthermore, incoming and outgoing short- and long-wave radiation (CNR4 Net Radiometer, Kipp & Zonen B.V., The Netherlands), photosynthetically active radiation (LI190SB, LI-COR, Inc., USA), and wind direction (020C-1, Met One Instruments, Inc., USA) are measured from the tower at 20 m height. To deal with water movement in soils, the soil profiles are selected to measure the soil water content (CS616, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA), temperature (109-L, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA) at 10, 20, 40, and 80 cm depths, and heat flux (HFP01, Hukseflux Thermal Sensors B.V., The Netherlands) at 5 cm depth. The data are automatically recorded in the CR3000 data logger (Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA) at a 30-min interval.
\nThere are six rain gauges monitoring the precipitation of catchment (Figure 3). The rain gauge is the tipping bucket rain gauge type (SL3-1) made by Shanghai Meteorological Instrument Factory Co., Ltd. The two buckets in a tipping bucket rain gauge rest on a pivot so that when one bucket has received 0.1 mm of rain, it tips by gravity, empties the rainwater, and allows the other bucket to start collection. During the tip, an electrical switch is closed and triggers the HOBO Event Data Logger (Onset Computer Corporation, USA) to register each “tilt,” thus giving a fairly continuous record of precipitation.
\nSix rain collectors are placed near the rain gauges to sample the rain water. After each rainfall event, rainwater is collected and immediately transferred to a bottle and then sealed and stored.
\nSoil water potential has been monitored at four deferent sites consisting mainly of grassland, one under acacia and two under old arborvitae. Soil water potential is observed by automated tensiometer in the catchment [10]. Each site has one profile, and the depths of observation are 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, and 100 cm. The data are automatically recorded at 2-min intervals and averaged every 30 min by data logger (CR800, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA).
\nSuction lysimeters designed by IGSNRR are used to collect pore water from unsaturated soil at four sites. After installation below ground level, vacuum is applied to the porous ceramic tube through Teflon pipe from bottle. The negative air pressure created inside the tube draws pore water into the tube through the porous ceramic tub. The pore water is transported to the bottle through Teflon pipe. Suction lysimeters perform best in moist soil and below the water table and work as long as the soil water potential is in the 0/-800 mbar range.
\nRunoff is monitored at Youlingou (R1) and Langyaogou (R2) by the V-notch weir and outlet of catchment (R3) by the compound weirs (Figure 3). The compound weirs (Figure 4) are composed of V-notch weir (up), Flat V weir (middle), and Parshall flume (down) [11]. The weirs are instrumented with Odyssey Capacitance Water Level Logger (Dataflow Systems PTY Ltd, New Zealand). Water level-discharge relationships can be applied and meet accuracy requirements for the weirs. The runoff can be calculated according to water level-discharge relationship.
\nSchematic representation of the compound weirs.
Existing wells are selected and used for long-term water level monitoring. It currently includes 10 active observation wells located across the catchment. The locations of the wells are shown in Figure 3. Six wells (G1–G6) are manually monitored in the dry season (from November to April) every 10 days and in wet season (from May to October) every 5 days. The rest four wells are equipped with electronic data loggers that record water levels every 30 min. To date, a multi-parameter groundwater data logger (CTD-Diver, Eijkelkamp Soil & Water, The Netherlands) has been installed to monitor water level, conductivity, and temperature at G7. The KADEC-MIZU II groundwater monitoring data loggers (North One Co., LTD, Japan) are used to monitor the groundwater level at G8, G9, and G10. The wells are visited approximately every 1 month for field verification, and water samples are collected periodically to test groundwater chemistry. The ground water is directly pumped from the well and stored.
\nTo investigate the effect of different types of tree (Acacia, Arborvitae, and Pine) on the spatial variability of throughfall, throughfall collectors are partitioned into three zones as shown in Figure 3 [12]. In each zone, one collector 1 m long, 1 m wide, and 20 cm high is made of a metal sheet and located at a fixed position. The collector is connected by polyethylene hose into the tipping-bucket flow gauge designed by IGSNRR (Figure 3). The gauge had been previously calibrated and recorded the by HOBO Event Data Logger (Onset Computer Corporation, USA).
\nThe stemflow is measured simultaneously with throughfall. Three sets of stemflow collars are fitted to trees in each zone. The rubber collar is encircled at the trunk at an angle of approximately 45° to the horizontal at the level of the breast height (about 1.3 m above ground) and tightened closely with silicone sealant to avoid the leaching of water, as shown in Figure 3. The stemflow is diverted from the rubber collars to tipping bucket gauge similar to that used for gross rainfall via a PVC suction hose, 3 cm in diameter. The outputs from that are accumulated on HOBO Event Data Logger (Onset Computer Corporation, USA).
