Examples of intermetallic hydrides, taken from Dornheim et al. (Dornheim, 2010).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10633",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biotechnology to Combat COVID-19",title:"Biotechnology to Combat COVID-19",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides an inclusive and comprehensive discussion of the transmission, science, biology, genome sequencing, diagnostics, and therapeutics of COVID-19. It also discusses public and government health measures and the roles of media as well as the impact of society on the ongoing efforts to combat the global pandemic. It addresses almost every topic that has been studied so far in the research on SARS-CoV-2 to gain insights into the fundamentals of the disease and mitigation strategies. This volume is a useful resource for virologists, epidemiologists, biologists, medical professionals, public health and government professionals, and all global citizens who have endured and battled against the pandemic.",isbn:"978-1-83968-627-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-626-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-628-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93713",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biotechnology-to-combat-covid-19",numberOfPages:644,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d834c746c5b159a201a9cdadfc473486",bookSignature:"Megha Agrawal and Shyamasri Biswas",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10633.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8912,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 28th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 14th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 13th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"193723",title:"Dr.",name:"Megha",middleName:null,surname:"Agrawal",slug:"megha-agrawal",fullName:"Megha Agrawal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193723/images/system/193723.jpg",biography:"Dr. Megha Agrawal is co-founder, executive publisher, and chief editor of Biotechnology Kiosk, an international journal in biotechnology. She is recognized as one of the world’s leading neuroscientists and biotechnologists. Dr. Agrawal’s research has been well cited. She has published more than 100 articles and edited several books in prestigious scientific journals in the field of biotechnology, neuroscience, molecular biology, and biochemistry. She was a faculty member and principal investigator at the University of Illinois Chicago and an associate editor for Frontiers in Molecular Diagnostics and Therapeutics. Dr. Agrawal is an invited columnist and contributing editor in biotechnology for a leading high-tech trade journal, Vacuum Technology & Coating Magazine, for which she writes a monthly column on vacuum advances in biotechnology.",institutionString:"Biotechnology Kiosk",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Illinois at Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"329553",title:"Dr.",name:"Shyamasri",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"shyamasri-biswas",fullName:"Shyamasri Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329553/images/system/329553.png",biography:"Dr. Shyamasri Biswas is co-founder, executive publisher, and chief editor of Biotechnology Kiosk, an international journal in biotechnology. She is an internationally recognized structural and molecular biologist, protein chemist, and biotechnologist and is well known worldwide for her works in solving challenging protein crystal structures of therapeutic relevance. She has published more than 100 articles in reputed journals. She received her Ph.D. in Biotechnology under the prestigious DAAD sandwich fellowship program jointly from the University of Potsdam, Germany and Banaras Hindu University, India. She was a senior scientist at UMass Worcester, North Carolina State University, and University of Florida Gainesville. She is a senior editorial board member of Proteins and Peptide Letters and a contributing editor for Vacuum Technology & Coating Magazine.",institutionString:"Biotechnology Kiosk",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"200",title:"Public Health",slug:"medicine-public-health"}],chapters:[{id:"75208",title:"Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, and Healing Strategies of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96200",slug:"epidemiology-pathogenesis-and-healing-strategies-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the present chapter, some notable features (epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical characteristics) regarding recent outbreak COVID-19 have been reviewed. Most significant features related to COVID-19 such as (i) roots of infection and disease manifestation, (ii) shape and structure of viral S-protein, (iii) genome sequence study and replication in host cell, (iv) role of environmental factors, (v) diagnosis tools and (vi) role of biosensor have been critically investigated. The biological and behavioral risk factors for pregnant women before and after child birth have been dictated clearly. Pulmonary abnormalities due to COVID-19 of the patient having diabetes, cancer etc. history have been clarified with help of CT imaging. Finally, prevention and cure strategies adopted by many health professionals based on the existing drugs are mentioned with their side effects.",signatures:"Basanta Bhowmik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75208",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75208",authors:[{id:"341227",title:"Dr.",name:"Basanta",surname:"Bhowmik",slug:"basanta-bhowmik",fullName:"Basanta Bhowmik"}],corrections:null},{id:"75182",title:"Control of an Epidemic of SARS-CoV-2 by Assessing Transmissibility of Its Infected Cases in Absence of a Suitable Vaccine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96201",slug:"control-of-an-epidemic-of-sars-cov-2-by-assessing-transmissibility-of-its-infected-cases-in-absence-",totalDownloads:347,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"SARS-CoV-2 or Covid 19 and it’s pandemicity has been wreaking havoc in many countries worldwide. It is important to counter and contain the spread of Covid-19 using some effective infection control policies as we await an effective protection such as vaccine. Ahmedabad Model of Covid-19 Control could be used as an established epidemic management protocol for COVID 19 infection. It relies on the Cycle Threshold (Ct) Value, which was used as a proxy marker for assessing initial viral load. It was evident that cases with higher viral load spread the disease at much higher rate as compared to that of low viral load apart from population mobility and/or population density. Therefore, Ct value based segregation of infected cases with higher viral load along with contact tracing of them of previous 5 days is an effective epidemic control policy. It needs to be remembered that a section of infected cases is asymptomatic and capable of spreading infection in the community unknowingly. Hence, infection control practices must be accompanied with standard precautionary measures such as physical distancing, hand hygiene and wearing face mask. Community awareness is an integral part of it. Newer biotechnology based researches may be encouraged based on felt needs.",signatures:"Bidisa Sarkar and Kamalesh Sarkar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75182",authors:[{id:"35086",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamalesh",surname:"Sarkar",slug:"kamalesh-sarkar",fullName:"Kamalesh Sarkar"},{id:"344221",title:"Dr.",name:"Bidisa",surname:"Sarkar",slug:"bidisa-sarkar",fullName:"Bidisa Sarkar"}],corrections:null},{id:"75255",title:"Whole Genome Sequencing: A Powerful Tool for Understanding the Diversity of Genotypes and Phenotypes among COVID-19 Infected Patients to Help in Controlling Outbreaks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96260",slug:"whole-genome-sequencing-a-powerful-tool-for-understanding-the-diversity-of-genotypes-and-phenotypes-",totalDownloads:273,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In Wuhan, China (December 2019), viral pneumonia cases of uncertain origin have been reported. The emergency has drawn global attention. To determine the pathogenic potential, joint efforts were conducted by Chinese Multidisciplinary Task Forces. An integral component of wide range of research applications is not only determining the causative agent but also the nucleic acid bases order in biological samples. Research techniques determining genetic material features and its order is called “sequencing”, classified into three generations. Moreover, the first sequencing attempt was conducted and a genetic link identified between samples isolated from China and other previously sequenced Coronaviruses. However, there was patient to patient diversity in terms of clinical and laboratory manifestations and diseases severity. After the genetic material of the causative agent was successfully sequenced, it was named the novel coronavirus causing COVID-19. Here, we review the genome sequences of novel coronavirus infected patients from different countries such as India, Bangladesh and Ecuador compared to China (first reported case), seeking not only to recognize similarities and differences between genome sequences of novel coronavirus, but also to compare them with other forms of coronaviruses family. Utilizing this data will assist in making right decisions minimizing negative consequences of the outbreak.",signatures:"Rayan A. Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75255",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75255",authors:[{id:"344351",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Rayan A.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rayan-a.-ahmed",fullName:"Rayan A. Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"76134",title:"Glycan and Its Role in Combating COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97240",slug:"glycan-and-its-role-in-combating-covid-19",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Newly identified beta-coronavirus i.e. the 2019 novel coronavirus is associated with a contagious transmittable respiratory disease called COVID-19. This disease has been declared as a “pandemic” by the World Health Organization (WHO). The entry of coronavirus in the human respiratory epithelial cells depends upon the interaction between host cell receptor ACE2 and viral S-glycoprotein. However, this type of molecular recognition in between cell surface receptors and envelope glycoproteins are mediated by specific glycan epitopes and attribute to viral entry through membrane fusion. Glycans are essential biomolecules made by all living organisms, have roles in serving structure, energy storage, and system regulatory purposes. The glycan shield plays a crucial role in concealing the surface S protein from molecular recognition. The immunomodulatory properties of Glycan-binding proteins (GBPs) like Lectins, build them as an attractive candidates for vaccine adjuvant. Investigations involving the complement system activation by the lectin pathway in COVID-19 and diseases are in need of the hour. The innate immune response involving complement system could have varied biological effects against an array of microbial infections. The advances in glycoprotein style methods especially immunomodulatory action of some lectins are necessary to boost the effectiveness of treatment of COVID-19 and other pandemics.",signatures:"Swapan Kumar Chatterjee and Snigdha Saha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76134",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76134",authors:[{id:"344007",title:"Dr.",name:"Swapan",surname:"Kumar Chatterjee",slug:"swapan-kumar-chatterjee",fullName:"Swapan Kumar Chatterjee"},{id:"450851",title:"Dr.",name:"Snigdha",surname:"Saha",slug:"snigdha-saha",fullName:"Snigdha Saha"}],corrections:null},{id:"77553",title:"Epigenetic Regulation Mechanisms in Viral Infections: A Special Focus on COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98866",slug:"epigenetic-regulation-mechanisms-in-viral-infections-a-special-focus-on-covid-19",totalDownloads:173,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The outbreak of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (Covid-19), caused by a novel and highly pathogenic coronavirus (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, SARS-CoV-2), is a persisting global health concern. Research so far has successfully identified the molecular mechanisms of viral entry, alterations within the host cell upon infection, and the stimulation of an immune response to fight it. One of the most important cellular regulatory machineries within the host cell to be affected by the SARS-CoV-2 infection is epigenetic regulation, which modulates transcriptional activity by DNA sequence-independent factors such as DNA-methylation, RNA interference and histone modifications. Several studies in the literature have previously reported epigenetic alterations within the host due to infections of the Coronaviridae family viruses including SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV that antagonized immune system activation. Recent studies have also identified epigenetic dysregulation of host metabolism by SARS-CoV-2 infection, linking epigenetic mechanisms with the pathophysiology and illness severity of Covid-19. Therefore, this book chapter aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the epigenetic regulation mechanisms in viral infections with a special focus on SARS-CoV-2 infection.",signatures:"Burcu Biterge Süt",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77553",authors:[{id:"348679",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Burcu",surname:"Biterge Süt",slug:"burcu-biterge-sut",fullName:"Burcu Biterge Süt"}],corrections:null},{id:"76119",title:"Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Extracellular Vesicles: An Emerging Alternative to Combat COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97212",slug:"mesenchymal-stem-cells-and-extracellular-vesicles-an-emerging-alternative-to-combat-covid-19",totalDownloads:266,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The global SARS-CoV-2 outbreak has been accompanied with severe socio-economic and health burdens that will ripple through history. It is now known that SARS-CoV-2 induces a cytokine storm that leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome and systemic organ damage. With no definitive nor safe therapy for COVID-19 as well as the rise of viral variants the need for an urgent treatment modality is paramount. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their extracellular vesicles (EVs) have long been praised for their anti-viral, anti-inflammatory and tissue regenerative capabilities. MSCs and their EVs are now being studied for their possible use as a treatment modality for COVID-19. In this review we explore their capabilities and outline the evidence of their use in ALI, ARDS and COVID-19.",signatures:"Hugo C. Rodriguez, Manu Gupta, Emilio Cavazos-Escobar, Enrique Montalvo, Saadiq F. El-Amin III and Ashim Gupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76119",authors:[{id:"344686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashim",surname:"Gupta",slug:"ashim-gupta",fullName:"Ashim Gupta"},{id:"346444",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo .",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"hugo-.-rodriguez",fullName:"Hugo . Rodriguez"},{id:"351617",title:"Dr.",name:"Manu",surname:"Gupta",slug:"manu-gupta",fullName:"Manu Gupta"},{id:"351618",title:"Mr.",name:"Emilio",surname:"Cavazos-Escobar",slug:"emilio-cavazos-escobar",fullName:"Emilio Cavazos-Escobar"},{id:"351619",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",surname:"Montalvo",slug:"enrique-montalvo",fullName:"Enrique Montalvo"},{id:"351620",title:"Dr.",name:"Saadiq",surname:"F. El-Amin III",slug:"saadiq-f.-el-amin-iii",fullName:"Saadiq F. El-Amin III"}],corrections:null},{id:"77695",title:"Application of Ex-Vivo/3D Organoid Models in COVID-19 Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99100",slug:"application-of-ex-vivo-3d-organoid-models-in-covid-19-research",totalDownloads:155,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"COVID-19 treatment methods based on 3D organoids and ex-vivo platforms are analyzed in this chapter. Initially, the platforms available for cell culture and its working characteristics are explained. Subsequently discusses the organoids with their definition and included their uses in various applications. Further, the chapter extends to describe the uses of different organoids with their use in different stages. Most of these methods utilized the 3D ex-vivo cell culture method to develop organoids and test them over infected tissues. Based on the study in this chapter, it is found that the demonstration of active replication of the human organoids culture system of lungs is found to be more helpful for COVID-19 treatment.",signatures:"Allen Thayakumar Basanthakumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77695",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77695",authors:[{id:"336483",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Allen Thayakumar",surname:"Basanthakumar",slug:"allen-thayakumar-basanthakumar",fullName:"Allen Thayakumar Basanthakumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"76647",title:"In Vitro Diagnostics for COVID-19: State-of-the-Art, Future Directions and Role in Pandemic Response",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97775",slug:"-em-in-vitro-em-diagnostics-for-covid-19-state-of-the-art-future-directions-and-role-in-pandemic-res",totalDownloads:285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There have been tremendous advances in in vitro diagnostics (IVD) for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Although the confirmatory clinical diagnosis is made by real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) based viral antigen (Ag) detection is used for mass population screening at point-of-care (POC) settings. The rapid RT-PCR tests (such as from Cepheid and Bosch) have an assay duration of less than 40 min, while most rapid Ag tests (such as Abbott’s BinaxNOW™ COVID-19 Ag card) have an assay duration of about 15 min. Of interest is the POC molecular test (ID NOW™) from Abbott that takes less than13 min. Similarly, many immunoassays (IAs), i.e., automated chemiluminescent IA (CLIA), manual ELISA, and LFIA, have been developed to detect immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin M (IgM), and immunoglobulin A (IgA) produced in subjects after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Many IVD tests have been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under emergency use authorization (EUA), and almost all IVD tests are Conformité Européenne (CE) certified.",signatures:"Sandeep Kumar Vashist, Subramanian Murugan and Guiffo Djoko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76647",authors:[{id:"347663",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandeep Kumar",surname:"Vashist",slug:"sandeep-kumar-vashist",fullName:"Sandeep Kumar Vashist"},{id:"413931",title:"Dr.",name:"Subramanian",surname:"Murugan",slug:"subramanian-murugan",fullName:"Subramanian Murugan"},{id:"413932",title:"Mr.",name:"Guiffo",surname:"Djoko",slug:"guiffo-djoko",fullName:"Guiffo Djoko"}],corrections:null},{id:"75245",title:"Molecular Biology of PCR Testing for COVID-19 Diagnostics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96199",slug:"molecular-biology-of-pcr-testing-for-covid-19-diagnostics",totalDownloads:410,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"COVID-19 cases were first reported in December 2019, and since then it has spread quickly to create a global pandemic. This respiratory disease is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. A major contributing factor for the fast spread of this virus is that the infectivity by the asymptomatic carriers is similar to symptomatic patients. Thus, to identify the asymptomatic individuals and to provide the essential treatment and care to COVID-19 patients, we rely heavily on diagnostic assays. Efficient, reproducible and accessible diagnostic tests are crucial in combatting a pandemic. Currently, there are few key detection tests which have been successfully employed to field-use. However, there are constant efforts to enhance their efficacy and accessibility. This chapter aims at explaining the basic principles of the current molecular diagnostic tests, which determine the presence of the virus through the detection of its genetic material. This chapter will aid the readers in understanding the basic workings of these molecular diagnostic tests.",signatures:"Vinita Chittoor-Vinod",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75245",authors:[{id:"336488",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinita",surname:"Chittoor-Vinod",slug:"vinita-chittoor-vinod",fullName:"Vinita Chittoor-Vinod"}],corrections:null},{id:"76026",title:"The Utility of Mechanical Homogenization in COVID-19 Diagnostic Workflows",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97110",slug:"the-utility-of-mechanical-homogenization-in-covid-19-diagnostic-workflows",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The use of mechanical homogenization in patient sample preparation for COVID-19 diagnostics has proven impactful in the face of the global pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2. Through methods including bead beating and shaker mill homogenization novel approaches to viral detection have been developed and improvements have been made to existing diagnostic workflows for the improvement of throughput and automation capacity. The application of mechanical homogenization techniques has enhanced the sensitivity and methodology for many molecular based approaches to COVID-19 detection and from a variety of sample types ranging from saliva to nasopharyngeal swabs. Additionally, this technology has been used to help increase laboratory safety during sample processing through efficient viral lysis. Herein, the many benefits of mechanical homogenization for COVID-19 detection will be discussed in the context of the many diagnostic workflows currently utilizing the technique.",signatures:"Zachary P. Morehouse, Rodney J. Nash, Caleb Proctor and Gabriella Ryan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76026",authors:[{id:"344987",title:"Dr.",name:"Zachary P.",surname:"Morehouse",slug:"zachary-p.