\r\n\tAssisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) is a key technology for treating infertility, which occurs in 10-15% of the general population in reproductive age. This has been one of the most tumultuously developing interdisciplinary technologies in medicine in recent decades. Thanks to in vitro methods, more than 5 million children were born in the whole world. For 40 years, the success rates of this treatment have increased many times, respectively in the first years from less than 10% to more than 50% in present days (in some groups of patients). The reason for this rapid increase is the introduction of new drugs and stimulation protocols, improvement of embryo culture media, and the use of new types of laboratory equipment that improve the conditions for embryo development. Last but not least, the introduction of modern genetic methods, as well as new gamete and tissue freezing techniques, has improved the methods' diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities.
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1. Introduction
When discussing smart mobility, there is an ever-increasing presence of autonomous vehicles (AVs) on the roadway and in development. Interest in the design and implementation of AVs increases each year as this innovative technology is applied to new contexts and user groups [1]. While there are many specifics that could be discussed regarding the hardware and function of AVs, this chapter will focus on parents’ opinions of the use of AVs for their teenage children in various contexts and transportation scenarios.
The design and intended use of any vehicle largely depends on the user group the vehicle is targeted at. In the case of AVs, specific applications such as the creation of an innovative personal vehicle or improved long-haul trucking have received attention in recent years [2, 3]. Applications such as a shared autonomous bus (AB) or autonomous shuttle (AS) have also been examined both theoretically and in practice with potential riders [4, 5, 6]. Potential benefits for the implementation of AV on the roadways include an increase in safety and convenience, as well as the possibility of increased mobility [7, 8]. Automation makes the very inaccessible task of driving available to many groups who are currently unable to drive or have limited access to driving such as the elderly, disabled individuals, and children [7]. While some research examines the potential for this mobility increase, one particular area that has yet to be explored thoroughly concerns family mobility and the potential for AVs to increase it.
When considering the transportation of children of all ages in an AV, the relationship between parents and children’s mobility must be examined. Generally, children have a large number of transportation needs such as school, extracurriculars, and social activities. For a number of reasons, parents are reliant on their personal vehicles to meet all of their families transportation needs, often seeing personal vehicle use as the only acceptable way to take their children to activities [9, 10]. In the context of school, the number of children who are able to transport themselves through walking or biking has decreased drastically over time due to increasing travel distances and parent concern regarding traffic dangers [11, 12]. Children who live close to their school are often still driven by a parent out of concern for the child’s safety [13]. Even while many parents report issues managing these rides alongside their work and personal transportation needs, many still elect to transport their children personally [13, 14].
After school, tasks like extracurriculars, medical appointments, and social events add even more trips to a family’s schedule. The use of public transportation options brings up concerns of safety with strangers and the difficulty of navigating some systems, while considering that many of these options do not allow unaccompanied minors [10]. Even rideshare services which utilize a private vehicle, such as Uber, do not allow for the transportation of unaccompanied children [15, 16]. For many families, a personal vehicle is the only available transportation method that meets the need for convenience and flexibility, while also quelling parent safety concerns. The option of utilizing an AV offers a solution to help lighten the load of transportation needs on the parent, while addressing many of their concerns regarding other methods of transportation.
In order to offer this potential solution to parents, AVs must be designed with parent concerns in mind. Prior research has suggested that parents are gatekeepers to this mobility and dictate the methods by which their children travel and therefore must feel that their children are safe in an AV [8, 17, 18]. Some research has been conducted to examine parent opinions of transporting young children in AVs independently which has uncovered several perceived concerns and benefits from parent groups. Prior literature suggests that parents were most interested in the possibility that this presented a convenient option to transport their children when they are unable to drive and that their children could carpool with other families children [8, 18, 19]. Excluding general barriers to acceptance of AV such as hacking, parents were often concerned about child maturity level and the distance of the journey [19]. Reported concerns about child safety included issues of how the AV would respond to threats and ensuring that a child gets to their final destination after exiting the vehicle [8].