\nGross rainfall amounts are measured in the neighboring open area, outside the forest, using the tipping bucket rain gauges (SL3-1, Shanghai Meteorological Instrument Factory Co., Ltd., China).
\nTwo experimental runoff plots (5 × 15 m) have been set up on 15° slopes consisting mainly of pine and shrub, respectively. The plot borders 20 cm above the soil surface are made of concrete to prevent water loss and input from splash and are sealed with the bedrock to prevent the water exchange inside and outside of the plot (Figure 5). A pipe, connecting the collecting trough at two layers, is positioned at the downslope end of the plot to monitor the overland flow and base flow at soil-bedrock interface. From this pipe, the runoff flows into the collecting tanks (400 mm long, 200 mm wide, and 300 mm deep). The tanks are performed with a 210 mm high 30 and 20° V-notch thin-plate weir to measure the overland flow and base flow, respectively. The flow from collecting tank is piped into a collecting cylinder which is made of a metal sheet and covered with a sheet metal to prevent direct entry of rainfall. The water level sensor (L304S-3-B-F, Beijing Hua Yi Ao Feng Automation Equipment Co., Ltd, China) is installed in the tank. Runoff volume is calculated by weir equation. The total volume in collecting cylinder is measured by volumetric method to calibrate the runoff calculated from the wire.
\nLayout of experimental runoff plot.
The measurements, including soil water tension [10] and volumetric water content (EC5, Decagon Devices, Inc., USA), are also conducted at upper and lower sites in every plot. The probes are installed at 10, 20, 30, and 40 cm depths in two separate profiles. A Campbell Scientific CR1000 data logger is developed to record signals from soil water tension and volumetric water content sensors at a common 30-min time step and from water level sensor at 1-min time step. Suction lysimeters designed by IGSNRR are placed at the same depth of water potential sensors to collect pore water from unsaturated soil. The pore water is transported to the bottle through Teflon pipe.
\nIn the catchment, a total of 13 water runoff and erosion plots were set up at both sides of the channel representing different type of vegetation. Eight plots (5 × 20 m) from P1 to P8 are located at southern hill slope of the channel. The plots are characterized by different vegetations, which are corns/wheat, bare, grasses, shrubs, paper mulberries, peanuts, peaches, apricots, Phyllanthus urinarias, and Angelica keiskei. Each runoff plot is located at a slope of 15°. The plot borders 50 cm above the soil surface are made of concrete and sufficiently embedded into the soil. At the downslope end of each plot is a trough, connected to a drum for storage of runoff. Two collecting tanks of the same size are used for each runoff plot.
\nIn addition, a rainfall simulation system designed by IGSNRR is set up on the P1 and P2 plots. The system includes a submersible pump, electromagnetic flowmeters, sprinkler nozzles, and spray pipes (Figure 6). The sprinkler nozzle is installed at a height of 6.0 m so that the drops could reach a horizontal distance of at least 10 m to cover the whole 2 plots. Three rain gauges are positioned at every plot to monitor the simulated and natural rainfalls. A turbidimeter (Ananlite NEP180, Mcvan Instruments PTY Ltd., Australia) and two water level sensors (L304S-3-B-F, Beijing Hua Yi Ao Feng Automation Equipment Co., Ltd, China) are installed in transferring pipe and collecting tanks, respectively, in plots 1 and 2. Volume of surface runoff was calculated by measuring the height of the water in the first and second collecting tanks. The sediment concentration is also calculated from the correlation and relationship between sediment concentration and turbidity. A Campbell Scientific CR1000 data logger (Campbell Scientific Inc., USA) is employed to automatically monitor the precipitation, pipe flow, runoff, and sediment concentration in plots 1 and 2 each min. Runoff collected from plots 3 to plot 8 is manually measured within a day after each runoff event. Meanwhile, a sediment sample is collected. Afterward, samples are dried and weighed to estimate their sediment concentration.
\nSchematic layout of water runoff and erosion plots.
Five plots are located at northern hill slope of the channel. The size of the runoff plot is different due to the difficulty in finding the location with 20 m slope length. A collecting trough is positioned at the downslope end of the plot. Sediment and surface runoff from this collecting trough enter the first collecting tank, which splits overflow into five equal parts and passes one part, as a sample, into the second collecting tank. For each rainfall event, runoff volume and sediment loss from the plot are calculated.
\nExperimental Hall of Water and Soil Process is located in the geographical museum of IGSNRR. It is 80 m long, 18 m wide, and 22 m high. It is a new integrated water cycle experiment platform, based on the new technology integrated control, measurement, sensors, information processing, developed from China\'s first artificial rainfall runoff laboratory, slope erosion laboratory, and fluvial geomorphology laboratory in the 1950s. It includes artificial rainfall system, experimental sink of runoff and erosion, river simulation system, and transformation dynamical processes experimental device among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater.