-morehouse",fullName:"Zachary P. Morehouse"},{id:"344988",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodney J.",surname:"Nash",slug:"rodney-j.-nash",fullName:"Rodney J. Nash"},{id:"344990",title:"MSc.",name:"Caleb",surname:"Proctor",slug:"caleb-proctor",fullName:"Caleb Proctor"},{id:"344991",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriella",surname:"Ryan",slug:"gabriella-ryan",fullName:"Gabriella Ryan"}],corrections:null},{id:"75737",title:"Development of RT-PCR Based Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96823",slug:"development-of-rt-pcr-based-diagnosis-of-sars-cov-2",totalDownloads:377,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the 2020, COVID-19 pandemic disease created an havoc situation world widely and mainly caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). It has been challenging task for researchers, scientists and medico-pharmaceutical organisations to find out rapid and reliable diagnosis methods. Among the all testing services, a Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is the more accurate, rapid and authenticated molecular technique used for most of the diagnosis of major diseases. It has been a global priority to fix the rapid diagnosis method to combat against the pandemic COVID-19. Thus, the present chapter mainly focussing on the progress of RT-PCR method development though various processes of data collection on isolation of whole genome sequence, its primer and method designing. In this scenario, India suddenly become the global leader for vaccine development and hence the challenges and RT-PCR kit development in India and rest of the world has been be discussed. World wide many Government and private agencies and industries have taken an initiative for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 hence this chapter also summarised the scope of RT-PCR to combat pandemic situation in future.",signatures:"Rutuja Sunil Patankar and Vasudeo Pandharinath Zambare",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75737",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75737",authors:[{id:"174690",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasudeo",surname:"Zambare",slug:"vasudeo-zambare",fullName:"Vasudeo Zambare"},{id:"343962",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rutuja",surname:"Sunil Patankar",slug:"rutuja-sunil-patankar",fullName:"Rutuja Sunil Patankar"}],corrections:null},{id:"75875",title:"Current Status of COVID-19 Diagnostics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96955",slug:"current-status-of-covid-19-diagnostics",totalDownloads:163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In December 2019, an unexpected outbreak was caused by novel corona virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The lung disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 was given the name of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) by the World Health Organization (WHO) on February 11, 2020. Since its origin in the Hubei province of Wuhan city in China, now it has spread to 218 countries worldwide. Panic situation created by COVID-19 has compelled researchers and doctors to work collaboratively. To combat with the disease, every control measures are under consideration from drug discovery to vaccine development. In the management of disease, rapid diagnosis is equally important as development of vaccine and drug. At present, various diagnostic kits are available for COVID-19. With the disease progression, global demand for diagnostics is raising. So, this chapter will include the updates on efficient diagnostic assays and future of diagnostic.",signatures:"Surabhi Dixit and Monal Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75875",authors:[{id:"337906",title:"Dr.",name:"Surabhi",surname:"Dixit",slug:"surabhi-dixit",fullName:"Surabhi Dixit"},{id:"350600",title:"Dr.",name:"Monal",surname:"Sharma",slug:"monal-sharma",fullName:"Monal Sharma"}],corrections:null},{id:"76409",title:"COVID-19 and Cancer: Biological Interconnection and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97482",slug:"covid-19-and-cancer-biological-interconnection-and-treatment",totalDownloads:207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The COVID-19 pandemic has affected more than 125 million lives worldwide and more than 2.5 million people have died so far. Cancer in itself increases the risk of infection especially, cancer patients undergoing cancer-associated treatments are more susceptible to SARS-CoV2 infection. However, many questions related to the biological interconnection between the two diseases remain to be answered. This chapter summarizes some of the biological components that connect cancer to COVID-19 and provide knowledge to not only understand but also, target the co-morbidities.",signatures:"Nidhi Jyotsana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76409",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76409",authors:[{id:"345282",title:"Dr.",name:"Nidhi",surname:"Jyotsana",slug:"nidhi-jyotsana",fullName:"Nidhi Jyotsana"}],corrections:null},{id:"77350",title:"Crosstalk between SARS-CoV-2 and Testicular Hemostasis: Perspective View",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98218",slug:"crosstalk-between-sars-cov-2-and-testicular-hemostasis-perspective-view",totalDownloads:171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The infection of SARS-CoV-2 and its COVID disease caused several economic and social disturbances worldwide. This chapter aimed to determine the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the testicular hemostasis. This overview showed the possible mechanisms of how the SARS-CoV-2 can infect the testes. SARS-CoV-2-induced pneumonia, cytokine storm, and immunosuppressive state may transfer from the respiratory tract to the blood circulation, binding to testicular angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptors (ACSE2) and initiate its intracellular replication and action (cytotoxicity), that disrupting the testicular hemostasis. In severe states, COVID-19 disease can increase body/testes temperature, which may destroy the germ cell in the long term. The final mechanism is that SARS-CoV-2 infection causes stress, panic, and anxiety states, causing brain disorders that may perturb the hypothalamic–pituitary-testes-axis (HPTA). This disturbance may then lead to testicular dysfunction. The severity of COVID-19 may be age-dependent and depending on the expression and distribution of testicular ACSE2 receptors. Also, this chapter not only showed the sexual transmission of SARS-CoV-2 but also followed its impact on sexual behavior, pregnancy, and progeny. Thus, maintaining the testicular hemostasis may play a vital role in a healthy life for the offspring. Further research and clinical studies are required to explore this issue.",signatures:"R.G. Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77350",authors:[{id:"138555",title:"Prof.",name:"R.G.",surname:"Ahmed",slug:"r.g.-ahmed",fullName:"R.G. Ahmed"}],corrections:null},{id:"76542",title:"COVID-19: A Catalyst for Novel Psychiatric Paradigms - Part 1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96940",slug:"covid-19-a-catalyst-for-novel-psychiatric-paradigms-part-1",totalDownloads:252,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in the late 2019 and spread rapidly throughout the world, becoming a pandemic in March 2020. It became obvious early that the prognosis of this illness is highly variable, ranging from few mild symptoms to severe complications and death, indicating that aside from the pathogen virulence, host factors contribute significantly to the overall outcome. Like SARS-CoV and Human Coronavirus NL63 (HCoV-NL63-NL63), SARS-CoV-2 enters host cells via several receptors among which angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2) are the most studied. As this protein is widely expressed in the lungs, blood vessels, brain, kidney, testes and ovaries, the effects of this virus are widespread, affecting many body tissues and organs. Viral attachment to ACE-2 downregulates this protein, disrupting angiotensin II (ANG II) hydrolysis that in return contributes to the unchecked accumulation of this peptide. ANG II toxicity is the result of excessive activation of ANG II type 1 receptors (AT-1Rs) and N-methyl-D-aspartate NMDA receptors (NMDARs). Overstimulation of these proteins, along with the loss of angiotensin (1–7) (ANG 1–7), upregulates reactive oxygen species (ROS), inflicting end-organ damage (hit 1). However, a preexistent redox impairment may be necessary for the development of SARS-CoV-2 critical illness (hit 2). Here we propose a two-hit paradigm in which COVID-19 critical illness develops primarily in individuals with preexistent antioxidant dysfunction. Several observational studies are in line with the two hit model as they have associated poor COVID-19 prognosis with the hereditary antioxidant defects. Moreover, the SARS-CoV-2 interactome reveals that viral antigen NSP5 directly inhibits the synthesis of glutathione peroxidase (GPX), an antioxidant enzyme that along with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) protect the body from oxidative damage. Indeed, individuals with G6PD deficiency have less favorable COVID-19 outcomes compared to the general population.",signatures:"Adonis Sfera, Carolina Osorio, Jose E. Campo Maldonado, Afzaal Jafri, Aaron D. Chokka, Carlos Manuel Zapata Martín del Campo and Zisis Kozlakidis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76542",authors:[{id:"225128",title:"Dr.",name:"Adonis",surname:"Sfera",slug:"adonis-sfera",fullName:"Adonis Sfera"},{id:"341414",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Osorio",slug:"carolina-osorio",fullName:"Carolina Osorio"},{id:"341416",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose E. Campo",surname:"Maldonado",slug:"jose-e.-campo-maldonado",fullName:"Jose E. Campo Maldonado"},{id:"341421",title:"Dr.",name:"Afzaal",surname:"Jafri",slug:"afzaal-jafri",fullName:"Afzaal Jafri"},{id:"341422",title:"Mr.",name:"Aaron D",surname:"Chokka",slug:"aaron-d-chokka",fullName:"Aaron D Chokka"},{id:"341423",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Manuel Zapata",surname:"Martín Del Campo",slug:"carlos-manuel-zapata-martin-del-campo",fullName:"Carlos Manuel Zapata Martín Del Campo"},{id:"341425",title:"Dr.",name:"Zisis",surname:"Kozlakidis",slug:"zisis-kozlakidis",fullName:"Zisis Kozlakidis"}],corrections:null},{id:"75684",title:"Frequency of Hyperglycemia in Patients with Covid-19 Infection and Pneumonia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96306",slug:"frequency-of-hyperglycemia-in-patients-with-covid-19-infection-and-pneumonia",totalDownloads:285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diabetes mellitus can increase the risk of death in COVID-19 by 12 times, according to the portal of the us Centers for disease control and prevention. Coronavirus-infected diabetics are six times more likely to need inpatient treatment, and diabetes is the second most severe complication in COVID-19 after cardiovascular diseases. The state of carbohydrate metabolism in patients with COVID-19 has not been sufficiently studied in clinical studies. Isolated studies indicate that viral infection may be accompanied by an increase in the concentration of glycated hemoglobin in patients with viral pneumonia. To assess the frequency of hyperglycemia and diagnosis of newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus in patients with COVID-19 and acute lung damage aged 41–80 years, who were hospitalized in a repurposed infectious diseases hospital in Moscow with a diagnosis of pneumonia. In the observational study analyzed laboratory and clinical diagnostic data of 278 patients who had, according to the anamnesis and the medical conclusions of impaired glucose tolerance and manifested forms of diabetes, including 163 men and 115 women, aged 41–80 years, admitted to the hospital for diagnosis and treatment in the period from 12.04.2020 on 10.11.2020 of diagnoses according to ICD-10: U07.1 Coronavirus infection. In the selected groups of patients, the initial and subsequent fasting blood glucose levels were analyzed after 8 hours without food intake on a stationary automatic analyzer and using portable glucose, meters using diagnostic test strips. The concentration of glucose and ketones in the urine was determined by a semi-quantitative method. We evaluated the dynamics of indicators when detecting pathological values of glucose concentration. Glucose levels above 6.4 mmol/l were taken as pathological. In patients aged 41–80 years who were hospitalized with covid-19 infection and pneumonia, fasting hyperglycemia was diagnosed in 31–47%, glucosuria in 1.9–6.1%, ketonuria – 20.4-46.2% of cases, in different age groups. In 16.6–31.3% of cases in patients with covid-19,after treatment and regression of changes in the lungs, normalization of glucose levels was observed, but in 14.8–16.7% of the changes persisted, and in 9–13% of them, after an additional study, newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus was diagnosed. Hyperglycemia was significantly more often detected in patients with arterial hypertension of 2–3 degrees of severity and with a tendency to reliability, in patients with obesity of 2–3 degrees. Lipid metabolism disorders (hypertriglyceridemia and hypercholesterolemia), which are characteristic of changes in carbohydrate metabolism in patients with impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes, were significantly more often diagnosed in patients with covid-19 than in the group of patients with acute and chronic lung pathology without proven infection with this virus, but only in the group of patients aged 41–60 years. Covid-19 infection complicated by pneumonia occurs in individuals aged 41–80 years with a high incidence of hyperglycemia and ketonuria. The incidence of newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus in such patients is 9–13%.",signatures:"Valeriy Ivanovich Vechorko, Evgeny Mikhailovich Evsikov, Oksana Alekseevna Baykova, Natalya Vadimovna Teplova and Dmitriy Aleksandrovich Doroshenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75684",authors:[{id:"345556",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgeny",surname:"Mikhailovich Evsikov",slug:"evgeny-mikhailovich-evsikov",fullName:"Evgeny Mikhailovich Evsikov"}],corrections:null},{id:"75277",title:"Refocusing Functional Anatomy and Immunology of the Respiratory Mucosa in the Advent of Covid-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96251",slug:"refocusing-functional-anatomy-and-immunology-of-the-respiratory-mucosa-in-the-advent-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:341,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Atmospheric oxygen is an indispensable element required in order for mammalian cells to function normally. The mammalian respiratory system, through pulmonary ventilation and gas diffusion, provides the physical mechanisms by which oxygen gains access to all body cells and through which carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body. The network of tissues and organs of the respiratory system helps the mammalian body cells to absorb oxygen from the air to enable the tissues and organs to function optimally. The advent of the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) Pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has stimulated heightened and refocused interest in the study of various aspects of the respiratory system. The SARS-CoV-2 targets the respiratory system mucosal cells and in a cascade of biological processes curtails the ability of the respiratory system to absorb and deliver oxygen to the pulmonary blood and body cells often resulting in severe disease and/or death. The mucosa and submucosa of the respiratory tract are adapted to provide both innate and adaptive immune defense mechanisms against pathogens including the SARS-CoV-2. The entire respiratory tract is covered by a mucosa that transitions in its structural and functional characteristics from the upper respiratory tract to the lower respiratory tract. This chapter provides an overview of the functional anatomy and immunology of the respiratory tract covering the mucosa from the upper respiratory tract all the way up to the alveolar epithelium. In the advent of the covid-19 pandemic, a broader perspective and understanding of the anatomy and immunology of the respiratory tract will enable general readers and researchers to fully appreciate the discourse in covid-19 research as it affects the respiratory tract.",signatures:"Humphrey Simukoko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75277",authors:[{id:"335282",title:"Dr.",name:"Humphrey",surname:"Simukoko",slug:"humphrey-simukoko",fullName:"Humphrey