Additionally, issues of technological acceptance and social desirability may play a role in parents’ standpoint on transporting their children in AVs [20, 21]. Previous research suggests that children influence parent’s decisions to adopt digital technologies [22]. Adoption of technology refers to an individual deciding to make use of a technology in their lives [23]. In this case, early adoption would refer to individuals who decide to use new technologies before the majority of the population. Parents who identify with this concept of early adoption may be more likely to make use of AVs, as they are an emerging technology.
When considering child transportation, teenagers present a unique challenge. Teenagers have more transportation needs than young children, as many have the addition of a work schedule and increased social obligations, but many are able to drive themselves after the age of 15 depending on the state. Despite this vastly different scenario, there is no research solely focused on transporting teenagers in AVs. Due to their ability to become licensed, it may be thought that teenagers have a lesser need for AVs than young children, but teenagers would also benefit from this technology in unique ways.
One way that parents overcome traditional barriers to child mobility is encouraging their teenagers to receive learner’s permits. Whether parents are busy or simply do not want to drive their older children around, learning to drive removes the need for a parent to be involved in their transportation. This also creates another driver in the family to transport younger children or individuals in the family who are unable to drive. Unfortunately, teenagers are among the most high-risk drivers. Some of this is due to lack of experience, but teenagers are also more likely to exhibit risk-taking behavior than their adult counterparts [24, 25]. CDC data collected from 2016 to 2017 shows that 16 year-old drivers were 1.5 times more likely to have an accident per mile driven than drivers in the 18–19 year-old category [26]. While some may attribute this to driving experience, it has also been found that teenagers who waited longer to obtain their learner’s permits were shown to exhibit less risky driving behavior [27]. This suggests that the difference in driving behavior and accident rates are due to more than just experience gained. Adoption of AV transportation would lessen the need for these teenagers to get licensed as soon as they are of age while still offering independent mobility.
Teenagers who have already been licensed would also benefit from this technology, as they fall under the same high accident and risky driving behavior statistics. In the case of these teenagers, or teenagers who would still like to get their license and use an AV, this would create a unique group of users who are qualified to drive the vehicle should an emergency arise that requires a driver. Parents may also feel safer transporting young children in AVs if an older, teenaged sibling is there to monitor the ride, enforce safety rules, and ensure that the younger child reaches their destination. Overall, the use of personal AVs for transporting teenagers would greatly increase the entire family’s mobility. To make this a reality for families, the needs and wants of parents must be addressed first.
The current study is an attempt to begin to understand parent opinions on transporting teenagers in AVs unaccompanied. Parent willingness will be measured, along with data regarding their child’s transportation needs and driving habits. Additionally, parent opinions on teenagers using AV as a way to delay the need to drive will be examined.
2. Methods
2.1 Data collection
Participants were recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk to take a survey hosted on Qualtrics from January 5th to February 7th, 2022. They were required to be between the ages of 18 and 99 years old, live in the United States of America, and be the parent of at least one child above the age of thirteen to participate in the study. Compensation was provided (4 USD per valid, complete response). This research was approved by the author’s university Institutional Review Board.
Of the initial 315 responses, 38 participants were removed due to not meeting the participant criteria or declining to participate at the informed consent stage of the questionnaire. An additional 50 responses were removed due to failure of attention checks such as “What is the current month?” or “Please respond no to this question.” Lastly, a final 34 participants were removed due to responding to the survey questions for a child that was not within the acceptable age range of 13–19 years old. A total of 191 valid responses were used for the analysis.
2.2 Questionnaire development
2.2.1 Parent demographics
Before beginning the demographic section, participants were asked to confirm that they met the criteria to participate and agree to the terms laid out by an electronic informed consent form. Then, participants were asked to first answer a set of demographic questions regarding themselves. Parent demographic questions included age, sex, gender, ethnicity, and education level. Participants were also asked if they held a valid driver’s license, which state this license was issued in, how many years of driving experience the participant had, and how many accidents they have caused. These questions were asked to gather information regarding the participants’ driving experience.