\nThe artificial rainfall system finished in December 2015 is set up at the height of 18 m in the hall. It includes three rainfall zones: Z1, Z2, and Z3 (Figure 7). The total area is 370 m2. The rainfall can be achieved in each separate zone or in all three zones at the same time. The system consists of variable speed pumps, stainless pipes, control center, laser rainfall monitor, and sets of solenoid valves and spraying nozzles (Figure 7). Every set of solenoid valves and spraying includes three valves and three nozzles which can be combined to produce 12–300 mm/h rain and mobile storm. A pressure-compensated flow control valve and a pressure gauge are located at the same altitude of the nozzle allowing a precise control of water pressure and consequently the constancy of rain kinetic energy. The artificial rainfall system is automatically regulated in the control center. The calibration tests showed that the uniformity of the rainfall intensities was greater than 85%.
\nSchematic layout of artificial rainfall system: (a) three zones, (b) laser rainfall intensity monitor, and (c) four component sections.
Laser rainfall intensity monitor is installed at the mid-height of nozzles. It is composed of an array of laser transmitters and receivers (Figure 7). It achieves the rain non-touch measurement using orthogonally multiplexed laser beams according to the light attenuation law. The measurement error is less than 2%.
\nThe river simulation system is 38 long, 6 m wide, and 1 m high (Figure 8). The borders are made of concrete and sealed with the ground to prevent water leaching from them. The crustal lifting simulation system is installed in the middle [13]. It is composed of 12 square steel blocks (2 × 2 m). Each block is supported by four stainless steel-threaded rods, which can be adjusted up and down. The 12 square blocks can be automatically motioned to form 82 types of crustal shape. The rate of motion is as slow as 30–70 mm/day. The multi-function automatic measuring bridge is placed above the system to move from the upstream to the downstream. It can automatically measure water flow, water depth, and cross-section of the modeled river. At the end, there is a big tank where the recycled water can be pumped to the upstream.
\nSchematic layout of the river simulation system (top) and one type of crustal shape (bottom).
It consists of two metal rectangular boxes, 10 m long, 3 m wide, and 0.8 m high, and each one is located under artificial rainfall zone 1 and zone 2 (Figure 9). The interval area, 1 m wide, is kept between the two boxes in order to easily assemble them into a bigger one. The slope of the experimental sink could be adjusted automatically from 0 to 35°. One 5 cm hole is cut into the downslope end of each plot. A short metal stub pipe is welded on to the hole to form an outlet. Two water flow monitors [14] are horizontally set up in front of the each box for the measurement of the runoff. The box outlet and flow monitor are fitted together with a flexible PVC pipe. The monitor should have lids to prevent direct rainfall from entering them. For simulated rainfalls, runoff volume measurements and sediment sample collection are performed every 5 s and 5 min, respectively.
\nSchematic layout of experimental sink of runoff and erosion.
The transformation dynamical processes experimental device among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater (TDPEDPVSSG) finished in July 2014 is a complex equipment to study the water process among the five different types of water (Figure 10). It is hermetically sealed in the house (7 m long, 5 m wide, and 7.5 m high) and consists of two sections joined together, the up section and the down section.
\nSchematic layout of the transformation dynamical processes experimental device among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater.
The down section has two weighable lysimeters. Each lysimeter has a rectangle stainless steel tank with a surface area of 6 m2 (3 m long, 2 m wide) and a depth of 3 m. It is designed to have enough depth to accommodate the rooting depth of most plants and control the groundwater level. A drainage discharge and water supply system at the bottom is designed to facilitate the fluctuation of groundwater level. The gap between the concrete wall and the stainless container is less than 2 cm to avoid alteration of the energy balance of the system. This gap has been covered with a flexible and impermeable rubber film in the surface. Each lysimeter tank rests on a base frame that transmits the weight through a lever system with a counterweight to an electronic load cell. The lever arm reduces the majority of the total mass of tank and soil to a small fraction of some kilograms that are measured by load cell. It measures those soil mass with an accuracy of 60 g which corresponds to a precipitation or water column of 0.01 mm. The output signal of the sensor is transmitted to a computer located in the control room. The frequency of data collection is 30-min interval.
\nIn the northern lysimeter, the silt loam is homogeneously placed. However, in the southern lysimeter, three horizons of soil (silt loam and silty sandy loam) are placed, and each horizon depth is 1 m. The type of soil structure is prevalent in this region of North China. Fourteen sets of soil moisture, temperature, and electrical conductivity sensor (5TE, Decagon Devices, Inc., USA), dielectric water potential (MPS-2, Decagon Devices, Inc., USA), and suction lysimeter designed by IGSNRR are installed in side of the tank at the depths of 20, 43, 53, 63, 73, 83, 92.5, 110.5, 130.5, 150.5, 180.5, 210.5, 240.5, and 275.5 cm.