Simukoko"}],corrections:null},{id:"75704",title:"Cellular Therapy as Promising Choice of Treatment for COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96900",slug:"cellular-therapy-as-promising-choice-of-treatment-for-covid-19",totalDownloads:254,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the pandemic of COVID-19, while living normals have been changing, there have been a huge effort globally to find out effective and safe treatment agents and vaccines. As of now, the advances show the progress in vaccine development, however the treatment of the COVID-19 is yet not fully specified. The drugs, i.e. antibiotics, antivirals, antimalarians, even anti-HIV agents which have been known already were taken out of the shelves and brought into use in different combinations. On the other hand, the cellular treatment, more specifically the mesenchymal stem cell therapy has been encouraged, resulting in various evidence published all over the world. This chapter aims to compile the published information, in means of methods, disease manifestations, results and limitations, about the stem cell treatment of the COVID-19 and to provide a source of harmonized reference for scientific society.",signatures:"Duygu Koyuncu Irmak and Erdal Karaoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75704",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75704",authors:[{id:"343450",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Duygu",surname:"Koyuncu Irmak",slug:"duygu-koyuncu-irmak",fullName:"Duygu Koyuncu Irmak"},{id:"349122",title:"Prof.",name:"Erdal",surname:"Karaoz",slug:"erdal-karaoz",fullName:"Erdal Karaoz"}],corrections:null},{id:"75622",title:"Repurposed Therapeutic Strategies towards COVID-19 Potential Targets Based on Genomics and Protein Structure Remodeling",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96728",slug:"repurposed-therapeutic-strategies-towards-covid-19-potential-targets-based-on-genomics-and-protein-s",totalDownloads:352,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Target recognition is important for the identification of drugs with a high target specificity and/or for the development of existing drugs that could be replicated for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infections. Since SARS-CoV-2 is a pathogen recently discovered, no specific medicines have been identified or are available at present. The scientific community had proposed list of current drugs with therapeutic potential for COVID-19 on the basis of genomic sequence information coupled with protein structure modeling, posing an effective and productive therapeutic approach for repurposing existing drugs. The possible therapeutics for the treatment of COVID-19 involves a wide range of alternatives, encompassing nucleic acid-based treatments directed at the expression of genes of viruses, cytokine therapy, genetic engineered and vectored antibodies, and different formulations of vaccines. The future prospective in the treatment approaches the exploration of antiviral therapy, such as screening of prevailing molecules or libraries, testing of existing broad-spectrum antiviral medications, modern drug discovery focused on genomic knowledge and biochemical properties of various coronaviruses to create new targeted drugs.",signatures:"Ashok K. Singh, Aakansha Singh and Ankit Kumar Dubey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75622",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75622",authors:[{id:"344211",title:"Mr.",name:"Ankit",surname:"Kumar Dubey",slug:"ankit-kumar-dubey",fullName:"Ankit Kumar Dubey"},{id:"344212",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok K",surname:"Singh",slug:"ashok-k-singh",fullName:"Ashok K Singh"},{id:"344641",title:"Ms.",name:"Aakansha",surname:"Singh",slug:"aakansha-singh",fullName:"Aakansha Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"78218",title:"Role of Anti-Viral Drugs in Combating SARS-CoV-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99599",slug:"role-of-anti-viral-drugs-in-combating-sars-cov-2",totalDownloads:174,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Viruses are the eventual assertion of parasitism, they not only take nutriments from the host cell, apart from that they direct its metabolic machinery to amalgamate novel virus particle and to diminish the ability of flu viruses to reproduce in an individual antiviral drugs are used. When used as directed, antiviral drugs may help to lessen the duration of flu symptoms and may reduce the severity of common flu symptoms. Antiviral drugs are the class of drugs which comes under the antimicrobials, and that also accommodates the larger group i.e. of antibiotics. They are broad-spectrum in nature and can be effective against a wide range of viruses. They can be used as a single drug as well as in combination of drugs. Antiviral drugs are dissimilar from the antibiotics, they do not demolish their target pathogen ideally they obstruct development of pathogen. To the greatest extent antiviral drugs currently accessible are delineate to deal with herpes viruses, covid-19, HIV, the hepatitis b and c viruses herpes simplex, small pox, picornavirus and influenza a and b viruses etc. Scientists are searching to drag out the range of antiviral to the other families of pathogens. They mainly act by inhibiting the attachment of viruses on cells, prevent genetic reproduction of virus, prevent viral protein production and vital for production of virus. The emanation of antiviral is generally the outcome about an appreciably expanded skills or proficiency of the generative, microscopic and atomic activity of organisms, allowing biomedical analyst to acknowledge the structure, mechanism of action and activity of viruses, significant progress within the procedure for come across the current drugs. Coronavirus 2019 (COVID 19) is highly infectious disease triggered by SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome) coronavirus 2 causing nearly 2.9 million deaths worldwide. With the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the repurposing of antiviral drugs has come into picture.",signatures:"Sweta Kamboj, Rohit Kamboj, Shikha Kamboj, Rohit Dutt, Reeva Chabbra and Priyanka Kriplani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78218",authors:[{id:"344595",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sweta",surname:"Kamboj",slug:"sweta-kamboj",fullName:"Sweta Kamboj"},{id:"345588",title:"Mr.",name:"Rohit",surname:"Kamboj",slug:"rohit-kamboj",fullName:"Rohit Kamboj"},{id:"345589",title:"Ms.",name:"Shikha",surname:"Kamboj",slug:"shikha-kamboj",fullName:"Shikha Kamboj"},{id:"345590",title:"Prof.",name:"Rohit",surname:"Dutt",slug:"rohit-dutt",fullName:"Rohit Dutt"},{id:"424484",title:"Ms.",name:"Reeva",surname:"Chabbra",slug:"reeva-chabbra",fullName:"Reeva Chabbra"},{id:"427553",title:"Dr.",name:"Priyanka",surname:"Kriplani",slug:"priyanka-kriplani",fullName:"Priyanka Kriplani"}],corrections:null},{id:"76142",title:"Convalescent Plasma: An Evidence-Based Old Therapy to Treat Novel Coronavirus Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97073",slug:"convalescent-plasma-an-evidence-based-old-therapy-to-treat-novel-coronavirus-patients",totalDownloads:268,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Novel Coronavirus (nCoV-2019) is a highly infectious viral outbreak that has so far infected more than 110 million people worldwide. Fast viral transmission and high infection rates have severely affected the entire population, especially the old aged and comorbid individuals leaving significantly less time to find some effective treatment strategy. In these challenging times, convalescent plasma (CP) therapy came as a ray of hope to save humankind. It is a form of passive immunization that has been used to treat various infectious diseases since 1890, including the 1918 Spanish flu, 2002/03 SARS-CoV, 2009 H1N1, 2012 MERS-CoV, and 2014 Ebola outbreak. The transfusion includes administration of CP containing a high value of neutralizing antibodies against the virus in hospitalized patients. This chapter summarizes the potential outcome of CP therapy in the treatment of nCoV-2019 patients.",signatures:"Saurabh Kumar, Chandra Devi, Subhabrata Sarkar, Vivek Kumar Garg, Priyanka Choudhary, Madhu Chopra, Vinit Sharma and Ravi Prakash",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76142",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76142",authors:[{id:"345069",title:"Mr.",name:"Saurabh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"saurabh-kumar",fullName:"Saurabh Kumar"},{id:"349522",title:"Ms.",name:"Chandra",surname:"Devi",slug:"chandra-devi",fullName:"Chandra Devi"},{id:"349523",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhabrata",surname:"Sarkar",slug:"subhabrata-sarkar",fullName:"Subhabrata Sarkar"},{id:"349524",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek Kumar",surname:"Garg",slug:"vivek-kumar-garg",fullName:"Vivek Kumar Garg"},{id:"349526",title:"Ms.",name:"Priyanka",surname:"Choudhary",slug:"priyanka-choudhary",fullName:"Priyanka Choudhary"},{id:"349527",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhu",surname:"Chopra",slug:"madhu-chopra",fullName:"Madhu Chopra"},{id:"349528",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinit",surname:"Sharma",slug:"vinit-sharma",fullName:"Vinit Sharma"},{id:"349529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravi",surname:"Prakash",slug:"ravi-prakash",fullName:"Ravi Prakash"}],corrections:null},{id:"75270",title:"Potential Therapeutics Pathways in Solving the Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96283",slug:"potential-therapeutics-pathways-in-solving-the-challenges-of-the-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:236,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Millions of lives throughout the globe are under threat due to the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 causes severe respiratory tract infections. In most countries COVID-19 Infections and deaths continue to soar despite the various measures put in place by the World Health Organization. These measures include limited mobility through lock down and banning international travelers. Furthermore, social distancing, wearing masks, frequent hand washing with soap and sanitizing were undertaken to slow down the rate of the virus spread. Only few countries like South Korea have been able to contain the virus to date. Our only hope is in biotechnology which have been used to develop diagnostic kits and more recently approved vaccines: vaccines by Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna; AstraZeneca and Oxford University vaccine; Sputnik V vaccine; Sinopharm and the Beijing Institute of Biological Products vaccine. However, the vaccines are yet to reach the majority of the world population. Hence, there is need for concerted effort among governments and non-governmental organizations in all nations to develop the necessary infrastructures to step up vaccine production, and procurement as well as vaccination programmes. There is need for continued effort in biotechnology, to develop COVID-19 therapeutic drugs.",signatures:"Tafirenyika Mafugu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75270",authors:[{id:"343964",title:"Dr.",name:"Tafirenyika",surname:"Mafugu",slug:"tafirenyika-mafugu",fullName:"Tafirenyika Mafugu"}],corrections:null},{id:"75920",title:"Different Therapeutic Strategies to Tackle the Infection Associated with COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96899",slug:"different-therapeutic-strategies-to-tackle-the-infection-associated-with-covid-19",totalDownloads:217,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Covid-19 is a pandemic and the whole world is facing the loss in terms of morbidity and mortality of the human resources. Therefore, there is an urgent need for various therapeutic agents or drugs to treat the covid-19 patients. Although, vaccination process is under way, it is not possible to provide the vaccination to whole world in a short period. Therefore, it is an essential strategy to work on the various therapeutic aspects of covid-19 treatment. The present book chapter will discuss and review the various aspects of the treatment strategies of the covid-19. Further, we will provide an overview of the virus and host based potential therapeutic targets along with existing therapeutics which are effective against SARS-CoV-2 virus. Also, the novel vaccines are being developed against covid-19 deadly virus will be discussed.",signatures:"Meemansha Sharma, Thakur Uttam Singh, Madhu Cholenahalli Lingaraju and Subhashree Parida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75920",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75920",authors:[{id:"158017",title:"Dr.",name:"Thakur Uttam",surname:"Singh",slug:"thakur-uttam-singh",fullName:"Thakur Uttam Singh"},{id:"158019",title:"Dr.",name:"Subhashree",surname:"Parida",slug:"subhashree-parida",fullName:"Subhashree Parida"},{id:"298751",title:"Dr.",name:"Meemansha",surname:"Sharma",slug:"meemansha-sharma",fullName:"Meemansha Sharma"},{id:"349904",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhu",surname:"Lingaraju",slug:"madhu-lingaraju",fullName:"Madhu Lingaraju"}],corrections:null},{id:"75451",title:"COVID-19 Researches: Where India Stands So Far?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96397",slug:"covid-19-researches-where-india-stands-so-far-",totalDownloads:238,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"By the end of the year 2019, in the month of November first pneumonia-like case of COVID-19 was detected in an individual aged 55 years in the Hubei Province of Central China. However the ‘patient zero’ or the first patient contracted with the disease is still unknown, but it is speculated that first contraction with virus occurred in Wuhan province of China. The rate by which the number of cases of the disease surged in China was remarkable and by the mid of January 2020 cases begin to appear in different parts of the world. WHO declared the COVID-19 outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the end of January 2020. Researchers from different parts of the world continue to study the pathogenesis and spread pattern of this disease. This chapter emphasizes upon some of the prominent studies in the field of COVID-19 researches from India. It also focuses upon the ACE2 gene polymorphism which has decreased the susceptibility against the virus amongst human population, and explains how at the molecular level ACE2 receptor concentration may affect the entry of the virus into the host cell. It also highlights the impact of the viral RNA on mitochondrial machinery of the host cell and how it instigates a pro-inflammatory response by declining the efficiency of immune system in whole. We also aim to highlight two potential drug candidates of COVID-19 and how these are performing against the virus according to several studies.",signatures:"Nikhil Srivastava and Gyaneshwer Chaubey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75451",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75451",authors:[{id:"344035",title:"Prof.",name:"Gyaneshwer Chaubey",surname:"Chaubey",slug:"gyaneshwer-chaubey-chaubey",fullName:"Gyaneshwer Chaubey Chaubey"},{id:"344038",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikhil",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"nikhil-srivastava",fullName:"Nikhil Srivastava"}],corrections:null},{id:"76012",title:"Sensor Surface Design with NanoMaterials: A New Platform in the Diagnosis of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97056",slug:"sensor-surface-design-with-nanomaterials-a-new-platform-in-the-diagnosis-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mass testing for COVID-19 is essential to defining patient management strategies, choosing the best clinical management, and dimensioning strategies for controlling viral dissemination and immunization strategies. Thus, it is of utmost importance to search for devices that allow a quick and reliable diagnosis of low cost that can be transposed from the bench to the bedside, such as biosensors. These devices can help choose the correct clinical management to minimize factors that lead to infected patients developing more severe diseases. The use of nanomaterials to modify biosensors’ surfaces to increase these devices’ sensitivity and their biofunctionality enables high-quality nanotechnological platforms. In addition to the diagnostic benefits, nanotechnological platforms that facilitate the monitoring of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies may be the key to determining loss of protective immune response after an episode of COVID-19, which leads to a possible chance of reinfection, as well as how they can be used to assess and monitor the success of immunization strategies, which are beginning to be administered on a large scale and that the extent and duration of their protection will need to be determined. Therefore, in this chapter, we will cover nanomaterials’ use and their functionalities in the surface design of sensors, thus generating nanotechnological platforms in the various facets of the diagnosis of COVID-19.",signatures:"Eliete A. Alvin, Anna V.B. e Borges, Rhéltheer de P. Martins, Marcela R. Lemes, Rafaela M. Barbosa, Carlo J.F. de Oliveira, Diógenes Meneses, Bruno G. Lucca, Noelio O. Dantas, Virmondes R. Junior, Renata P.A. Balvedi, Fabiane C. de Abreu, Marcos V. da Silva and Anielle C.A. Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76012",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76012",authors:[{id:"74921",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Silva",slug:"marcos-silva",fullName:"Marcos Silva"},{id:"340051",title:"Prof.",name:"Anielle C.A.",surname:"Silva",slug:"anielle-c.a.-silva",fullName:"Anielle C.A. Silva"},{id:"346701",title:"Prof.",name:"Noelio",surname:"Dantas",slug:"noelio-dantas",fullName:"Noelio Dantas"},{id:"346965",title:"Prof.",name:"Diógenes",surname:"Meneses",slug:"diogenes-meneses",fullName:"Diógenes Meneses"},{id:"346981",title:"MSc.",name:"Eliete A.",surname:"Alvin",slug:"eliete-a.-alvin",fullName:"Eliete A. Alvin"},{id:"346985",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcela",surname:"Lemes",slug:"marcela-lemes",fullName:"Marcela Lemes"},{id:"346987",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlo",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"carlo-oliveira",fullName:"Carlo Oliveira"},{id:"346988",title:"Prof.",name:"Virmondes",surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"virmondes-rodrigues",fullName:"Virmondes Rodrigues"},{id:"346992",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabiane",surname:"Abreu",slug:"fabiane-abreu",fullName:"Fabiane Abreu"},{id:"350141",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Borges",slug:"anna-borges",fullName:"Anna Borges"},{id:"350142",title:"Ms.",name:"Rafaela M.",surname:"Barbosa",slug:"rafaela-m.-barbosa",fullName:"Rafaela M. Barbosa"},{id:"350143",title:"Ms.",name:"Rhéltheer De P.",surname:"Martins",slug:"rheltheer-de-p.-martins",fullName:"Rhéltheer De P. Martins"},{id:"350144",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno G.",surname:"Lucca",slug:"bruno-g.