2.2.2 Early adopters and autonomous vehicle opinions
Participants were next asked to answer a set of questions regarding their general opinions about AVs. Willingness to adopt new technologies plays a role in opinions of AVs, as it is a relatively new innovation [23]. Parents were given a description of an early adopter of technology and then were asked if they considered themselves to be an early adopter. A description of AVs was given to define and frame the concept for the duration of the study [28]. Participants were then asked how familiar they were with AVs, how useful they found them, how safe they felt AVs were, and how likely they were to ride in one. Lastly, they were asked how likely they would be to purchase an AV if cost was no issue. The phrasing of this question aims to understand which participants would be inclined to purchase an AV if the issue of cost was removed, as this is one of the larger barriers to adoption [29].
2.2.3 Teenager demographics
Parents were asked to answer the next section with information regarding their teenager. If the parent had more than one teenager, they were instructed to choose one to answer the questions for. Information was then collected regarding the demographics of the teenager such as sex, gender, ethnicity, and age. It was then asked what type of license this child had, if they held one and which state this was issued in. Years of driving experience and number of accidents were asked as well. Parents were then asked to subjectively rate their child’s driving performance on a 5-point scale ranging from “far below average” to “far above average.”
Having an older child who is able to drive has the potential to help increase the ability to meet a family’s mobility needs. For this reason, parents were also asked if their child’s ability to drive is helpful for meeting the family’s transportation needs. Additionally, the number of vehicles a family has is relative to the number of drivers in the household with some families having as many vehicles as drivers [30]. Therefore, it was asked if the child has a designated vehicle to use when driving or if they would be using a car that would otherwise be used by the parent. In the case of the latter option, this indicates a potential need for more options for mobility within the family. Lastly, the parent was asked to rate how often their child needed transportation to various activities per week, regardless of how this transportation is achieved, Activities including school, work, extracurriculars, and others were rated on a 5-point scale ranging from “Never” to “5+ times a week”.
2.2.4 Willingness to use
In the final section of the survey, parents were asked several questions to indicate their willingness to allow a teenager to use an AV in various contexts without a parent present. This included different destinations as well as different statuses of licensing, such as a learner’s permit or a full license. As many parents have more than one child, questions were also posed to gauge willingness to allow younger children to ride with a teenager in an AV unaccompanied by an adult. Parents were then asked if they would prefer for their child to wait to learn to drive until they are older if AVs were a readily available alternative for them. The final question gave a brief explanation of a take-over request, which occurs when an AV needs competent human driver to take over the task of driving due to an unexpected situation [31]. They were then asked if they would feel comfortable letting their child ride unattended in an AV if take-over request training were included in the curriculum to get the learner’s permit.
2.3 Data analysis
Data cleaning was conducted using R. JASP was used to examine demographic information and descriptives of the sample. It was also used to conduct Chi-Square tests regarding early adopter status, perceived safety of AVs, and delayed licensing for teenage drivers. The Chi-Square statistic is used to analyze whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more categories between groups in a contingency table. If significant, this test suggests that the distributions across categories and between groups are truly and significantly different [32].
3. Results
3.1 Parent sample characteristics
Of the valid 191 responses, just over half of the sample were male (53.40%). As for ethnicity, 72.78% of the participants were White, 12.57% were Asian, and 6.28% were Black or African American, 4.71% of participants identified as Mixed or Other, 2.09% were American Indian or Alaskan Native, 1.05% were Hispanic or Latino, and 0.52% were Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander.
Education levels varied, with the largest grouping being a bachelor’s degree (52.88%), followed by an associate degree and a high school graduate, diploma or the equivalent (11.52% each). About one tenth (10.99%) of the sample held a master’s degree and 8.90% held some college credit. The smallest two groups included 2.62% holding a doctorate and 1.57% having trade, technical, or vocational training.