\nThe up section is a phytotron where the temperature, humidity, light, and CO2 can be automatically controlled. The temperature and humidity are generally controlled by air conditioner and humidifier. The light (0–30,000 LUX) is produced by 12 high-pressure sodium lamps above the lysimeter, which can be adjusted up and down manually. CO2 is emitted from the steel CO2 cylinder tank. The precision of controlling temperature, humidity, and CO2 are ±1°C, ±5%, and ±100 ppm, respectively.
\nThe instruments and techniques developed during the long-term monitoring phase of field experimental stations and the establishment phase of indoor experimental laboratory have been specifically described. The methods in the filed observations will enhance the quantitative research about the hydrology process. The new integrated water cycle experimental hall can be used to characterize the water movement among precipitation, vegetation water, surface water, soil water, and groundwater. These characterizations will improve the parameterization in numerical models. In addition, the continued instrumentation development and various techniques are recommended. It is particularly important to develop measurement and predictive techniques for in situ or indoor hydrological characteristics in the many instances.
\nThis work was financially supported by Key Program of National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.41730749), CAS Key Technology Talent and Key Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. KJZD-EW-TZ-G10). The authors like to thank the personnel of the Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, for providing important ideas in construction of field experimental stations and indoor experimental laboratory.
\nStroke also known as cerebrovascular accidents is the world’s second death-perpetrating disease after cardiovascular diseases [1, 2], and it affects about 13.7 million people annually in the globe [3]. About one third of all strokes translate into fatalities, and another one third constitutes stroke survivors staying with residual disability that accounts as foremost noticeable root of long-term neurological disability in adults [4, 5] and third most common cause of all disabilities globally [6]. Stroke classically depicts a syndrome with sudden onset of acute focal injury of the central nervous system (CNS) of vascular origin that produces focal or global neurological deficit in accordance with affected area of blood supply [7]. Thus, based on the isolated territory of the brain involve, stroke can be cerebral stroke, brainstem stroke, cerebellar stroke, or thalamic stroke, while based on underline cause it can be ischemic stroke (thrombotic, embolic, lacunar, watershed, or cryptogenic) which results from brain vascular occlusion, or hemorrhagic stroke (intraparenchymal or subarachnoid) which is due to blood-related aberrations [8].
Cerebral stroke results in loss of cerebral cortex related functions that manifests as motor impairment [9, 10, 11], sensory impairment [12, 13, 14], cognitive impairment [15, 16, 17], balance impairment [18] among others. The motor function of the cerebral cortex is embedded in the motor cortex (primary motor area, premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, cingulate motor areas) located in the frontal lobe anterior to central sulcus, the motor cortex is responsible for planning, initiation, execution, and regulation of voluntary movement which is achieved through originating descending corticospinal tract and corticobulbar system to the spinal cord and brainstem respectively [19]. Cerebral cortex plays principal role in sensory/perceptual functions by providing meaning to all sensations (except sense of smell) through primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, and other primary cortical sensory areas such as auditory cortex in the temporal lobe and visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Cognitive function involves multifaceted domains of cognitive processes including memory, learning, attention, thought, comprehension, perception, language among others [20]. Each of these domains of cognition requires cerebral cortex, illustration can be seen in memory domain where memory acquisition involves sensory cortex, memory retrieval involves prefrontal cortex, and memory storage is distributed throughout the cortex [21]. Balance and coordination of movement involve integrated functioning of both pyramidal and extra-pyramidal systems, and the cerebral cortex is the main principal origin of pyramidal system.
The mechanism of cerebral damage after stroke determines the cerebral stroke impairments, and the mechanism of damage is relative to whether the type of stroke is ischemic or hemorrhagic. Ischemic stroke consists of five distinct pathophysiologic mechanism each of which has distinct time frame; these includes immediate (within minutes) peri-infarct depolarization and excitotoxicity, hours later by neuro-inflammation and oxidative stress, days later by apoptosis [8]. In addition to ischemia related cascade of events aforementioned, hemorrhagic stroke is associated with two additional unique pathophysiologic phases. The primary; acute phase which is due to physical effect of hematoma (mass effect) from the mass accumulated blood, and the secondary; subacute phase termed as cytotoxicity from secondary metabolites of blood components [22, 23, 24].
Recovery to some extent from post stroke impairments observed among stroke survivors was one of the early evidences that led to move away from outdated dogma widely misconceived previously that; there was no possibility for repair or change within the CNS after it had suffered a lesion; and that once there is damage such as stroke that leads to neuronal demise inadvertently, the brain structures and functions are lost forever [25, 26]. It is now well-established fact that CNS repair or change itself but it just that it relatively does not do well enough, and that functional recovery after damage relies on neuroplasticity [27, 28]. Neuroplasticity is life-long natural capability of the CNS to rearrange itself in both molecular form and function in response to new experience or stimulus. Brain plasticity is pivotal to functional recovery after cerebral stroke, and this spontaneous, endogenous and intrinsic capacity of the brain is what restorative rehabilitation approaches for stroke explore, promote and remodel in the right direction to achieve optimal functional recovery after stroke [29, 30].