-lucca",fullName:"Bruno G. Lucca"},{id:"350146",title:"Prof.",name:"Renata",surname:"Balvedi",slug:"renata-balvedi",fullName:"Renata Balvedi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75473",title:"Role of Graphene and Graphene Derived Materials to Fight with COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96284",slug:"role-of-graphene-and-graphene-derived-materials-to-fight-with-covid-19",totalDownloads:385,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The COVID-19 pandemic is a genuine biosafety occasion that is causing an extreme effect on the worldwide society and economy. Various challenges associated with the outbreak of this pandemic include diagnosis, prevention, and proper medication. Engineered nanomaterials such as graphene and graphene derived materials could be the potential solution in preventing COVID-19. This study endeavors how the improvement of novel materials can assist researchers with handling the difficulties in biosafety. In recent years, 2D graphene had caught much consideration due to its efficient electrical properties and encouraging presentations, comprising methods to combat or identify drug-resistant bacterial contaminations. The bacteria lose its integrity when exposed to the graphene surface because of its efficient viral inhibition tendency.",signatures:"Vamsi Krishna Kudapa, Ajay Mittal, Ishita Agrawal, Tejendra K. Gupta and Rajeev Gupta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75473",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75473",authors:[{id:"253563",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rajeev",surname:"Gupta",slug:"rajeev-gupta",fullName:"Rajeev Gupta"},{id:"345087",title:"Prof.",name:"Vamsi Krishna",surname:"Kudapa",slug:"vamsi-krishna-kudapa",fullName:"Vamsi Krishna Kudapa"},{id:"345088",title:"Prof.",name:"Ajay",surname:"Mittal",slug:"ajay-mittal",fullName:"Ajay Mittal"},{id:"345089",title:"Prof.",name:"Tejendra Kumar",surname:"Gupta",slug:"tejendra-kumar-gupta",fullName:"Tejendra Kumar Gupta"},{id:"345090",title:"MSc.",name:"Ishita",surname:"Agrawal",slug:"ishita-agrawal",fullName:"Ishita Agrawal"}],corrections:null},{id:"76669",title:"Propagation Analysis of the Coronavirus Pandemic on the Light of the Percolation Theory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97772",slug:"propagation-analysis-of-the-coronavirus-pandemic-on-the-light-of-the-percolation-theory",totalDownloads:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Efforts to combat the Covid-19 pandemic have not been limited to the processes of vaccine production, but they first began to analyze the dynamics of the epidemic’s spread so that they could adopt barrier measures to bypass the spread. To do this, the works of modeling, predicting and analyzing the spread of the virus continue to increase day after day. In this context, the aim of this chapter is to analyze the propagation of the Coronavirus pandemic by using the percolation theory. In fact, an analogy was established between the electrical conductivity of reverse micelles under temperature variation and the spread of the Coronavirus pandemic. So, the percolation theory was used to describe the cumulate infected people versus time by using a modified Sigmoid Boltzman equation (MSBE) and several quantities are introduced such as: the pandemic percolation time, the maximum infected people, the time constant and the characteristic contamination frequency deduced from Arrhenius equation. Scaling laws and critical exponents are introduced to describe the spread nature near the percolation time. The speed of propagation is also proposed and expressed. The novel approach based on the percolation theory was used to study the Coronavirus (Covid-19) spread in five countries: France, Italy, Germany, China and Tunisia, during 6 months of the pandemic spread (the first wave). So, an explicit expression connecting the number of people infected versus time is proposed to analyze the pandemic percolation. The reported MSBE fit results for the studied countries showed high accuracy.",signatures:"Moez Guettari and Ahmed El Aferni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76669",authors:[{id:"228088",title:"Dr.",name:"Moez",surname:"Guettari",slug:"moez-guettari",fullName:"Moez Guettari"},{id:"349723",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"El Aferni",slug:"ahmed-el-aferni",fullName:"Ahmed El Aferni"}],corrections:null},{id:"75714",title:"The Link between Electrical Properties of COVID-19 and Electromagnetic Radiation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96815",slug:"the-link-between-electrical-properties-of-covid-19-and-electromagnetic-radiation",totalDownloads:598,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The ability of a new vaccine design based on control the intracellular physiological consequences of both the electrical properties and the electromagnetic radiation interactions between a virus and a host cell, which is a method to strengthen immune system develop protection against COVID-19 and new strains. The capacity of COVID-19 to bind to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and immune evasion mechanisms are only one of the properties required to stimulate a preventative immune response. In this chapter, a multidimensional new strategy is used to exemplify the empowerment function intracellular and extracellular level information can play in the support of immunogen against COVID-19 pathogens. Besides during this chapter, the nature of electromagnetic radiation is described as a vibrating string based on a string-theory and unification of electromagnetic radiation and gravitational waves by supporting with multiple cites strong evidence. Overall, we demonstrate a new approach to understand the important role of the physiological consequences of the interplay between the immune system and COVID-19 and designing vaccine strategy immunogens that take advantage of that information against COVID-19 and new strains.",signatures:"Awaad K. Al Sarkhi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75714",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75714",authors:[{id:"343494",title:"Dr.",name:"Awaad K.",surname:"Al Sarkhi",slug:"awaad-k.-al-sarkhi",fullName:"Awaad K. Al Sarkhi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75881",title:"The Economic, Climate Change and Public Health Edges of the Geopolitics of COVID-19: An Exploratory Bibliometric Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96797",slug:"the-economic-climate-change-and-public-health-edges-of-the-geopolitics-of-covid-19-an-exploratory-bi",totalDownloads:341,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"We are in the middle of the storm and this does not allow us to see clearly what is coming. This often generates partial analyses of the issues of the situation. Therefore, this manuscript attempts to generate an integral perspective on the issues of the crisis. This chapter proposes a discussion of the Coronavirus crisis following analysis and comparison of the most important outstanding conversations of general public health, economics and environmental issues. The objective of this chapter is to travel on the far side of the discussion of the articles presently planned within the academic world and that were analyzed within the bibliometric review, that consist of these three issues. This analysis that integrates these dimensions allows to give an additional prospective answer to the queries exposed by the COVID crisis, conjointly taking into consideration geopolitics as a forgotten dimension within the public discussion. Our paper helps to indicate the positions of every one of those ideas and enrich the literature on the environmental sciences and public health by providing analysis of the consequences of international policies.",signatures:"Jean Pierre Doussoulin and Benoît Mougenot",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75881",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75881",authors:[{id:"327931",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Jean Pierre",surname:"Doussoulin",slug:"jean-pierre-doussoulin",fullName:"Jean Pierre Doussoulin"},{id:"349605",title:"Prof.",name:"Benoît",surname:"Mougenot",slug:"benoit-mougenot",fullName:"Benoît Mougenot"}],corrections:null},{id:"77566",title:"Consequence of Meteorological Parameters on the Transmission of Covid-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98978",slug:"consequence-of-meteorological-parameters-on-the-transmission-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) was first detected in Wuhan, China in December 2019. The characteristics of the spread of COVID-19 infection from one person to another have led to an increasing number of infected cases and caused tremendous pressure around the world. The rapid spread of COVID-19 infection has made it a pandemic. In India, as of mid-May 2020, there were approximately 75,048 confirmed cases and 2,440 deaths due to COVID-19 alone. In order to break the COVID-19 chain, the Indian government decided to implement a lockdown, which was first implemented on March 23, 2020. The significant benefits of the lockdown have led to a reduction in air pollutants in cities around the world. The significant benefits of the lockdown have led to a reduction in air pollutants in cities around the world. The importance of particulate matter, temperature (°C) and relative humidity (%) to the spread of the COVID-19 virus and its correlation with the total number of cases (TC), active cases (AC), recovered cases (RC) and death cases (DC) Reference DEL will be discussed in detail in this chapter.",signatures:"Manish Sharma, Pargin Bangotra and Alok Sagar Gautam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77566",authors:[{id:"348163",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",surname:"Sharma",slug:"manish-sharma",fullName:"Manish Sharma"},{id:"353193",title:"Dr.",name:"Pargin",surname:"Bangotra",slug:"pargin-bangotra",fullName:"Pargin Bangotra"},{id:"420098",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok Sagar",surname:"Gautam",slug:"alok-sagar-gautam",fullName:"Alok Sagar Gautam"}],corrections:null},{id:"77186",title:"COVID-19 Lockdown and the Aerosphere in India: Lessons Learned on How to Reduce Air Pollution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98513",slug:"covid-19-lockdown-and-the-aerosphere-in-india-lessons-learned-on-how-to-reduce-air-pollution",totalDownloads:198,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The giant increase in COVID-19 infection across India forced the government to impose strict lockdown in order to curb the pandemic. Although the stringent restrictions crippled India’s economy and poor people’s livelihood, it significantly improved the air quality of most of the polluted cities of India and rejuvenated the atmosphere. Thus, the major objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of lockdown on pollutants prevailing in the atmosphere. A prominent decline in primary pollutants such as Particulate matter (PM), Black carbon (BC), Oxides of nitrogen (NOx), Carbon monoxide (CO) is observed across the country. However, lockdown had a trifling impact on Sulphur dioxide (SO2) concentration over some parts of India due to the constant operation of coal-fired thermal plants as a part of essential service. Furthermore, the sudden decline in NOx concentration disturbed the complex atmospheric chemistry and lead to an enhancement of surface ozone (O3) (secondary pollutant) in many cities of India. Thus, lockdown emerged as a unique opportunity for the atmospheric researchers, policymakers as well as stakeholders to collect baseline data of pollutants and their major sources. This will help to set new targets of air quality standards and to develop various mitigation processes to combat air pollution.",signatures:"Subhasmita Panda, Priyadatta Satpathy, Trutpi Das and Boopathy Ramasamy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77186",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77186",authors:[{id:"350166",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Boopathy",surname:"Ramasamy",slug:"boopathy-ramasamy",fullName:"Boopathy Ramasamy"},{id:"416290",title:"Ms.",name:"Subhasmita",surname:"Panda",slug:"subhasmita-panda",fullName:"Subhasmita Panda"},{id:"416291",title:"Ms.",name:"Priyadatta",surname:"Satpathy",slug:"priyadatta-satpathy",fullName:"Priyadatta Satpathy"},{id:"416292",title:"Dr.",name:"Trupti",surname:"Das",slug:"trupti-das",fullName:"Trupti Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"75897",title:"A Qualitative Study of Pre-Vaccine Decrease of Mortality from COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97017",slug:"a-qualitative-study-of-pre-vaccine-decrease-of-mortality-from-covid-19",totalDownloads:218,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"More than a year has passed since the appearance of disease called COVID-19 in the world. This disease became the reason for unprecedented measures taken so far, having received the classification of pandemic. The world has faced with pandemics before, but society has not yet taken such unprecedented restrictive measures. The restrictions of not only local but even of global nature, such as the suspension of international flights, various scientific and political events were adopted around the world. Media resources have played a key role in the formation and development of the attitude towards the disease in people. Despite all the depressing news, the facts showed a low mortality rate, which is often ignored by the media. As a result, medical staff around the world have faced psychological health issues among the different groups of the population, especially vulnerable ones such as people with chronic disease and with weak immunity. At present, it is early to talk about the results and outcomes of the pandemic. However, previous year has taught us many lessons and can become a key factor in understanding the role of the media in pandemic times, developing strategies for combating diseases and protecting public health.",signatures:"Vugar Mammadov and Lala Jafarova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75897",authors:[{id:"344206",title:"Prof.",name:"Vugar",surname:"Mammadov",slug:"vugar-mammadov",fullName:"Vugar Mammadov"},{id:"349935",title:"M.A.",name:"Lala",surname:"Jafarova",slug:"lala-jafarova",fullName:"Lala Jafarova"}],corrections:null},{id:"77494",title:"Targeting Mononuclear Phagocytes to Treat COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98967",slug:"targeting-mononuclear-phagocytes-to-treat-covid-19",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its etiological agent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) have caused considerable illness and death worldwide. The innate immune system seems to play a principal in the disease, as a hallmark of severe COVID-19 is excessive inflammation. Monocytes and macrophages are important innate immune cells that become pro-inflammatory and promote adaptive immune responses during viral infection. In this chapter we present evidence linking these cells to severity of COVID-19. Namely, monocytes and macrophages infiltrate the infected tissue during the early stages of infection and show pro-inflammatory responses that appear to be linked to those predicting tissue pathology during disease. Additionally, studies in isolated cells demonstrate that monocytes and macrophages respond by producing pro-inflammatory cytokines when directly stimulated by SARS-CoV-2. While most anti-inflammatory pharmaceutical treatments for COVID-19 have focused on systemic infiltration, some of the most promising have known or suspected effects on monocyte and macrophage inflammatory responses. Therefore, targeting these cells to treat severe COVID-19 is a promising strategy for this important disease.",signatures:"Brandt D. Pence and Theodore J. 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Renewable sources have to replace current energy technologies. This shift, however, will not be an easy task. In contrast to current nuclear or fossil power plants renewable energy sources in general do not offer a constant energy supply, resulting in a growing demand of energy storage. Furthermore, fossil fuels are both, energy source as well as energy carrier. This is of special importance for all mobile applications. Alternative energy carriers have to be found. The hydrogen technology is considered to play a crucial role in this respect. In fact it is the ideal means of energy storage for transportation and conversion of energy in a comprehensive clean-energy concept. Hydrogen can be produced from different feedstocks, ideally from water using regenerative energy sources. Water splitting can be achieved by electrolysis, solar thermo-chemical, photoelectrochemical or photobiological processes. Upon reconversion into energy, by using a fuel cell only water vapour is produced, leading to a closed energy cycle without any harmful emissions. Besides stationary applications, hydrogen is designated for mobile applications, e.g. for the zero-emission vehicle. In comparison to batteries hydrogen storage tanks offer the opportunity of fast recharging within a few minutes only and of higher storage densities by an order of magnitude. Hydrogen can be produced from renewable energies in times when feed-in into the electricity grid is not possible. It can be stored in large caverns underground and be utilized either to produce electricity and be fed into the electricity grid again or directly for mobile applications.
\n\t\t\tHowever, due to the very low boiling point of hydrogen (20.4 K at 1 atm) and its low density in the gaseous state (90 g/m3) dense hydrogen storage, both for stationary and mobile applications, remains a challenging task. There are three major alternatives for hydrogen storage: compressed gas tanks, liquid hydrogen tanks as well as solid state hydrogen storage such as metal hydride hydrogen tanks. All of these three main techniques have their special advantages and disadvantages and are currently used for different applications. However, so far none of the respective tanks fulfils all the demanded technical requirements in terms of gravimetric storage density, volumetric storage density, safety, free-form, ability to store hydrogen for longer times without any hydrogen losses, cyclability as well as recyclability and costs. Further research and development is strongly required.One major advantage of hydrogen storage in metal hydrides is the ability to store hydrogen in a very energy efficient way enabling hydrogen storage at rather low pressures without further need for liquefaction or compression. Many metals and alloys are able to absorb large amounts of hydrogen. The metal-hydrogen bond offers the advantage of a very high volumetric hydrogen density under moderate pressures, which is up to 60% higher than that of liquid hydrogen (Reilly & Sandrock, 1980).
\n\t\t\tDepending on the hydrogen reaction enthalpy of the specific storage material during hydrogen uptake a huge amount of heat (equivalent to 15% or more of the energy stored in hydrogen) is generated and has to be removed in a rather short time, ideally to be recovered and used as process heat for different applications depending on quantity and temperature. On the other side, during desorption the same amount of heat has to be applied to facilitate the endothermic hydrogen desorption process – however, generally at a much longer time scale. On one side this allows an inherent safety of such a tank system. Without external heat supply hydrogen release would lead to cooling of the tank and finally hydrogen desorption necessarily stops. On the other side it implies further restrictions for the choice of suitable storage materials. Highest energy efficiencies of the whole tank to fuel combustion or fuel cell system can only be achieved if in case of desorption the energy required for hydrogen release can be supplied by the waste heat generated in case of mobile applications on-board by the hydrogen combustion process and the fuel cell respectively.