All participants were licensed drivers, with an average of 21.74 years of driving experience (SD = 9.35). When asked about the number of accidents they have personally caused, nearly half of the participants responded with none (47.64%). Less than 3.68% of respondents reported causing more than 2 accidents in their lifetime.
3.2 Teenager sample characteristics
The average age of the 191 teenagers that participants responded for was 15.75 years old (SD = 1.90). Slightly more than half (57.07%) of the sample was male. They also had a very similar breakdown of ethnicities as the parent group.
As some of the participants’ children were not yet of legal driving age, 25.13% (n = 48) of the teenage sample consisted of non-drivers, 49.74% (n = 95) had their learner’s permit or equivalent provisional license and the remaining 25.13% (n = 48) were fully licensed drivers (Figure 1). Among these teenagers, there was an average of 0.97 years of driving experience, with a standard deviation of 1.47 years (Figure 2). In parent’s subjective report of their child’s driving performance, over half of participants rated their child as an average driver as seen in Figure 3 (52.88%, n = 101). Participants also reported that 85.23% (n = 164) of the teenage sample had never caused an accident (Figure 4).
Figure 1.
Teenager license status.
Figure 2.
Number of years of driving experience for teenagers.
Figure 3.
Parent rating of driving performance for teenagers.
Figure 4.
Number of accidents teenagers have caused.
When asked if their child’s ability to drive helps the family’s overall transportation needs, many parents “somewhat agreed” (36.65%, n = 70) or “strongly agreed” (20.94%, n = 40) that it was helpful to them. Parents were also asked if their child has their own personal vehicle (28.27%, n = 54), shares with siblings (5.24%, n = 10), or uses a vehicle that would otherwise be used by a parent (51.83%, n = 99); 11.52% (n = 22) of the sample indicated that their teenager typically used other vehicles outside of the immediate family when driving.
Finally, participants were asked if they would prefer for their child to wait to learn to drive until they are older if they could use an AV to retain the same level of mobility: 31.94% (n = 61) of parents said “yes,” 50.26% (n = 96) said “no,” and 17.28% (n = 33) were unsure (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Participant responses to delayed licensing.
3.3 Early adoption and autonomous vehicle opinions
Participants were asked a number of questions regarding their familiarity with AV as well as if they considered themselves to be early adopters. All responses fell on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from positive to negative, in relation to the nature of the question. When asked about usefulness, 80% of participants responded with “somewhat useful” (n = 114) or “extremely useful” (n = 40). Respondents also largely felt that AVs were safe, with 89 saying “somewhat safe” and 23 saying “extremely safe.” When asked how familiar they were with AVs, a large number of participants reported being at least moderately familiar with the technology as seen in Figure 6 (n = 88).
Figure 6.
Perceived familiarity with AV.
Participants were then asked if they themselves would likely be riding in an AV. The responses were diverse: 40 participants felt that they were extremely likely to be users, while 72 felt that it was somewhat likely; 22 chose the neutral category of neither likely nor unlikely and 38 felt that it would be somewhat unlikely. Only 18 individuals felt that it would be extremely unlikely for them to make use of an AV. Lastly, respondents were asked if they would be likely to purchase an AV if cost were no object. The results were the least varied of all the questions, with 52 “extremely likely,” 53 “somewhat likely,” 24 neutral responses, 33 “somewhat unlikely” and 29 “extremely unlikely” responses.
In addition to these AV related questions, participants were asked if they would consider themselves to be an early adopter of technology. As seen in Figure 7, 95 individuals responded with “probably yes” and 23 with “definitely yes,” resulting in 61.78% of participants identifying with the concept of an early adopter of technology.
Figure 7.
Perceived early adopter status.
3.4 Comparison of parent willingness
A chi-square test showed significant differences in frequency distributions across participants self-reported early adopter status and their willingness to transport their licensed teenager in an AV (χ2 (16, N = 190) = 31.97, p = 0.010).