There is exploding surge among scientists to pay more attention in searching for various therapeutic strategies that can enhance neuroplasticity to augment functional recovery with rehabilitation after stroke [31, 32, 33, 34]. Although this strategy is still in developmental stage but the reasons for this shift in attention are not far-fetched. Firstly, the thrombolytic/thrombectomy clinical treatment available for acute stroke has a very restrictive time window of administration of 4–5 hours of lesion onset [35]. This is in contrast to restorative/rehabilitative interventions that has unlimited therapeutic window of lifelong applicability [36]. Secondly, rehabilitation interventions are still far from sufficiency for optimal and ideal recovery from impairments after stroke [37], as about 50% of stroke survivors still leaves with residual disability and remain functionally dependent despite rehabilitative management [38]. Understanding the mechanisms of cerebral damage and their recovery after cerebral stroke is essential towards development of strategies that harness and enhance neuroplasticity in combination with rehabilitation processes [39]. This paper therefore discusses the mechanism of cerebral damage after stroke as well as elucidates the concept of neuroplasticity as key for recovery following stroke.
In ischemic stroke, irreversible cascade of damage to the brain tissue ensue once the cerebral blood flow (CBF) reduces to less than 12 ml/100 g/min of the normal range of 50–60 ml/100 g/min. Within seconds of this abrupt ischemic insult, neuronal cells in the center of ischemic region termed as ischemic prenumbra undergoes anoxic depolarization due to loss of ATP-dependent ionic pump homeostasis, and they never repolarize [40]. This necrotic core of ischemic prenumbra is enclosed by a zone of relatively lesser impacted tissue termed as ischemic penumbra, which is abridged functionally silent by the reduced blood flow but maintains metabolically active and therefore can repolarize at the expense of further energy consumption [41]. This repetitive depolarization and repolarization of ischemic penumbra are termed peri-infarct depolarization and the important period of time during which this volume of brain tissue is salvageable is referred to as the window of opportunity. The energy failure in the functioning of ATP dependent sodium potassium pump in the ischemic prenumbra results in massive uncontrolled anoxic depolarization that results in opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, mitochondrial dysfunction which further deplete energy required to maintain ion gradient, and abnormally extracellular buildup of excitatory amino acids [42, 43].
Consequently, excitatory glutamate and other excitatory amino acids such as aspartate becomes excessively released, and glutamate hyperexcitation of glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, which is arguably the most calcium-influx allowing ionotropic glutamate receptor; results in massive influx of calcium ion (Ca++) into hypoxic neuron. Calcium ion triggers series of cascading events that ultimately lead to neuronal demise through activation of proteolytic enzymes, stimulation of pathogenic genes, lipid peroxidation and free radical generation [44]. For this; glutamate and other excitatory amino acids are cumulatively termed excitotoxins, and their accompanying neuronal damage termed excitotoxicity [45]. Calcium activates key number of disparaging intracellular enzymes such as proteases, kinases, lipases, and endonuclease that not only wildly permits release of cytokines and other mediators that result in the loss of cellular integrity but also orchestrated triggering of intrinsic apoptotic pathway of neuronal death. Specifically, calcium through mobilizing phospholipases hydrolyses membrane bound glycerophospholipids to yield free fatty acids, which enable free radical peroxidation of other membrane bound lipids. Calcium through mobilizing proteases lyses integral structural proteins and activates nitric oxide synthase enzyme that triggers free radical machinery [46].
Prior excitotoxicity activates microglia and astrocytes which are the brain resident innate immunity to reacts and release cytokines, chemokines (chemotaxis cytokines), and matrix metalloproteases (MMPs). This constitutes neuro-inflammation, and microglia activation institutes the initial vital neuro-inflammatory response in acute stroke, which together with blood-borne innate immune cells and later adaptive immune cells support the course. This neuro-inflammatory response supposedly aims to reduce injury processes but this response under stroke pathology develops improperly more reactive and aggressive to yield numerous inflammatory mediators that trigger apoptosis and orchestrate lethal neuronal injury [47, 48]. Activated microglia becomes phagocytes that can release plethora of substances, some of which are neuroprotective such as neurotropic factors; nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), and growth associated protein (GAP-43/B-50), while some are neurotoxic such as tumor necrosis alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Blood–brain barrier (BBB) which confers brain with protection against systemic toxins is disrupted by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) with MMP-2 (gelatinase A) and MMP-9 (gelatinase B) being the leading concerns in cerebral ischemia [49]. MMP-2 that is normally expressed at low levels becomes increased during cerebral ischemia to galvanizes MMP-9, which abolishes components of the basement membrane in the vascular wall leading to BBB distraction, thus allowing further infiltration of inflammatory mediators and other potential toxins [50].