\n\t\tMany metals and alloys react reversibly with hydrogen to form metal hydrides according to the reaction (1):
\n\t\t\tHere, Me is a metal, a solid solution, or an intermetallic compound, MeHx is the respective hydride and x the ratio of hydrogen to metal, x=cH [H/Me], Q the heat of reaction. Since the entropy of the hydride is lowered in comparison to the metal and the gaseous hydrogen phase, at ambient and elevated temperatures the hydride formation is exothermic and the reverse reaction of hydrogen release accordingly endothermic. Therefore, for hydrogen release/desorption heat supply is required.
\n\t\t\tMetals can be charged with hydrogen using molecular hydrogen gas or hydrogen atoms from an electrolyte. In case of gas phase loading, several reaction stages of hydrogen with the metal in order to form the hydride need to be considered. Fig. 1 shows the process schematically.
\n\t\t\tThe first attractive interaction of the hydrogen molecule approaching the metal surface is the Van der Waals force, leading to a physisorbed state. The physisorption energy is typically of the order EPhys ≈ 6 kJ/mol H2. In this process, a gas molecule interacts with several atoms at the surface of a solid. The interaction is composed of an attractive term, which diminishes with the distance of the hydrogen molecule and the solid metal by the power of 6, and a repulsive term diminishing with distance by the power of 12. Therefore, the potential energy of the molecule shows a minimum at approximately one molecular radius. In addition to hydrogen storage in metal hydrides molecular hydrogen adsorption is a second technique to store hydrogen. The storage capacity is strongly related to the temperature and the specific surface areas of the chosen materials. Experiments reveal for carbon-based nanostructures storage capacities of less than 8 wt.% at 77 K and less than 1wt.% at RT and pressures below 100 bar (Panella et al., 2005; Schmitz et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tReaction of a H2 molecule with a storage material: a) H2 molecule approaching the metal surface. b) Interaction of the H2 molecule by Van der Waals forces (physisorbed state). c) Chemisorbed hydrogen after dissociation. d) Occupation of subsurface sites and diffusion into bulk lattice sites.
In the next step of the hydrogen-metal interaction, the hydrogen has to overcome an activation barrier for the formation of the hydrogen metal bond and for dissociation, see Fig. 1c and 2. This process is called dissociation and chemisorption. The chemisorption energy is typically in the range of EChem ≈ 20 - 150 kJ/mol H2 and thus significantly higher than the respective energy for physisorption which is in the order of 4-6 kJ/mol H2 for carbon based high surface materials (Schmitz et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tSchematic of potential energy curves of hydrogen in molecular and atomic form approaching a metal. The hydrogen molecule is attracted by Van der Waals forces and forms a physisorbed state. Before diffusion into the bulk metal, the molecule has to dissociate forming a chemisorbed state at the surface of the metal (according to
After dissociation on the metal surface, the H atoms have to diffuse into the bulk to form a M-H solid solution commonly referred to as α-phase. In conventional room temperature metals / metal hydrides, hydrogen occupies interstitial sites - tetrahedral or octahedral - in the metal host lattice. While in the first, the hydrogen atom is located inside a tetrahedron formed by four metal atoms, in the latter, the hydrogen atom is surrounded by six metal atoms forming an octahedron, see Fig. 3.
\n\t\t\tOctahedral (O) and tetrahedral (T) interstitial sites in fcc-, hcp- and bcc-type metals. (
In general, the dissolution of hydrogen atoms leads to an expansion of the host metal lattice of 2 to 3 Å3 per hydrogen atom, see Fig. 4. Exceptions of this rule are possible, e.g. several dihydride phases of the rare earth metals, which show a contraction during hydrogen loading for electronic reasons.
\n\t\t\tVolume expansion of the Nb host metal with increasing H content. (
In the equilibrium the chemical potentials of the hydrogen in the gas phase and the hydrogen absorbed in the metal are the same:
\n\t\t\tSince the internal energy of a hydrogen molecule is 7/2 k
Here k is the Boltzmann constant,
Consequently the chemical potential of the hydrogen gas is given by
\n\t\t\twith p0 = 1.01325 105 Pa.
\n\t\t\tIn the solid solution (α-phase) the chemical potential is accordingly
\n\t\t\tHere,
and accordingly for small cH using the Stirling approximation we get
\n\t\t\twith nis being the number of interstitial sites per metal atom: nis = Nis/NMe and
Therefore the chemical potential of hydrogen in the solid solution (α-phase) is given by
\n\t\t\tTaking into account the equilibrium condition (2) the hydrogen concentration
Here
For very small hydrogen concentrations
with KS being a temperature dependent constant. As the hydrogen pressure is increased, saturation occurs and the metal hydride phase MeH\n\t\t\t\t\t
For higher hydrogen pressures/concentrations metal hydride formation occurs.
\n\t\t\tThe conversion from the saturated solution phase to the hydride phase takes place at constant pressure p according to:
\n\t\t\tIn the equilibrium the chemical potentials of the gas phase, the solid solution phase α and the hydride phase β coincide:
\n\t\t\tFollowing Gibb’s Phase Rule
Therefore the change in the chemical potential or the Gibbs free energy is just a function of one parameter, i.e. the temperature
From this equation follows the frequently-used
The temperature dependent plateau pressure of this two phase field is the equilibrium dissociation pressure of the hydride and is a measure of the stability of the hydride, which commonly is referred to as β-phase.
\n\t\t\tAfter complete conversion to the hydride phase, further dissolution of hydrogen takes place as the pressure increases, see Fig. 5.
\n\t\t\tSchematic Pressure/Composition Isotherm. The precipitation of the hydride phase β starts when the terminal solubility of the α-phase is reached at the plateau pressure.
Multiple plateaus are possible and frequently observed in composite materials consisting of two hydride forming metals or alloys. The equilibrium dissociation pressure is one of the most important properties of a hydride storage material.
\n\t\t\tIf the logarithm of the plateau pressure is plotted vs 1/T, a straight line is obtained (van’t Hoff plot) as seen in Fig. 6.
\n\t\t\tSchematic pcT-diagram and van’t Hoff plot. The α-phase is the solid solution phase, the β-phase the hydride phase. Within the (α − β) two phase region both the metal-hydrogen solution and the hydride phase coexist.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 7 shows the Van’t Hoff plots of some selected binary hydrides. The formation enthalpy of these hydrides H0\n\t\t\t\t\tf determines the amount of heat which is released during hydrogen absorption and consequently is to be supplied again in case of desorption. To keep the heat management system simple and to reach highest possible energy efficiencies it is necessary to store the heat of absorption or to get by the waste heat of the accompanying hydrogen utilizing process, e.g. energy conversion by fuel cell or internal combustion system. Therefore the reaction enthalpy has to be as low as possible. The enthalpy and entropy of the hydrides determine the working temperatures and the respective plateau pressures of the storage materials. For most applications, especially for mobile applications, working temperatures below 100 ºC or at least below 150 ºC are favoured. To minimize safety risks and avoid the use of high pressure composite tanks the favourable working pressures should be between 1 and 100 bar.
\n\t\t\t\tVan’t Hoff lines (desorption) for binary hydrides. Box indicates 1-100 atm, 0-100 ºC ranges, taken from Sandrock et al. (Sandrock, 1999).
However, the Van’t Hoff plots shown in Fig. 7 indicate that most binary hydrides do not have the desired thermodynamic properties. Most of them have rather high thermodynamic stabilities and thus release hydrogen at the minimum required pressure of 1 bar only at rather high temperatures (T>300 ºC). The values of their respective reaction enthalpies are in the range of 75 kJ/(mol H2) (MgH2) or even higher. Typical examples are the hydrides of alkaline metals, alkaline earth metals, rare earth metals as well as transition metals of the Sc-, Ti- and V-group. The strongly electropositive alkaline metals like LiH and NaH and CaH2 form saline hydrides, i.e. they have ionic bonds with hydrogen. MgH2 marks the transition between these predominantly ionic hydrides and the covalent hydrides of the other elements in the first two periods.
\n\t\t\t\tExamples for high temperature hydrides releasing the hydrogen at pressures of 1 bar at extremely high temperatures (T > 700 ºC) are ZrH2 and LaH2 (Dornheim & Klassen, 2009). ZrH2 for example is characterized by a high volumetric storage density NH. NH values larger than 7 × 1022 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre are achievable. This value corresponds to 58 mol H2/l or 116 g/l and has to be compared with the hydrogen density in liquid hydrogen (20 K): 4.2 × 1022 (35 mol H2/l or 70 g/l) and in compressed hydrogen (350 bar / 700 bar): 1.3 / 2.3 × 1022 atoms/cm3 ( 11 mol H2/l or 21 g/l and 19 mol H2/l or 38 g/l respectively). The hydrogen density varies a lot between different hydrides. VH2 for example has an even higher hydrogen density which amounts to 11.4 × 1022 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre and accordingly 95 mol H2/l or 190 g/l. As in the case of many other transition metal hydrides Zr has a number of different hydride phases ZrH2-x with a wide variation in the stoichiometry (Hägg, 1931). Their compositions extend from about ZrH1.33 up to the saturated hydride ZrH2. Because of the limited gravimetric storage density of only about 2 wt.% and the negligibly low plateau pressure within the temperature range of 0 – 150 ºC Zr as well as Ti and Hf are not suitable at all as a reversible hydrogen storage material. Thus, they are not useful for reversible hydrogen storage if only the pure binary hydrides are considered (Dornheim & Klassen, 2009).
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLibowitz et al. (Libowitz et al., 1958) could achieve a breakthrough in the development of hydrogen storage materials by discovering the class of reversible intermetallic hydrides. In 1958 they discovered that the intermetallic compound ZrNi reacts reversibly with gaseous hydrogen to form the ternary hydride ZrNiH3. This hydride has a thermodynamic stability which is just in between the stable high temperature hydride ZrH2 (ΔfH0= -169 kJ/mol H2) and the rather unstable NiH (ΔfH0= -8.8 kJmol-1H2). Thus, the intermetallic Zr-Ni bond exerts a strong destabilizing effect on the Zr-hydrogen bond so that at 300 ºC a plateau pressure of 1bar is achieved which has to be compared to 900 ºC in case of the pure binary hydride ZrH2. This opened up a completely new research field. In the following years hundreds of new storage materials with different thermodynamic properties were discovered which generally follow the well-known semi-empirical rule of Miedema (Van Mal et al., 1974):
\n\t\t\t\tAround 1970, hydrides with significantly lowered values of hydrogen reaction enthalpies, such as LaNi5 and FeTi but also Mg2Ni were discovered. While 1300 ºC are necessary to reach a desorption pressure of 2 bar in case of the pure high temperature hydride LaH2, in case of LaNi5H6 a plateau pressure of 2 bar is already reached at 20 ºC only. The value of the hydrogen reaction enthalpy is lowered to ΔHLaNi5H6 = 30.9 kJmol-1H2. The respective values for NiH are ΔHf,NiH = 8.8 kJmol-1H2 and Pdiss,NiH,RT=3400 bar.
\n\t\t\t\tIn the meantime, several hundred other intermetallic hydrides have been reported and a number of interesting compositional types identified (table 1). Generally, they consist of a high temperature hydride forming element A and a non hydride forming element B, see fig. 8.
\n\t\t\t\tCOMPOSITION | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCOMPOUNDS | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
A2B | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMg, Zr | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNi, Fe, Co | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMg2Ni, Mg2Co, Zr2Fe | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AB | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTi, Zr | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNi, Fe | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTiNi, TiFe, ZrNi | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AB2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZr, Ti, Y, La | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaNi2, YNi2,YMn2, ZrCr2, ZrMn2,ZrV2, TiMn2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AB3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLa, Y, Mg | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNi, Co | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaCo3,YNi3,LaMg2Ni9\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AB5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCa, La, Rare Earth | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNi, Cu, Co, Pt, Fe | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCaNi5, LaNi5, CeNi5, LaCu5, LaPt5, LaFe5\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Examples of intermetallic hydrides, taken from Dornheim et al. (Dornheim, 2010).
Hydride and non hydride forming elements in the periodic system of elements.
Even better agreement with experimental results than by use of Miedema’s rule of reversed stability is obtained by applying the semi-empirical band structure model of Griessen and Driessen (Griessen & Driessen, 1984) which was shown to be applicable to binary and ternary hydrides. They found a linear relationship of the heat of formation ΔH = H0\n\t\t\t\t\tf of a metal hydride and a characteristic energy ΔE of the electronic band structure of the host metal which can be applied to simple metals, noble metals, transition metals, actinides and rare earths:
\n\t\t\t\twith Δ
As described above, most materials experience an expansion during hydrogen absorption, wherefore structural effects in interstitial metal hydrides play an important role as well. This can be and is taken as another guideline to tailor the thermodynamic properties of interstitial metal hydrides. Among others Pourarian et al. (Pourarian, 1982), Fujitani et al. (Fujitani, 1991) and Yoshida & Akiba (Yoshida, 1995) report about this relationship of lattice parameter or unit cell volume and the respective plateau pressures in different material classes.
\n\t\t\t\tIntensive studies let to the discovery of a huge number of different multinary hydrides with a large variety of different reaction enthalpies and accordingly working temperatures. They are not only attractive for hydrogen storage but also for rechargeable metal hydride electrodes and are produced and sold in more than a billion metal hydride batteries per year. Because of the high volumetric density, intermetallic hydrides are utilized as hydrogen storage materials in advanced fuel cell driven submarines, prototype passenger ships, forklifts and hydrogen automobiles as well as auxiliary power units.
\n\t\t\tNovel light weight hydrides show much higher gravimetric storage capacities than the conventional room temperature metal hydrides. However, currently only a very limited number of materials show satisfying sorption kinetics and cycling behaviour. The most prominent ones are magnesium hydride (MgH2) and sodium alanate (NaAlH4). In both cases a breakthrough in kinetics could be attained in the late 90s of the last century / the early 21st century.
\n\t\t\t\tMagnesium hydride is among the most important and most comprehensively investigated light weight hydrides. MgH2 itself has a high reversible storage capacity, which amounts to 7.6 wt.%. Furthermore, magnesium is the eighth most frequent element on the earth and thus comparably inexpensive. Its potential usage initially was hindered because of rather sluggish sorption properties and unfavourable reaction enthalpies. The overall hydrogen sorption kinetics of magnesium-based hydrides is as in case of all hydrides mainly determined by the slowest step in the reaction chain, which can often be deduced e.g. by modelling the sorption kinetics (Barkhordarian et al, 2006; Dornheim et al., 2006). Different measures can be taken to accelerate kinetics. One important factor for the sorption kinetics is the micro- or nanostructure of the material, e.g. the grain or crystallite size. Because of the lower packing density of the atoms, diffusion along grain boundaries is usually faster than through the lattice. Furthermore, grain boundaries are favourable nucleation sites for the formation and decomposition of the hydride phase. A second important parameter is the outer dimension of the material, e.g. in case of powdered material, its particle size. The particle size (a) determines the surface area, which is proportional to the rate of the surface reaction with the hydrogen, and (b) is related to the length of the diffusion path of the hydrogen into and out of the volume of the material. A third major factor by which hydrogen sorption is improved in many hydrogen absorbing systems is the use of suitable additives or catalysts. In case of MgH2 it was shown by Oelerich et al. (Oelerich et al., 2001; Dornheim et al., 2007) that already tiny amounts of transition metal oxides have a huge impact on the kinetics of hydrogen sorption. Using such additives Hanada et al. (Hanada et al., 2007) could show that by using such additives hydrogen uptake in Mg is possible already at room temperature within less than 1 min. The additives often do not just have one single function but multiple functions. Suitable additives can catalyze the surface reaction between solid and gas. Dispersions in the magnesium-based matrix can act as nucleation centres for the hydride or the dehydrogenated phase. Furthermore, different additives, such as liquid milling agents and hard particles like oxides, borides, etc., can positively influence the particle size evolution during the milling process (Pranzas et al., 2006\n\t\t\t\t\t; Pranzas et al., 2007; Dornheim et al, 2007) and prevent grain i.e. crystallite growth. More detailed information about the function of such additives in MgH2 is given in (Dornheim et al., 2007). Beyond that, a preparation technique like high-energy ball milling affects both the evolution of certain particle sizes as well as very fine crystallite sizes in the nm range and is also used to intermix the hydride and the additives/catalysts. Thus, good interfacial contact with the light metal hydride as well as a fine dispersion of the additives can be achieved.