As seen in Table 1, a large number of parents who were unsure of their early adopter status (“might or might not”) were also fairly neutral on their willingness with 40% of this group selecting “neither comfortable nor uncomfortable” with transporting their teen this way. Interestingly, of the respondents who rated themselves as probably being early adopters (“probably yes”) there was quite a large divide between those who reported being “somewhat comfortable” (n = 32) with the idea and those who reported “somewhat uncomfortable” (n = 25). Overall, those who identified more with being an early adopter were more likely to feel comfortable with AV transportation.
Source
Definitely not
Probably not
Might or might not
Probably yes
Definitely yes
Χ2
V
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Extremely uncomfortable
4
15.39
7
26.92
3
11.54
11
42.31
1
3.85
31.969
0.205
Somewhat uncomfortable
4
8.70
7
15.22
5
10.87
25
54.35
5
10.87
Neither comfortable or uncomfortable
0
0.00
4
13.33
12
40.00
11
36.67
3
10.00
Somewhat comfortable
1
1.175
8
14.04
10
17.54
32
56.14
6
10.53
Extremely comfortable
0
0.00
2
6.45
6
19.36
16
51.61
7
22.58
Table 1.
Frequencies and Chi-Square result for early adopter status & parent willingness with licensed child (N = 190).
p = 0.010.
Additionally, the perceived safety of AVs and parent willingness to use them for licensed teens were not equally distributed (χ2 (16, N = 190) = 156.94, p < 0.001). Table 2 shows that participants who felt that AV is “extremely safe” felt “extremely comfortable” or “somewhat comfortable” with using the AVs except for one participant. Those who felt that AV was “somewhat safe” also had high rates of willingness with 52 participants feeling “somewhat comfortable” or “extremely comfortable.” In line with this, those who fell into the unsafe categories showed a tendency to be more uncomfortable with the idea of using this technology for their teenager’s transportation needs.
Source
Extremely safe
Somewhat safe
Neither safe nor unsafe
Somewhat unsafe
Extremely unsafe
Χ2
V
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Extremely uncomfortable
1
3.85
3
11.54
1
3.85
12
46.15
9
34.62
156.94
0.454
Somewhat uncomfortable
0
0.00
22
47.83
8
17.39
15
32.61
1
2.17
Neither comfortable nor uncomfortable
0
0.00
12
40.00
13
43.33
5
16.67
0
0.00
Somewhat comfortable
5
8.77
41
71.93
3
5.26
7
12.28
1
1.75
Extremely comfortable
17
54.84
11
35.48
2
6.45
0
0.00
1
3.23
Table 2.
Frequencies and Chi-Square result for perceived safety & parent willingness with licensed child (N = 190).
p < 0.001.
Lastly, parent willingness was compared to parent’s desire for their teen to wait to learn to drive if they could mitigate their mobility with an AV. There were significant group differences (χ2 (8, N = 190) = 18.93, p = 0.015), with most parents falling into the “somewhat comfortable” (n = 57) or “somewhat uncomfortable” (n = 46) responses regardless of whether they felt their child should wait to learn to drive or not (Table 3).
Willingness
Yes
No
Maybe
Χ2
V
n
%
n
%
Extremely uncomfortable
6
23.08
19
73.08
1
3.85
18.93
0.223
Somewhat uncomfortable
14
30.44
24
52.17
8
17.39
Neither comfortable nor uncomfortable
6
20.00
13
43.33
11
36.67
Somewhat comfortable
22
38.60
24
42.11
11
19.30
Extremely comfortable
13
41.94
16
51.61
2
6.45
Table 3.
Frequencies and Chi-Square result for delayed licensing & parent willingness with licensed child (N = 190).
p < 0.015.