Oxidative stress signifies disparity in the high-level oxidants (free radicals) with respect to corresponding nonconforming low level of antioxidants. Long term cerebral hypo-perfusion produces abnormal proportions of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) oxidants through several mechanisms of injury, such as mitochondrial inhibition, calcium ions overload, ischemia–reperfusion injury, and neuroinflammation [51]. During cerebral ischemia, there is mitochondrial inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation due to the lack of sufficient oxygen, and the oxygen depleted cell shift to glycolytic pathway of ATP generation that results in lactate and hydrogen ion (H+) build-up in the mitochondria and the consequent reversal of the H+ uniporter on the mitochondrial membrane that results in superfluous cytosolic H+ buildup and acidosis [52]. Acidosis partly lead to oxidative stress by supplying excessive H+ for the successive progression in the generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the final hydroxyl radicals (∙OH) either in the turnout of transition metal ions (Fenton reaction) or in the presence of superoxide radical (Haber-Weiss reaction), with this effect more pronounced in neurons due to inherently low anti-oxidant defense. In addition, the compelling protein and lipid oxidant peroxynitrite (OONO_) of RNS is favorably generated in the oxygen depleted cell by the reaction of nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide (O2∙−), thereby also contributing to oxidative stress.
Calcium overloads, as a result of glutamate mediated NMDA receptor excitotoxicity, also contributes in neuronal oxidative stress at cytosolic and mitochondrial level. At cytosolic level, excessive calcium ion activation of key intracellular enzymes such as neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) via Ca2+ binds calmodulin to induce subsequent downstream effect, as nNOS catalysis results in generation of nitric oxide (NO) free radical from L-arginine [53, 54]. At the mitochondrial level, excessive calcium ion influx into mitochondrial matrix leads to the inner mitochondrial accumulation of momentous level of Ca2+ via mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) which proliferates disturbance of usual bio-energetic, mitochondrial ROS, and membrane permeability [55].
Apoptosis is a physiological mechanism of cell death through programmed cellular machinery of either extrinsic or intrinsic pathways [56]. Under stroke pathology, neuronal demise by necrosis preponderance in the ischemic prenumbra is marked by excitotoxicity, while additional process of neuronal demise by apoptosis which is more delayed and predominant in the ischemic penumbra occur in a fashion where apoptosis becomes dysregulated [57]. Thus, while the neurons within the core infarct die by immediate necrosis due to insufficient ATP, the penumbra die by ATP requiring process of apoptosis, supporting the established evidence that cellular demise after cerebral ischemia transpires through both necrosis and apoptosis [58]. Multiple pre-existing pathophysiologic mechanisms that can induce apoptosis after cerebral ischemia includes pro- calcium influx, pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress [59]. Apoptosis can be caspase-dependent or caspase-independent, and the most common is caspase-dependent which is initiated and triggered through distinctively intrinsic (or mitochondrial) pathway or extrinsic (or death receptor) pathway. Both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways share similar terminal phase termed execution phase where caspase 3 leads to the destruction of cellular components and cell death [60].
In hemorrhagic stroke, the mechanism of damage begins with additional process of mass effect from the mass accumulated blood, and cytotoxicity from the secondary metabolites of blood components, in addition to shared common damaging caused by ischemia such as excitotoxicity, neuroinflammation, oxidative/nitrosative stress, and apoptosis. The initial bleed from the cerebral hemorrhage causes immediate physical disruption of the cellular cytoarchitecture of the brain and increases local pressure which can cause compressions, hypothetically disrupting blood flow and principally causing brain herniation [61]. The subsequent expansion of hematoma causes mass effect of hematoma growth leading to further rise in intracranial pressure, brain herniation, and impacted blood flow that is correlated with neurologic deterioration and degraded clinical outcomes. Depending on the dynamic of hematoma expansion (growth), the primary damage ensues within minutes to hours subsequent to the onset of bleeding and is basically due to mechanical damage associated with the mass effect [62].