\n\t\t\t\tAs in case of MgH2 dopants play also an important role in the sorption of Na-Al-hydride, the so-called Na-alanate. While hydrogen liberation is thermodynamically favorable at moderate temperatures, hydrogen uptake had not been possible until in 1997 Bogdanovic et al. demonstrated that mixing of NaAlH4 with a Ti-based catalyst leads to a material, which can be reversibly charged with hydrogen (Bogdanovic, 1997). By using a tube vibration mill of Siebtechnik GmbH Eigen et al. (Eigen et al., 2007; Eigen et al., 2008) showed that upscaling of material synthesis is possible: After only 30 min milling under optimised process conditions in such a tube vibration mill in kg scale, fast absorption and desorption kinetics with charging/discharging times of less than 10 min can be obtained. The operation temperatures of this complex hydride are much lower than compared to MgH2 and other light weight hydrides. Fast kinetics is achieved at 100 ºC to 150 ºC which is much less than what is required in case of MgH2, however, still significantly higher than in case of the conventional hydrides which show only a very limited storage capacity. Such hydride working temperatures offer the possibility for combinations of metal hydride tanks based on these complex hydrides with e. g. combustion engines, high temperature PEM fuel cells or other medium to high temperature fuel cells. However, compared to MgH2 the gravimetric hydrogen storage capacity is significantly reduced. Having a maximum theoretical storage capacity of about 5.6 wt. % NaAlH4 exhibits a long term practical storage capacity of 3.5-4.5 wt. % H2 only. Furthermore, in difference to MgH2 NaAlH4 decomposes in two reaction steps upon dehydrogenation which implies two different pressure plateaus instead of just one:
\n\t\t\t\tThe first decomposition step has an equilibrium pressure of 0.1 MPa at 30 ºC, the second step at about 100 ºC (Schüth et al., 2004). A maximum of 3.7 wt.% H2 can be released during the first desorption step, 5.6 wt.% in total. The remaining hydrogen bonded to Na is technically not exploitable due to the high stability of the respective hydride.
\n\t\t\t\tWhile the reaction kinetics was optimized significantly, the desorption enthalpy of NaAlH4 of 37 kJ/molH2 and Na3AlH6 of 47 kJ/mol H2 respectively remains a challenge. For many applications even this value which is much below that of MgH2 is still too large.
\n\t\t\tWhile there are plenty of known hydrides with suitable thermodynamics for hydrogen uptake and release at ambient conditions (several bar equilibrium pressure at or nearby room temperature) currently no hydride is known which combines suitable thermodynamics and kinetics with such a high gravimetric storage capacity that a hydrogen storage tank based on such a material could compete with a 700 bar compressed composite vessel in regard to weight. Depending on the working temperature and pressure as well as the reversible gravimetric storage capacity of the selected hydride the achievable capacity of a metal hydride based storage tank is usually better than half of the capacity of the metal hydride bed itself (Buchner & Povel, 1982). Since modern composite pressurized gas tanks meanwhile show gravimetric hydrogen storage capacities of around 4 wt.% according to conservative extrapolations the possible choice of hydrides should be limited to those having the ability to reversibly store at least 6 wt.%H2. All currently known high capacity hydrides, however, show either too small values of the respective reaction enthalpy and are therefore not reversible or would require several thousand bar hydrogen pressure or alternatively electrochemical loading or on the other hand are too stable and have an equilibrium pressure which around room temperature is much below the required pressures. The value of reaction enthalpy aimed at is between 20 and 30 kJ/mol H2. Fig. 9 shows the potentially available hydrogen content of some well known hydrides plotted against their hydrogen reaction enthalpies.
\n\t\t\tTheoretically achievable reversible storage capacities and reaction enthalpies of selected hydrides. LaNi5H6 and FeTiH2 are taken as examples for conventional room temperature hydrides. The reaction enthalpies and achievable hydrogen storage capacities are ΔH = -31 kJ/mol H2, CH,max = 1.4 wt.% for LaNi5H6 and for the Fe-Ti system ΔH = -31.5 kJ/mol H2, CH,max = 1.8 wt.%(average over two reaction steps with ΔH(FeTiH2) = -28 kJ/mol H2 and ΔH(FeTiH) = -35 kJ/mol H2 respectively) (
As shown in Fig. 9 none of the plotted hydrides, neither the conventional room temperature hydrides with their rather low gravimetric capacity nor the sophisticated novel chemical hydrides with their unsuitable reaction enthalpy, show the desired combination of properties. Therefore the tailoring of the thermodynamic properties of high capacity light weight and complex hydrides is a key issue, an imperative for future research in the area of hydrides as hydrogen storage materials.
\n\t\t\tThe traditional way of tailoring the thermodynamic properties of metal hydrides is by formation of alloys with different stabilities as described in chapter 2.1. Thereby the value of reaction enthalpy can be reduced by stabilising the dehydrogenated state and/or destabilising of the hydride state, see Fig. 10 a. Accordingly, the total amount of reaction enthalpy is increased by destabilising the dehydrogenated state and/or stabilising the hydride, see Fig. 10 b.
\n\t\t\t\tThis approach has been successfully applied to light weight metal hydrides also.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
One of the first examples using this approach for tuning the thermodynamic properties of light weight metal hydrides was the discovery of the Mg-Ni –system as potential hydrogen storage system by Reilly and Wiswall (Reilly & Wiswall, 1968). Mg2Ni has a negative heat of
\n\t\t\t\tTailoring of the reaction enthalpy by altering the stability of the hydrogenated or dehydrogenated state of the metal hydrides: a) Reduction of total reaction enthalpy by stabilising the dehydrogenated phase by
formation of H0\n\t\t\t\t\tf(Mg2Ni) = -42 kJ/mol. Therefore, compared to pure Mg the dehydrogenated state is stabilised by ΔHds = -21 kJ/(mol Mg). The enthalpy of formation of Mg2NiH4 is H0\n\t\t\t\t\tf(Mg2NiH4) = -176 kJ/mol (= -88 kJ/(mol Mg)), wherefore the hydride phase is stabilised by ΔHhd = -10 kJ/(mol Mg) if compared to pure MgH2. In total the hydrogen reaction enthalpy of Mg2Ni
\n\t\t\t\tis reduced by 11 kJ/mol H2 to aboutΔH(Mg2Ni-H) = 67 kJ/mol H2. While pure MgH2 exhibits a hydrogen plateau pressure of 1 bar around 300 ºC, in case of Mg2NiH4 such a plateau pressure is reached already at around 240 ºC and in case of further alloying and substituting Ni by Cu at around 230 ºC in Mg2Ni0.5Cu0.5 (Klassen et al., 1998). Unfortunately, the gravimetric storage capacity of Mg2NiH4 is reduced to 3.6 wt.% H2 only and thus is less than half the respective value in the MgH2 system. Darnaudery et al. (Darnaudery et al., 1983) were successful to form several quaternary hydrides by hydrogenating Mg2Ni0.75M0.25 with different 3d elements M ∈ {V, Cr, Fe, Co and Zn} showing stabilities very similar Mg2NiH4.
\n\t\t\t\tIncreasing the amount of 3d metals Tsushio et al. (Tsushio et al., 1998) investigated the hydrogenation of MgNi0.86M0.03 with M ∈ {Cr, Fe, Co, Mn}. Consequently, they observed a dramatic decrease in hydrogen storage capacity to 0.9 wt.% and in hydrogen reaction enthalpy which amounts to 50 kJ/(mol H2) for MgNi0.86Cr0.03. This reaction enthalpy value is in very good agreement with the value 54 kJ/(mol H2) given by Orimo et al. for amorphous MgNi (Orimo et al., 1998).
\n\t\t\t\tLowering even more the content of Mg Terashita et al. (Terashita et al., 2001) found (Mg1-xCax)Ni2 based alloys desorbing hydrogen at room temperature. They determined the hydride formation enthalpy and entropy of (Mg0.68Ca0.32)Ni2 to be H = -37 kJ/(mol H2) and S = - 94 J/(mol H2 K) respectively, which is already quite near to the envisioned target. Unfortunately, with lowering the Mg content the hydrogen storage capacity dropped down to 1.4 wt.% only.
\n\t\t\t\tOn the other side, as schematically shown in Fig. 10b the absolute value of reaction enthalpy can be increased by either stabilising the hydride phase or destabilising the dehydrogenated phase. In case of Mg-based hydrogen absorbing alloys this is not at all of interest for hydrogen storage itself since MgH2 is too stable for most hydrogen storage applications, however, this is of interest for other applications like the storage of thermal energy (Dornheim & Klassen, 2009). Mg2FeH6 is an example of such materials with increased amount of reaction enthalpy. Furthermore, it is the one with the highest known volumetric hydrogen density which amounts to 150 kg m-3. This enormously high hydrogen density is more than double the value found in case of liquid hydrogen at 20 K and moderate pressures of up to 20 bar (Klell, 2010). The gravimetric storage capacity is 5.6 wt.% and thus still rather high. Since Mg and Fe are immiscible the dehydrogenated state is destabilised compared to pure Mg: ΔHdd> 0 kJ/(mol H2). Accordingly the hydride phase is more difficult to be synthesised and reversibility as well as long term stability is more difficult to be accomplished.
\n\t\t\t\tNevertheless, hydrogenation is possible at hydrogen pressures of at least 90 bar and temperatures of at least 450 ºC (Selvam & Yvon, 1991). Bogdanovic et al. (Bogdanovic et al., 2002) achieved very good reversibility and cycling stability with the hydrogen storage capacities remaining unchanged throughout 550-600 cycles at a level of 5-5.2 wt.% H2. The reaction enthalpy value is reported to be in between 77 kJ/(mol H2) and 98 kJ/(mol H2) (Bogdanovic et al., 2002), (Konstanchuk et al, 1987), (Puszkiel et al., 2008), (Didisheim et al., 1984).
\n\t\t\t\tThe large reaction enthalpies of MgH2 and Mg2FeH6 lead to weight and volume related heat storage densities in the temperature range of 500 C which are many times higher than that of the possible sensible or latent heat storage materials (Bogdanovic et al., 2002). The calculated and experimental heat storage densities to weight given by Bogdanovic et al. are 2814 kJ/kg and 2204 kJ/kg for the MgH2-Mg system and 2106 and 1921 kJ/kg for the Mg2FeH6 – 2Mg+Fe system respectively. The corresponding calculated and experimental values for the volumetric thermal energy storage density are 3996 kJ/dm³ and 1763 kJ/dm³ for the MgH2-Mg system and 5758 kJ/dm³ and 2344 kJ/dm³ respectively (Bogdanovic et al., 2002). These thermal energy densities ought not to be mistaken with the energy stored in the hydrogen (lower heating value) which is more than a factor of three larger.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
As Mg2FeH6 decomposes during hydrogen release into 2 Mg, Fe and 3 H2 NaAlH4 decomposes during hydrogen release in 1/3 Na3AlH6 + 2/3 Al + H2 and finally NaH + Al + 3/2 H2. As written in chapter 2.2 while much lower than those of the Mg-based hydrides the reaction enthalpies of |ΔH|= 37 kJ/(mol H2) and |ΔH|= 47 kJ/(mol H2) are still two high for many applications especially for the usage in combination with low temperature PEM fuel cells. LiAlH4 on the other hand is much less stable. It decomposes in two steps as is the case of the NaAlH4:
\n\t\t\t\tThe first reaction step, however, the decomposition of LiAlH4 is found to be exothermic with ΔHdecomposition = -10 kJ/(mol H2). Since the entropy of decomposition is positive. Rehydrogenation is not possible at all. The second reaction step, the decomposition of Li3AlH6 is endothermic with ΔHdecomposition = 25 kJ/(mol H2). The decomposition of LiH itself takes place at much higher temperatures with ΔH = 140 kJ/(mol H2) (Orimo et al., 2007). While the second reaction step, the decomposition of Li3AlH6 and rehydrogenation of LiH + Al shows rather suitable thermodynamic properties, sluggish kinetics prevent this system so far from being used for hydrogen storage.
\n\t\t\t\tTo increase the storage capacity and tailor the reaction enthalpy of the NaAlH4 system it is a comprehensible approach to replace some of the Na by Li. Indeed Huot et al. (Huot et al., 1999) proved the existence of Na2LiAlH6 and the possible formation by high energy ball-milling of NaH + LiH + NaAlH4. Reversible hydrogen sorption is found to be possible in the Na-Li-Al-H system according to the following reaction:
\n\t\t\t\tAs in case of the pure Na-Al-H system and the Li-Al-H system kinetics can be improved by the addition of transition metal compounds like metal oxides, chlorides and fluorides, see (Ares Fernandez et al., 2007), (Ma et al., 2005) and (Martinez-Franco et al., 2010). However, due to the lack of any stable compound in the dehydrogenated state and the formation of a rather stable hydride the value of reaction enthalpy isn’t decreased but increased if compared to the original single Na and Li based aluminium hydrides. Fossdal et al. (Fossdal et al., 2005) has determined the pressure-composition isotherms of TiF3-doped Na2LiAlH6 in the temperature range of 170 ºC – 250 ºC. They determined the dissociation enthalpy and the corresponding entropy from the Van’t Hoff plot: |DH| = 56 kJ/(mol H2) and S = 138 J/(K mol H2). Therefore, instead of a lowering the heat of reaction the opposite is observed. The heat of reaction of the hexa-hydride phase is increased by about 10 kJ/(mol H2) if compared to the pure Na3AlH6 hydride phase.
\n\t\t\t\tIn 2007 Yin et al. (Yin et al., 2007) presented DFT calculations about the doping effects of TiF3 on Na3AlH6. Their calculations suggested F- substitution for the H-anion leading to a reduction of the desorption enthalpy and therefore for a favourable thermodynamic modification of the Na3AlH6 system which was experimentally confirmed by Brinks et al. (Brinks et al., 2008) and Eigen et al. (Eigen et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t
Only a very few hydrides show a higher gravimetric storage capacity than MgH2. For this they must be composed from very light elements. Knowing that Al-containing compounds can form reversible complex metal hydrides it is a reasonable approach to look for Boron-containing compounds as reversible hydrogen storage materials with even higher storage capacity. Borohydrides are known since 1940 when Schlesinger and Brown report about the successful synthesis of LiBH4 by reaction of LiEt and diborane (Schlesinger & Brown, 1940). Despite the early patent from Goerrig in 1958 (Goerrig, 1960) direct synthesis from gaseous H2 was not possible for long times. Until in 2004 three different groups from the USA (Vajo et al., 2005), South Korea (Cho et al., 2006) and Germany (Barkhordarian et al., 2007) independently discovered that by using MgB2 instead of pure Boron as starting material formation of the respective borohydrides occurs at rather moderate conditions of 5 MPa H2 pressure. Orimo et al. (Orimo et al., 2005) reports on the rehydrogenation of previously dehydrogenated LiBH4 at 35 MPa H2 pressure at 600 ºC. Mauron et al. (Mauron et al., 2008) report that rehydrogenation is also possible at 15 MPa. As in case of the Mg-based alloys and the aluminum hydrides the reaction enthalpy of many borohydrides is rather unsuitable for most applications. LiBH4 as one of the most investigated borohydrides with a very high gravimetric hydrogen density of 18.5 wt.% shows an endothermic desorption enthalpy of |DH| = 74 kJ/(mol H2) (Mauron et al., 2008) which is almost the same as in MgH2. Therefore the tailoring of the reaction enthalpy by substitution is a key issue for these materials as well. As in case of the aluminium hydrides there are two different possibilities for substitution in these complex hydrides: cation substitution and anion substitution. Nakamori et al. (Nakamori et al., 2006) reports about a linear relationship between the heat of formation ΔHboro of M(BH4)n determined by first principle methods and the Pauling electronegativity of the cation χp:
\n\t\t\t\tAiming to confirm their theoretical results the same group performed hydrogen desorption experiments which show that the experimentally determined desorption temperature Td shows correlates with the Pauling electronegativity χp as well, see Fig. 11.