4. Discussion
The current study was a cursory attempt at discovering the factors that contribute to parent willingness to transport teenagers in AVs unaccompanied. Overall, participants reported being moderately familiar with AV (46.07%) and generally perceived it to be safe (58.94%) and useful (80.63%). Respondents were in less agreement over if they would be likely to use an AV personally or likely to purchase an AV if cost were no issue. Although many parent participants (n = 118) reported identifying as an early adopter of technology, many were not in favor of their teenagers delaying their licensing by using AVs as a means of transportation.
When early adopter status was examined, results were congruent with previous research that those who self-identified as early adopters would display more willingness to make use of this technology [23]. The portion of participants who did consider themselves to be early adopters but still expressed discomfort for using AVs (22.11%) suggests that those who are more likely to adopt technology earlier than their peers may still have reservations about AV use specifically. Additionally, the group of participants who rated themselves neutrally on either early adoption status and willingness (34.74%) suggests that a large portion of the parents surveyed are not familiar enough with the technology to consider using it.
One of the key elements which contributes to parent acceptance of AVs identified in previous research is perceived safety [8, 18, 19]. Due to this, the current finding that participants who felt that AVs were safe (58.95%) were more inclined to let their children travel unattended in them is expected. There are still portions of the sample who were neutral or hesitant regardless of their opinion that AVs are generally safe which suggests that the safety is not the only factor which may inform parent decision making.
Due to the literature that discusses the risk taking behavior and lack of experience of teen drivers, it was hypothesized that parents may be in favor of using AV as a means of delaying the need for teenagers to become licensed at a young age [22, 24, 25, 26]. Interestingly, this was not the case. Many parents still wanted their child to learn to drive regardless of AV presence. Even when considering parent willingness to transport their child in an AV, several parents who were in favor said that they would still want their child to get licensed. Based on participant feedback collected at the end of the survey, several parents who generally viewed AV favorably still wanted their child to learn to drive. They felt that it is an important skill which is crucial to learn at this age.
This study was limited in its sample size due to large numbers of failed attention checks and individuals responding for children who did not meet the age criteria. Additionally, there was likely a lack of uniformity in participant interpretations of AVs. While survey questions were posed to gain insight into participants AV opinions, an individual’s level of prior knowledge and experience with an emerging technology is difficult to ascertain [8, 18]. Efforts were made to include descriptions of AVS and early adopter status, but it is difficult to provide a complete image of these subjects in a few sentences. Ultimately, this is a preliminary effort which hopes to inform directions for future studies in AV acceptance.
5. Conclusion
This chapter focused on exploring parent opinions and willingness to transport teenagers in AVs independently. Results indicate that parents have varying opinions of transporting their teenagers in AVs. Early adopter status did express more comfort with using the technology, parents would still like their children to learn to drive traditional vehicles. These findings contribute to our understanding of the perceived AV usage, willingness, and adoption [28], as well as, the unique barriers from a family perspective which are largely centered around concerns about the AVs ability to safely transport children [8, 18, 19, 20]. Based on the findings, several suggestions for future research can be made. Firstly, an exploration into potential differences between parent’s general ratings of AV safety compared to ratings of perceived safety specifically for transporting teenagers. In future iterations of this question, the focus can be shifted away from the idea of delaying one’s licensing to using AV as a supplemental tool during more stressful or complex driving scenarios. Also, different ridership scenarios should be considered when a licensed teen is present or absent with younger siblings or other family members. Finally, more exploration is needed into early adoption of AVs specifically, as barriers may differ from general adoption of technology. We believe that these topics are important as we embrace AV technologies and the impact of AV-enhanced mobility on vulnerable road users, such as teenagers.