Secondary injury after cerebral hemorrhage termed as cytotoxicity occurs due to series of events initiated by the prior primary injury mechanism (mass effect), that is specifically due to body response to the hematoma for instance inflammatory response, and from the multiple blood components released from hematoma [61]. The extravasated blood components released from hematoma being implicated to cumulatively imposed cellular toxicity includes; majorly the erythrocytes and plasma proteins, and the damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) which are nucleic acids, extracellular matrix components, proteins, lipid mediators, ATP and uric acid released from necrotic tissues [63]. At the early stage of cytotoxicity, the toxicity of extravasated blood plasma components such as coagulation factors, complement components, and immunoglobulins are known to be the main contributing factor of cellular damage. Subsequently, erythrocytes lysis leads to release of its major intracellular component hemoglobin (Hb), which when metabolize via hemoglobin metabolic pathway release degradation products; heme and iron (Fe). Both Hb and its degradation products are potent cytotoxic chemicals capable of causing death to many brain cells through mechanism of free radical generation with substantial increase oxidative stress and subsequent damage to DNA [62].
The ultimate goal of stroke management is to promote optimal recovery of lost functions and reduce further injury. This recovery depends majorly on brain plasticity; a spontaneous regeneration process that encompasses neural plastic changes in the lesioned hemisphere to reestablish its structural and functional reorganization. Brain plasticity under pathological condition completely differs from plasticity under properly functioning brain. For instance, plasticity in normally functioning brain is a prerequisite basis of learning and memory that involves plastic adaptation such as long-term potentiation (LTP). This is opposed to plastic changes observed using MRI in cerebral stroke pathology, that involves modification in intracortical myelin, augmented neurogenesis, improved spine density in neuronal dendrites and alterations in astrocyte volume [64].
Stroke recovery to certain extent also depends on severity extent of the initial injury deficit as the severity of the damage is inversely related to the prognosis for recovery [65]. But it was also observed that recovery differs even among post stroke patients with similar clinically assessed severity. This apparently stress the recovery role of other brain endogenous survival mechanism such as extent to which collateral circulation bypass to supply blood to the perilesional neurons, angiogenesis, inhibitory neurotransmitters that counteract excitotoxicity, and multiple representations of the same function in different cortical areas [66]. Appropriate rehabilitation and drug treatment that target underline cause of stroke are also critical to recovery after post stroke cerebral damage. Rehabilitation aims to maximize optimum recovery of lost functions as a result of impairments deficit after stroke but overall, brain plasticity underlies recovery promoted by rehabilitation [67, 68, 69].
Recovery from stroke has also been attributed to be dependent on resolution of early local processes in the brain that includes resolve of perilesional edema, re-emergence of circulation within the ischemic penumbra, resolution of remote functional depression of neurological function induced by process of diaschisis [70]. As previously stated stroke recovery majorly depends on brain reorganization process of plasticity which in turn dictates recovery promoted by rehabilitation. Mechanism through which rehabilitation mediates brain plasticity to promote recovery has been studied and explained. Rehabilitation such as physical therapists stroke interventions modifies neurotrophic factor expression in the CNS especially brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which in turn upon binding with its tyrosine kinase B (TrkB) cognate receptor recruits a cascade of signaling pathways that ultimately mediates activity-associated plasticity of neurons [71, 72]. Activity-associated plasticity signifies a means of functional and structural neuroplasticity that is tailored by the depolarizing behavior of neurons, and the mechanisms governing activity-associated plasticity includes LTP and activity-associated development of corticospinal circuitry among others [72]. Therefore, through brain plasticity after cerebral stroke, reorganization by recruiting cortical or subcortical structures to adopt the function of the injured tissue, reinforcement of remaining synaptic pathways and then creating new connections, recruitment of other pathways that are functionally alike the damaged tissue but anatomically distinct, strengthening of existing but weaker and functionally silent connections, can all be achieved to recover lost cerebral functions [73].
Neuroplasticity is a general term that covers all available processes of neuronal reorganization possible [66], such as neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, dendritic arborization, axonal sprouting, LTP, recruitment of other pathways, reinforcement of functionally silent synapses. Neurogenesis is the process of generating of neurons of neural cell types from precursors neural stem cells and/or neural progenitor cells (NPCs) [74]. Synaptogenesis is a broad term that encompasses the complex process of synaptic contacts formation, maturation and maintenance which form the basis for establishing neural circuits [75]. Dendritic arborization describes a process of neuronal dendrites tree-like branching out to make new synaptic connection through mechanisms of dendrite morphogenesis [76]. Sprouting is a form of plastic changes in the synapses in which there is axonal synaptic reorganization to modify the efficacy of synapses [77]. LTP is the fundamental form of synaptic plasticity where synapses become strengthened and this forms the cellular basis of learning and memory [78].
Neuroplasticity is regulated by the corresponding cascade of intracellular events that translates into plastic changes. However, the plastic changes may either be adaptive, where it is related with an upsurge in function or maladaptive where it is linked with adverse consequences such as loss of function or augmented damage [79, 80]. This brings about the concept that not all plasticity effect positively on clinical status, that maladaptive plastic changes from dysregulated neuroplasticity result in an aberrant neural organization [79]. Typical example of situation where neuroplasticity becomes maladaptive can be seen in new onset of seizures after long period of cerebral trauma, where aberrant progressive plastic changes in the brain in the form of inappropriate synaptogenesis and axonal sprouting accounts for this late development. Neuroplasticity can also be seen as structural where the plastic changes involves the organization and number of synapses such as synaptogenesis, axonal sprouting and dendritic arborization, or functional where the plastic changes involves the efficacy and strength of synaptic connections such as LTP.