\n\t\t\t\tThe desorption temperature Td as a function of the Pauling electronegativity χP and estimated desorption enthalpies ΔHdes (
Based on these encouraging results several research groups started to investigate the partial substitution of one cation by another studying several bialkali metal borohydrides. The decomposition temperature of the bialkali metal borohydrides like LiK(BH4)2 is approximately the average of the decomposition temperature of the mono alkali borohydrides (Rude et al., 2011). Investigations of Li et al. (Li et al., 2007) and Seballos et al. (Seballos et al., 2009) confirmed that this correlation between desorption enthalpy / observed Td holds true for many double cation MM’(BH4)n systems, see Fig. 12.
\n\t\t\t\tSeveral experiments are indicating that transition metal fluorides are among the best additives for borohydrides (Bonatto Minella et al., 2011). While for some cases the function of the transition metal part as additive is understood (Bösenberg et al., 2009; Bösenberg et al., 2010; Deprez et al., 2010; Deprez et al., 2011), the function of F so far remained unclear. DFT calculations performed by Yin et al. (Yin et al., 2008) suggest a favourable modification of hydrogen reaction enthalpy in the LiBH4 system by substitution of the H--ion with the F--ion. However, no clear indicative experimental results for F- -substitution in borohydrides are found yet. In contrast to the F the heavier and larger halides Cl, Br, I are found to readily substitute in some borohydrides for the BH4\n\t\t\t\t\t--ion and form solid solutions or stoichiometric compounds and are so far reported to stabilize the hydride phase leading to an increase of the desorption enthalpy |ΔH| (Rude et al., 2011).
\n\t\t\t\tDecomposition temperatures, Tdec for metal borohydrides plotted as a function of the electronegativity of the metal, M’. (
In 1967 Reilly and Wiswall (Reilly & Wiswall, 1967) found another promising approach to tailor reaction enthalpies of hydrides (MHx) by mixing them with suitable reactants (A):
\n\t\t\t\tThey investigated the system MgH2/MgCu2 which reversibly reacts with hydrogen according to:
\n\t\t\t\tThe formation of MgCu2 from Mg2Cu and Cu is exothermic and thus counteracts the endothermic release of hydrogen. Thereby, the total amount of hydrogen reaction enthalpy is reduced to roughly |ΔH| = 73 kJ/(mol H2) (Wiswall, 1978). The equilibrium temperature for 1 bar hydrogen pressure is reduced to about 240 ºC. In spite of the lower driving force for rehydrogenation, Mg2Cu is much more easily hydrogenated than pure Mg. A fact found in many other systems like the Reactive Hydride Composites as well.
\n\t\t\t\tAluminum is another example of a reactive additive for MgH2. The reaction occurs via two steps (Bouaricha et al., 2000):
\n\t\t\t\tThe system can reversibly store 4.4 wt.% H2. Since the formation enthalpy ΔHForm of Mg17Al12 is -102 kJ/mol the total value of reaction enthalpy of reaction (26) is reduced by ~ 6 kJ/(mol H2) if compared to pure MgH2. An equilibrium pressure of 1 bar is reached at around 240 ºC again.
\n\t\t\t\tTo further decrease the reaction enthalpy of a Mg-based system a much more stable compound would have to be formed during dehydrogenation. A system investigated by many groups is the MgH2-Si system. Mg2Si has an enthalpy of formation of ΔHForm = -79 kJ/mol. Due to the formation of Mg2Si the value of reaction enthalpy of MgH2/Si should therefore be reduced by 37 kJ/(mol H2) to about |ΔH| = 41 kJ/(mol H2) (Dornheim, 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tTheoretically 5 wt.% H2 can be stored via the reaction
\n\t\t\t\tThe thermodynamic data indicate a very favourable equilibrium pressure of about 1 bar at 20 C and 50 bar at 120 ºC (Vajo, 2004). While so far rehydrogenation of Mg2Si was not shown to be possible the system LiH-Si turned out to be reversible. The enthalpy of dehydrogenation of LiH being 190 kJ/(mol H2) an equilibrium H2 pressure of 1 bar is reached at 910 C (Sangster, 2000; Dornheim, 2010). LiH reversibly reacts with Si via a two step reaction with the equilibrium pressure being more than 104 times higher and the dehydrogenation enthalpy being reduced by 70 kJ/(mol H2) (Vajo, 2004).
\n\t\t\t\tThis approach has recently also been applied to borohydrides. According to Cho et al. (Cho et al., 2006) the decomposition temperature of pure LiBH4 is determined by CALPHAD to 1 bar H2 pressure at 403 C while the corresponding equilibrium temperature for the reaction
\n\t\t\t\tis reduced to 188 ºC. Kang et al. (Kang et al., 2007) and Jin et al. (Jin et al., 2008) could show that this system indeed is reversible if suitable additives are used.
\n\t\t\t\tThe only disadvantage of this approach is that the total reversible storage capacity per weight is reduced if something is added to the hydrogen storing material which contains no hydrogen.
\n\t\t\t\tThe problem of reduced hydrogen capacity by using reactive additives has recently overcome by the approach of the Reactive Hydride Composites (Dornheim, 2006). Thereby, different high capacity hydrogen storage materials are combined which react exothermically with each other during decomposition, see Fig. 13.
\n\t\t\t\tOne of the first examples of such a system is the LiNH2-LiH system which was discovered by Chen et al. (Chen et al., 2002):
\n\t\t\t\tHowever, the value of reaction enthalpy is |ΔH| = 80 kJ/(mol H2) and therefore for most applications still much to high. In contrast the system
\n\t\t\t\tshows a much more suitable desorption enthalpy of |ΔH|~40 kJ/(mol H2) with an expected equilibrium pressure of 1 bar at approximately 90 ºC (Xiong et al., 2005; Dornheim, 2010).
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic of the reaction mechanism in Reactive Hydride Composite.
In 2004 Vajo et al. (Vajo et al., 2005), Cho et al. (Cho et al., 2006) and Barkhordarian et al. (Barkordarian et al., 2007) independently discovered that the usage of borides especially MgB2 as a starting material facilitates the formation of different borohydrides. This finding initiated the development and investigation of several new reversible systems with high storage capacities of 8 – 12 wt.% H2 and improved thermodynamic and kinetic properties such as 2 LiBH4+MgH2 (Bösenberg et al., 2009; 2010; 2010b), 2 NaBH4+MgH2 (Garroni et al., 2010; Pistidda et al., 2010; 2011; Pottmaier et al., 2011), Ca(BH4)2+MgH2 (Barkhordarian et al., 2008), 6 LiBH4+CeH2, 6 LiBH4+CaH2 (Jin et al., 2008b), LiBH4/Ca(BH4)2 (Lee et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\t\tOne of the most intensely studied systems hereof is the 2 LiBH4 + MgH2 system. The indended reaction pathway is:
\n\t\t\t\tHowever, several other reaction pathways are possible leading to products such as LiB2, amorphous B, Li2B12H12 or Li2B10H10. Bösenberg et al. (Bösenberg et al., 2010b) could show that due to a higher thermodynamic driving force for the favoured reaction the competing reactions can be suppressed by applying a hydrogen back pressure and limiting the dehydrogenation temperature. Nevertheless, since long-range diffusion of metal atoms containing species is required, see Fig. 13, in bulk ball-milled samples dehydrogenation so far occurs only at temperatures higher than 350 C, hydrogenation at temperatures higher than 250 C.
\n\t\t\t\tThe dehydrogenation temperatures of this Reactive Hydride Composite, however, can be significantly reduced by using nanoconfined 2 LiBH4 + MgH2 stabilised in inert nanoporous aerogel scaffold materials whereby long-range phase separation is hindered and thus the diffusion path length reduced (Gosalawit-Utke, 2011).
\n\t\t\tMetal hydrides offer a safe and compact alternative for hydrogen storage. The thermodynamic properties of them determine both their reaction heat as well as hydrogen equilibrium pressure at given temperature and, therefore, are important parameters to be taken into account. Optimised system integration for a given application is not possible without selecting a hydride with suitable thermodynamic properties. To achieve highest possible energy efficiencies the heat of reaction and temperature of operation of the metal hydride should be adapted to the waste heat and temperature of operation of the fuel cell / fuel combustion system. It has been found that the thermodynamic properties of metal hydrides can be tailored in a wide range. Unfortunately, so far all the known conventional metal hydrides with more or less ideal reaction enthalpies and hydrogen equilibrium pressures above 5 bar at room temperature suffer from a rather limited reversible hydrogen storage capacity of less than 2.5 wt.%. With such a material it is not possible to realise a solid storage hydrogen tank with a total hydrogen storage density of more than 1.8 wt.% H2. Such tank systems still have advantages for the storage of small quantities of hydrogen for larger quantities, however, modern high pressure composite tank shells have a clear advantage in respect of gravimetric storage density. To realise a solid storage tank for hydrogen with a comparable gravimetric storage density it is required that novel hydrogen storage materials based on light weight elements are developed. There are several promising systems with high gravimetric storage densities in the range of 8 – 12 wt.% H2. For the applications of these novel material systems it is important to further adapt thermodynamic properties as well as the temperatures of operation towards the practical requirements of the system.
\n\t\t\tThe discovery of the approach of combining different hydrides which react with each other during hydrogen release by forming a stable compound, the so-called Reactive Hydride Composites, show a great promise for the development of novel suitable hydrogen storage material systems with elevated gravimetric storage densities. However, so far, the ideal storage material with low reaction temperatures, a reaction heat in the range of |ΔH| = 20-30 kJ/(mol H2) and a on-board reversible hydrogen storage density of more than 6 wt.% H2 has not been found.
\n\t\tHip arthroplasty remains one of the most successful surgeries offered today; however, with a prosthetic hip component, a unique possibility of dislocation arises [1]. The incidence of instability within revision hip arthroplasty is estimated from 17 to 25% with a mean cost of care at $77.851.24 [2, 3]. With rates rates of primary hip arthroplasty increasing, the projected financial burden on the healthcare system remains large [4, 5, 6]. Historically, implant designs featured smaller femoral head articulations, such as the 22 mm femoral heads of the Charnley hip, which were associated with instability rates as high as 4.8% [7, 8]. Since the landmark Morrey article in 1982, improved implant designs and surgical techniques have evolved lowering the dislocation rate from 3.2% to less than 2% [9, 10]. Although a large percentage of instability can be managed nonoperatively, instability remains the most common indications for revision arthroplasty within the United States [4, 11]. Numerous risk factors exist including patient demographic variables, approach, surgeon learning curve, spinopelvic relationship, and indication for surgery. These factors should be taken into consideration when projecting a specific patients’ potential risk of subsequent instability.
A stable THA relies on understanding the biomechanics of femoral head size and center of rotation (COR) [12]. Briefly, hip offset is defined as the linear distance from the femoral COR to the axis of the femoral shaft. A medial shift in the center of rotation decreases the moment arm of the abductors, thereby changing abductor tension and increasing potential risk of instability (Figure 1). Conversely, an increase in femoral offset adds to abductor tension and reduces potential instability [14]. Hip stability can also be achieved through modulation of femoral head size and consequently jump distance. The linear distance required for the femoral head to travel prior to dislocation is directly proportional to the femoral head size. By increasing the size of the femoral head a larger displacement is required prior to dislocation (Figure 2). Surgical manipulation of hip anatomy through biomechanics is central towards optimizing patient stability.
Femoral offset and subsequent abductor moment arm [
Large diameter femoral heads have larger jump distances than smaller diameter heads [
Several modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors should be considered prior to undertaking hip arthroplasty. Modifiable risk factors include tobacco, alcohol use, and obesity [15, 16]. Modern hip arthroplasty utilizing press fit implants relies on immediate stability at the bone/implant interface through a variety of tapers and coatings. Although the exact mechanism is not understood, this stability is weakened from tobacco use. Several researchers have demonstrated the adverse effects of delayed bone healing with tobacco use and this theory has been extended to include delayed bone-implant ingrowth [17, 18]. Elective arthroplasty offers a unique opportunity for patients to cease smoking, and some literature demonstrates continued abstinence [19]. A careful history with a targeted effort at reducing modifiable risk factors should be considered prior to hip arthroplasty.
Tobacco and alcohol use are correlated with wound complications and potential instability [16, 17]. Also, patients who abuse alcohol are less likely adhere to precautions and suffer more frequent falls, leading to interprosthetic instability. The immunosuppression from alcohol misuse has shown an increased risk of prosthetic joint infections thereby impairing bony ingrowth [17].
Currently, more than two-thirds of Americans are classified as obese (body mass index (BMI) ≥ 30 kg/m2) [20]. Groups with the highest BMI are increasing in size at the fastest rate, as evidenced by the greater than 50% annual increase in prevalence of patients with a BMI ≥ 40 kg/m2 [21, 22]. Elevated BMI will increase the soft tissue envelope around the hip, thereby increasing the risk of implant malpositioning. This malpositioning along with soft tissue impingement are known risk factors for instability [23]. Patients with elevated BMI tend to be younger. Younger aged patients statistically place more stress on their implants and with the increased weight these patients may have elevated wear rates and higher risk of aseptic loosening [24].
Non modifiable risk factors include advanced age, cognitive impairment, and in some earlier studies, female sex [16]. Several comorbid conditions also predisposing patients to dislocation following THA include developmental dysplasia of the hip, neuromuscular disorders, and other connective tissue disorders. Abductor muscle deficiency, prior surgical revision, a history of instability, and prior spinal disease or surgery [25, 26, 27, 28]. Previous instances of instability are also risk factors for future instability events.
Due to the numerous risk factors for instability, a thorough preoperative evaluation and identification of appropriate surgical approach should be performed. Several hip arthroplasty approaches exist with varied evidence on the risk of subsequent instability. Historically, the posterior approach was associated with highest rates of instability [29, 30]. This was reinforced with a subsequent large volume Kaiser series that demonstrated improved stability with the direct anterior approach over traditional posterior approaches [31]. However, recent literature has brought this into question, largely demonstrating that with capsular repair the posterior approach is no superior to alternate approaches [32, 33, 34]. Critics highlight the selection bias of these capsular repair/posterior approach papers stating they reflect academic practices and do not adequately reflect the community [35]. Further controversy exists when analyzing large joint registry databases. Both the Australian (122,345 primary THA) and Dutch (166,231 primary THA) Registries demonstrate a reduced risk of instability with the anterior approach [35, 36]. From a revision perspective, it appears that changing approach does not affect overall rate of instability [37]. Ultimately it is recommended that surgical approach be utilized at the discretion and comfort of the surgeon with the recognition that the anterior approach may have improved stability. If the posterior approach is preferred then careful capsular closure should be performed [38, 39].