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Kyle Hickerson for his advice for statistical analysis.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Data collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Questionnaire development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Parent demographics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Early adopters and autonomous vehicle opinions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Teenager demographics",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Willingness to use",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.3 Data analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1 Parent sample characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Teenager sample characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.3 Early adoption and autonomous vehicle opinions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.4 Comparison of parent willingness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bansal P, Kockelman KM. Forecasting Americans’ long-term adoption of connected and autonomous vehicle technologies. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 2017;95:49-63. DOI: 10.1016/j.tra.2016.10.013'},{id:"B2",body:'Slowik P, Sharpe B. Automation in the long haul: Challenges and opportunities of autonomous heavy-duty trucking in the United States. The International Council on Clean Transportation. 2018:1-30'},{id:"B3",body:'Greenblatt JB, Shaheen S. Automated vehicles, on-demand mobility, and environmental impacts. Current Sustainable/Renewable Energy Reports. 2015;2(3):74-81. DOI: 10.1007/s40518-015-0038-5'},{id:"B4",body:'Ayoub J, Mason B, Morse K, Kirchner A, Tumanyan N, Zhou F. Otto: An autonomous school bus system for parents and children. In: Extended Abstracts of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2020); 25-30 April 2020; Honolulu HI, USA. New York: Association for Computing Machinery; 2020. p. 1-7. DOI: 10.1145/3334480.3382926'},{id:"B5",body:'Francis S. Top 25 autonomous shuttle manufacturers. Robotics & Automation News [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://roboticsandautomationnews. com/2020/10/15/top-25-autonomousshuttle-manufacturers/37291/ [Accessed: January 19, 2021]'},{id:"B6",body:'Salonen AO, Haavisto N. Towards autonomous transportation. Passengers’ experiences, perceptions and feelings in a driverless shuttle bus in Finland. Sustainability. 2019;11(3):588-607. DOI: 10.3390/su11030588'},{id:"B7",body:'Harper CD, Hendrickson CT, Mangones S, Samaras C. Estimating potential increases in travel with autonomous vehicles for the non-driving, elderly and people with travel-restrictive medical conditions. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies. 2016;72:1-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.trc.2016.09.003'},{id:"B8",body:'Lee Y-C, Mirman JH. Parents’ perspectives on using autonomous vehicles to enhance children’s mobility. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies. 2018;96:415-431. DOI: 10.1016/j.trc.2018.10.001'},{id:"B9",body:'Rosenbloom S. The impact of growing children on their parents’ travel behavior: A comparative analysis. Transportation Research Record. 1987;1135:17-25'},{id:"B10",body:'Dowling R. Cultures of mothering and car use in suburban Sydney: A preliminary investigation. Geoforum. 2000;31(3):345-353. DOI: 10.1016/S0016-7185(99)00048-2'},{id:"B11",body:'Ham SA, Martin S, Kohl HW. Changes in the percentage of students who walk or bike to school—United States, 1969 and 2001. Journal of Physical Activity and Health. 2008;5(2):205-215. DOI: 10.1123/jpah.5.2.205'},{id:"B12",body:'McDonald NC. Active transportation to school, trends among U.S. schoolchildren, 1969 –2001. American Journal Preventative Medicine. 2007;32(6):8. DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.02.022'},{id:"B13",body:'Faulkner GE, Richichi V, Buliung RN, Fusco C, Moola F. What’s ‘quickest and easiest?’: Parental decision making about school trip mode. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 2010;7(1):62. DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-7-62'},{id:"B14",body:'Fyhri A, Hjorthol R, Mackett RL, Fotel TN, Kytta M. Children’s active travel and independent mobility in four countries development, social contributing trends and measures. Transport Policy. 