The basis of plastic changes that allows for neuroplasticity to become realistic depend upon factors such as neuronal excitability, which define the ability of a nerve to produce an action potential and in turn depends on the permeability, electrical and chemical state of the neuron [81]. This is then followed by adaptive changes termed plasticity, in which there are stable functional transformations that occur in specific neuronal systems as a result of specific stimuli or the combination of stimuli [82]. Furthermore, it has been revealed that effective and repeated action potentials are required from the presynaptic neuron to stimulate the postsynaptic to cause a change in the strength of an interneuron connection [83]. Cumulatively, the aforementioned process leads to biochemical changes, and anatomical adaptations which reinforce the connections between neighboring neurons, thus accounting for molecular, cellular, systems, and behavioral perspectives of explaining neuroplasticity [84].
The strength of the excitation impulse must exceed the threshold value to increase the synaptic efficacy and the stability of the connections between neurons. Nevertheless, when neurons are stimulated only with subthreshold stimuli, the overall activity of the synapse may decrease [85]. Studies conducted on unilateral lesion of the hippocampus results in the formation of new synapses (synaptogenesis) by the axons from the remaining contra-lateral hippocampal system [86]. Thus, the postsynaptic portion of a synapse continues to function properly despite the degeneration of the presynaptic region, and the surviving axons form new synapses. The fibers that form the (new) synapses are homologous to the damaged synapses, which may significantly facilitate the restoration of normal function.
Table 1 summarized various strategies that were found to enhance neuroplasticity and the mechanism through which modulate neuroplasticity.
Strategy | Proposed mechanism reported to modulate and promote neuroplasticity | References |
---|---|---|
Transcranial direct current stimulation (noninvasive) | Modification of neuronal membrane potentials, consequently persuading neuronal excitability which form part of the basis of neuroplasticity. | [87, 88] |
Deep brain stimulation (invasive) | This by stimulating neuronal network connected to the stimulated region, the pathological neuronal network becomes altered by changes in the neurochemical components thereby inducing morphological changes in both the dendrites (dendritic arborization) and axons (axonal sprouting). | [89] |
Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES noninvasive) | Hypothesized to modulate neuroplasticity through repeated generation of neurons synaptic activity that might facilitate synaptic remodeling, leading to neural reorganization. | [90] |
Aerobic Exercise | Aerobic exercise is linked with surge in neurogenesis and angiogenesis, together with rise in neurotrophic molecules especially BDNF and other growth factors implicated in neurite outgrowth and synaptic plasticity | [91, 92] |
Brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) therapy | By binding of BDNF to its TrkB cognate receptor, two distinctive intracellular signaling pathways namely phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK) becomes initiated, thereby regulating transcriptional gene activity of neurite outgrowth and neurogenesis. | [93, 94] |
Statins | Proposed mechanism by which statins modulates neuroplasticity involves indirect effect through statin-mediated increase in proteins such as endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), and brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) among others. | [95] |
Erythropoietin (EPO) therapy | EPO and EPO receptor (EPOR) that both becomes upregulated in response to cerebral ischemia, when supplemented act to indirectly augment neurogenesis through EPO-mediated increase in the expression vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF). | [96] |
Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors (PDE-5 inhibitors) | PDE-5 inhibitors competitively inhibit phosphodiesterase enzymes responsible for converting cyclic guanylyl monophosphate (cGMP) back to GMP, thus fostering cGMP accumulation which has diverse cellular effect in the brain including angiogenesis, and neurogenesis which are requirements of neuroplasticity | [97] |
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapy. | Proposed mechanism through which VEGF modulates neuroplasticity involves mediating the PI3K–AKT–nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathway; an intracellular pathway that regulate transcriptional factors involves in neurogenesis | [98, 99] |
Various strategies that were found to enhance neuroplasticity.
Advancement in the understanding of mechanism of cerebral damage after stroke and brain neuroplasticity have continue to be a cutting-edge landmark information towards reducing human disability as a result of stroke. Strategies aimed at harnessing and augmenting neuroplasticity in complement with neurorehabilitation offers reasonable level of hope to maximize stroke recovery and diminish cerebral stroke induced neurological impairments. Although these strategies are rapidly evolving towards achieving clinical viability and success, more is needed to be done especially pertaining to outcome measures of neuroplasticity that rely on biomarkers of neuroplasticity rather than functional or behavioral outcome.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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