2011;18:703-710. DOI: 10.1016/j.tranpol.2011.01.005'},{id:"B15",body:'Haller S. Uber says ‘no’ to kids, but a growing number of ride apps say ‘yes.’ Parents are a ‘maybe’. USA TODAY. 2019. Available from: https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/parenting/2019/09/13/uber-kids-transportation-services-zum-hopskipdrive-kango-soar-how-they-work-are-they-safe/2268309001/. [Accessed: January 18, 2021]'},{id:"B16",body:'Quander M. Ridesharing service for kids launches in the DC area. wusa9.com. 2019. Available from: https://www.wusa9.com/article/news/local/ridesharing-service-for-kids-launches-in-the-dc-area/65-328f4c14-d97d-439e-86a5-876455fca066. [Accessed: January 18, 2021]'},{id:"B17",body:'Mikkelsen MR, Christensen P. Is Children’s independent mobility really independent? A study of children’s mobility combining ethnography and GPS/mobile phone technologies. Mobilities. 2009;4(1):37-58. DOI: 10.1080/17450100802657954'},{id:"B18",body:'Hand SH, Lee Y-C. Who would put their child alone in an autonomous vehicle? Preliminary look at gender differences. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 2018;62(1):256-260. DOI: 10.1177/1541931218621059'},{id:"B19",body:'Tremoulet PD, Seacrist T, Ward McIntosh C, Loeb H, DiPietro A, Tushak S. Transporting children in autonomous vehicles: An exploratory study. Human Factors. 2020;62(2):278-287. DOI: 10.1177/0018720819853993'},{id:"B20",body:'Ayala AM, Lee Y-C. Autonomous vehicles, children’s mobility, and family perspective. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 65th Annual Meeting (HFES 2020); 4-7 October 2021; Baltimore MD, USA. California: SAGE; 2021. p. 747-751. DOI: 10.1177/1071181321651323'},{id:"B21",body:'Jing P, Du L, Chen Y, Shi Y, Zhan F, Xie J. Factors that influence parents’ intentions of using autonomous vehicles to transport children to and from school. Accident Analysis & Prevention. 2021;152:105991. DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2021.105991'},{id:"B22",body:'Correa T. Acquiring a new technology at home: A parent-child study about youths’ influence on digital media adoption in a family. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 2016;60(1):123-139. DOI: 10.1080/08838151.2015.1127238'},{id:"B23",body:'Carr VH Jr. Technology adoption and diffusion. In: The Learning Center for Interactive Technology. 1999. Available from: https://www.icyte.com/system/snapshots/fs1/9/a/5/0/9a50b695f1be57ce369534ac73785801745a8180/index.html'},{id:"B24",body:'Jonah BA. Accident risk and risk-taking behaviour among young drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention. 1986;18(4):255-271. DOI: 10.1016/0001-4575(86)90041-2'},{id:"B25",body:'Williams AF. Teenage drivers: Patterns of risk. Journal of Safety Research. 2003;34:5-15. DOI: 10.1016/S0022-4375(02)00075-0'},{id:"B26",body:'CDC Injury Center. Teen Drivers: Get the Facts | Motor Vehicle Safety. 2021. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/transportationsafety/teen_drivers/teendrivers_factsheet.html. [Accessed: January 05, 2022]'},{id:"B27",body:'Hartos JL, Eitel P, Simons-Morton B. Do parent-imposed delayed licensure and restricted driving reduce risky driving Behaviors among newly licensed teens? Prevention Science. 2001;2:113-122. DOI: 10.1023/A:1011595714636'},{id:"B28",body:'SAE. Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles – SAE International. Pennsylvania: SAE International; 2016. Available from: http://standards.sae.org/j3016_201609/'},{id:"B29",body:'Fagnant DJ, Kockelman K. Preparing a nation for autonomous vehicles: Opportunities, barriers and policy recommendations. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 2015;77:167-181. DOI: 10.1016/j.tra.2015.04.003'},{id:"B30",body:'Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Household, Individual, and Vehicle Characteristics. 2011. Available from: https://www.bts.gov/archive/publications/highlights_of_the_2001_national_household_travel_survey/section_01. [Accessed: January 05, 2022]'},{id:"B31",body:'SAE International. Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. J3016C, 04-21. Available from: https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_202104/. [Accessed: February 17, 2022]'},{id:"B32",body:'McHugh ML. The chi-square test of independence. Biochemical Medicine. 2013;23:143-149. DOI: 10.11613/BM.2013.018'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Allegra Ayala",address:"aayala21@gmu.edu",affiliation:'
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He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. 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Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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