Preoperative optimization of body mass index (BMI) continues to be an ongoing debate. Multiple studies demonstrate a slight preponderance for instability in cohorts with heavier BMI—with 5% increased risk for each BMI unit exceeding 35 kg/m2 [40, 41]. Although the exact etiology of instability in heavier patients remains unknown, possibly resulting from combinations of deeper surgical field causing implant malposition versus muscular weakness; nonpharmacologic weight loss does seem to work at reducing BMI in some patients [42, 43]. From the perspective of instability, it remains unknown if weight loss causes a clinically significant risk reduction in postoperative instability; however, the generalized physical and mental health benefits certainly warrant an attempt at reducing BMI [44].
Surgeons should be aware of the impact their approach, implants, and implant positioning has on patient outcomes. When performing an arthroplasty for fracture, a hemiarthroplasty can be an option in a less active patient but this does not confer the longevity that a total hip offers. Studies note less morbidity, decreased operative time and decreased blood loss with a hemi versus total [45]. If the implant of choice is a hemiarthroplasty, a decision between a unipolar and a bipolar implant must be made. Proponents of a unipolar arthroplasty state that the hip stability primarily comes from the larger femoral head component and the dual articulation of the bipolar component provides negligible stability [46]. Yang et al. published a systematic review illustrating statistically significant decrease of cost and increased acetabular erosion with a unipolar arthroplasty [47].
Treatment of displaced femoral neck fractures in the elderly population continues to be a subject of controversy in recent literature. The New England Journal of Medicine recently published a study which included 1498 patients, ages 50 or older, across 80 centers, in 10 countries where patients were randomly assigned to either hemi or total hip arthroplasty group following a displaced femoral neck fracture. Despite only having a 2 year follow up, this cohort exhibited no significant difference in secondary procedures performed [48]. Some have critiqued this study questioning if a 2 year follow up was sufficient time to detect a difference. Another study noted no difference of revision rates at 5 years but improved quality of life favoring the THA cohort and reduced surgical time favoring the hemi arthroplasty cohort [49].
Studies have shown large inconsistencies of the proximal femur from patient to patient. A patient’s proximal femur may undergo morphological changes throughout their lifetime due to osteoporosis and age [50, 51]. Manufactures have designed the femoral component with variability to accommodate the irregularity of the native proximal femur [52, 53]. Hip dysplasia, while relatively common, can add up to 60 degrees variability in proximal femoral morphology and contract stress [54, 55].
Femoral anteversion is the angle between an axially projected line along the femoral neck and posterior condyles (Figure 3) [56]. This anteversion is essentially the extent the implants are “pointed “ventrally and has wide variation [57]. This angle can be measured preoperatively via CT scan or with a variety of different x-rays [58, 59]. Combined implant anteversion was popularized to improve hip stability and decrease intraprosthetic impingement while providing a functional range of motion for the patient [60]. Some surgeons have become proponents of “femur first” preparation since noncemented implants are constrained by the proximal femoral anatomy [61]. Once the femoral anteversion is measured, appropriate anteversion can then be “dialed into “the acetabular component as this is easier to change.
Measurement of femoral Anteversion (FNA—Femoral neck angle) [
Femoral length is a measurement from the acetabular teardrop to the proximal femur [62]. This change is often easily noticed by patients and can often cause discomfort after a total hip replacement [63, 64]. Femoral length can be changed independently by changing the position of the implant within the femoral intermedullary canal or changed in conjunction with offset when the surgeon changes the femoral neck component.
Femoral offset is a measurement of the distance from the femoral intermedullary canal to the center of rotation [12]. An increase in this measurement will allow the femur to sit further away from midline, thereby increasing the abductor lever arm [65]. Both femoral length and femoral offset will increase tension on the gluteal musculature and provide stability. The surgeon must take caution and balance hip stability with an increase in offset as excessive femoral offset will cause pain to the gluteal musculature, increase implant micromotion and overload the femoral component [66, 67, 68]. Femoral implants have different ways to increase offset. Some implants change offset based on a “medial shift” of the stem/neck takeoff while other implants change the neck shaft angle. The average neck/shaft angle in the Caucasian population is 130 degrees and by changing offset in different ways, the surgeon may restore “normal patient anatomy” and properly tension the soft tissues [52, 53]. It is important that the surgeon becomes familiar with how changes in the neck/shaft angle will change femoral neck length (Figures 4 and 5). In certain situations where a large femoral neck is needed a skirt may be required. This skirt is needed to properly engage the morse taper while moving the center of rotation away from the stem base. The “skirt” on the neck becomes necessary at differing + neck options based on manufacture designs and will vary based on skirt length and thickness. These femoral neck skirts decrease the head to neck ratio thereby possibly adding to hip impingement and instability [70].
A decrease in the femoral neck shaft angle will decrease the femoral height while increasing offset. This construct will increase the magnitude of the abductor lever arm [
Notice how changes in neck shaft angle will change the femoral neck length.
Figure 5a shows 2 hip templates of the same implant with a change in neck shaft angle. Notice how the “offset” (125 degree) neck shaft angle will cause neck changes to primarily affect offset and little length is changed.
Figure 5b shows the “offset stem” in relation to the cup center of rotation. Notice the angle of the shaft is 125 degrees and changes in neck length primarily change offset with little change to length.
Figure 5c demonstrates a “standard offset” (131 degree) neck length. Notice how neck length changes will affect both length and offset more evenly.
The value of larger femoral heads in THA has been increasingly recognized over the last 60 years. Since the 1960s, femoral head size increased from the original 22 mm to an average size of 32 mm by the mid 2000s [71]. Although some registry data reports the most common head diameter to be 32 mm, the use of 36 mm heads has been increasing. The AJRR recently reported a 36 mm head as the most commonly implanted size in the United States [72, 73]. Increasing femoral head size improves stability in THA through two main mechanisms. First, a larger diameter head is more deeply seated into the acetabular cup, requiring an increase in linear translation (also known as “jump distance”) in order for a dislocation to occur [74]. Second, an increase in the femoral head diameter, while maintaining a constant neck diameter, increases the head to neck ratio allowing for a wider impingement-free arc of motion [75].
The stabilizing effect of large femoral heads is well documented in the literature. A randomized controlled trial of 644 patients found that 36 mm heads resulted in a significantly decreased rate of dislocation when compared to 28 mm heads (1.3% versus 5.4%, p = 0.012) at 1 year follow-up [76]. Several recent registry studies have further emphasized the advantage of large femoral heads [36, 72, 77]. A study published from the Dutch Arthroplasty Registry reported significantly decreased dislocation risk with 32 mm heads when compared to those using 22–28 mm [36]. These authors noted further improved stability with a 36 mm head compared to 32 mm when evaluating operations performed through the posterolateral approach. Another recent investigation using the Danish Hip Arthroplasty Register also favored 36 mm heads compared to 32 mm, demonstrating a reduced dislocation risk within 2 years of primary THA [77].
Although these studies emphasize the stabilizing advantage of a large femoral head, the surgeon must weigh this advantage against the concern for increased wear characteristics and late failure [78, 79]. Several studies have determined 36 mm and larger heads to exhibit increased frictional torque and volumetric wear versus heads of 32 mm and smaller [80, 81]. The surgeon must also be aware that with a fixed acetabular component the space available for polyethylene decreases as the femoral head size increases. This will lead to a thinner polyethylene liner implanted if a 36 mm head is used (Figure 2A and B). A recently published study from the Australian Regstristy found that 36 mm heads had a statistically higher risk of late revision when examining metal on cross-linked polyethylene constructs versus ceramic head components [79]. Although more long-term data is needed, this study suggests that when using femoral heads of 36 mm or more, the surgeon may consider ceramic femoral heads for the best combination of stability and longevity.
Several strategies can be employed to achieve the stabilizing advantage of a large femoral head in total hip arthroplasty. Although some authors advise reaming up to achieve an acetabular component of sufficient size to accommodate a 36 mm head, there are concerns that this can change the center of rotation and biomechanics of the hip [82]. Odri et al. found that patients experienced significantly more postoperative pain, especially anterior iliiopsoas impingement, when the implanted cup was 6 mm or more larger than the native femoral head [83]. Authors have therefore advised implanting a cup that is no larger than 4 mm above the measured diameter of the femoral head [82]. In patients whose anatomy cannot accomodate a large acetabular shell, surgeons can employ several strategies to achieve an increased head size. This includes the use of thin polyethylene liners, metal on metal bearings, and dual-mobility implants. Despite concerns for increased liner wear and fracture, a recent report evaluating the use of large femoral heads with thin polyethylene liners at average 8.5 year follow up, noted a 100% survival rate when using liner failure as an endpoint [84]. Metal on metal bearings, which allow a head size closer to that of the native femoral head. These implants have displayed low rates of dislocation but their utilization has waned due to concerns of adverse reactions to metal debris (ARMD) [85, 86]. Dual mobility constructs allow for large femoral head diameter in addition to an increased arc of motion, and will be discussed more thoroughly later in this chapter.
Postoperative hip stability depends on accurate placement of the acetabular component [87]. Factors that contribute to malpositioning may include intraoperative patient-positioning, abnormal pelvic anatomy and body habitus [88]. Surgeons continue to aim for an acetabular position of 40 degrees +/− 10 degrees of abduction and 15 degrees +/− 10 degrees of anteversion [89]. One technique includes positioning the patient in the center of the room with the sides of the operating table paralleling the walls of the OR. This allows the surgeon to base the version and inclination from the walls and the floor of the operating room [90]. To perform this technique, the patient must be positioned in a stable lateral decubitus position with the pelvis directly perpendicular to the floor. However, variations in pelvic position make balancing and stabilizing the patient in this position difficult. Additionally, inconsistencies in the size and shape of the operating room may alter the surgeon’s perception of patient orientation [90]. Therefore an alignment rod attached to the insertion handle of the cup has proven to be more accurate in comparison to free hand cup placement [91]. This rod allows the surgeon to more appropriately align the guide to visualize anteversion and inclination based on the floor and longitudinal axis of the patient. However, both techniques are sensitive to patient positioning and orientation of the pelvis.
Moreover, use of native pelvic anatomy increases accuracy in comparison to referencing external factors. One landmark often referenced to establish native pelvic anteversion is the transverse acetabular ligament (TAL) [92]. This landmark is independent of pelvic positioning and pelvic tilt. When using the TAL as a reference for anteversion and depth, Archbold et al. noted a 0.6% dislocation rate in 1000 consecutive patients [92, 93]. Other intrinsic pelvic landmarks such as the superior acetabulum, acetabular sulcus of the ilium and pubis have been reviewed but not widely adopted due to the large variability from osteophyte production [94]. Many are now starting to look towards intraoperative imaging and computer guidance to try to reduce surgeon error.
Acetabular offset, defined as the distance between the COR of the femoral head and the center of the pelvis, can be an important contributor to the stability and overall forces on a total hip arthroplasty. Charnley’s traditional techniques recommended medialization of the acetabular component in order to reduce the joint reactive force (JRF) on the hip [95]. However, this reduction in acetabular offset can result in increased impingement, reduced ROM, loss of soft tissue tension, and an increased risk of dislocation [96, 97, 98, 99].
An astute surgeon should attempt to re-establish the patient’s anatomic global offset (GO), the sum of femoral offset and acetabular offset. A decrease in GO after THA has been shown to result in loss of soft tissue tension and abductor function [100]. When medialization of the acetabulum is necessary, particularly in the setting of significant hip dysplasia, a stem with greater femoral offset is often required to restore the global offset and optimize stability of the hip joint [99]. Excessive medialization of the acetabular cup can increase the risk of impingement, a known risk factor for dislocation. In a computer model simulation, Kurtz et al. determined a decrease in acetabular offset to be the greatest risk factor for increased bony impingement [101]. Even restoration of global offset via increased femoral offset failed to fully restore range of motion before impingement. The study listed a deepened acetabular component leading to premature impingement of the femoral neck on either bone or soft tissue of the pelvis. With these ideas in mind, anatomic positioning of the cup with preservation of acetabular offset is advised.
With increased emphasis on proper positioning of components, there is growing interest in technology that allows more accurate and reproducible placement of total hip arthroplasty components. Free-hand cup positioning can be inaccurate and inconsistent, with one study finding that only 50% of the components were accurately placed in both anteversion and abduction target zones [23]. Techniques to improve component positioning can be separated into three categories: fluoroscopic guidance, computer navigation, and robotic-assisted total hip arthroplasty.
One advantage of the anterior approach is the ease of use of fluoroscopy during the operation. Rathod et al. found the use of fluoroscopy during an anterior approach significantly increased accuracy in cup placement compared to a non-guided posterior approach [102]. In addition, fluoroscopic guidance using the anterior approach has been shown to be more accurate than the use of fluoroscopy in the posterior approach due to the supine position allowing for a more accurate representation of a standing AP pelvis compared to the lateral position [103]. A recent study found the fluoroscopic assisted anterior approach to be as accurate at placing the cup into a target safe zone as a robotic-guided operation [104].
Computer navigation, used with or without the assistance of imaging, commonly relies on intra-operative anatomic landmarks and surgeon guided input reference points to aid in component positioning [99]. Several studies have reported computer navigation to result in more accurate acetabular component placement when compared to freehand methods [105, 106]. Robotic guidance combines computer navigation with the input of a robotic-assisted arm. Most contemporary designs are semi-active, where the robotic apparatus assists in certain actions while still requiring operation of the system by the surgeon [23, 104]. Similar to other technology guided techniques, robotic-assisted THA has shown increased accuracy of cup positioning versus manual techniques [107]. In addition to cup placement, these surgical technology enhancements can assist with achieving more accurate leg lengths, global offset, and combined anteversion measurements [108, 109].
Despite improved accuracy of component placement, the clinical advantages of technology assisted total hip arthroplasty continues to be debated. In a randomized controlled trial comparing 62 computer navigated THAs to 63 manual THAs, Lass et al. found no difference in dislocation rates at a minimum of 2 year follow up [110]. In their cohort of 2247 patients, Shaw et al. found robotic assisted THA to result in significantly lower rates of dislocation (0.6%) versus manual THA (2.5%, p < 0.05) [111]. Another recent study compared THAs performed through the posterior approach using robotic assisted, computer navigated, and manual techniques [112]. The authors found robotic-assisted posterior THA to have a statistically significant decrease in reoperation due to dislocation compared to the manual THA cohort (OR = 0.3,p < 0.05). Interestingly, this difference was not seen when comparing the computer navigated cohort to the manual group. The authors have proposed that the influence of robotic THA goes beyond improved cup positioning and warrants further study. These surgically assisted technology enhancements continues to increase in popularity, and continued high-level studies are needed to elucidate whether it provides sufficient advantages to outweigh the higher initial costs.
After satisfactorily implanting the acetabular component, the surgeon needs to make the decision on the type of liner used. Many manufacturers provide different acetabular liner options to allow the surgeon to recreate native anatomy and maximize hip stability. It is important that the surgeon become familiar with the liner options available when preparing for a case. Most implant manufactures allow for neutral, lipped, lateralized, oblique, constrained and dual mobility liners.
A neutral liner should be used when the surgeon is satisfied with the acetabular position, the hip stability, and in instances where the patient has no increased risk of dislocation. This liner allows the patient to have the greatest range of motion since the implant will sit flush with the acetabular component but does not give the surgeon any added stability [113]. Some surgeons prefer to use a “lipped or high walled liner” to allow for increased stability due to a larger jump distance in a discrete quadrant (Figure 6). With this liner option the surgeon can position the “elevated lip” to the area concern. This liner may increase intraoperative stability and allow the patient an additional 8 degrees of internal rotation if placed in the posterior quadrant [114]. From a posterior approach, the elevated liner should be placed in the “4 o’clock” position with a left hip and an “8 o’clock” position in the right hip [115]. It is important to note that this increased jump distance will also cause impingement in the area of increased elevation and may lead to dislocations.
Left is a neutral liner. Right is a high walled liner.
In acetabular protrusio cases, native or iatrogenic from over reaming, or in cases where the patient has increased native offset, the surgeon may choose to use a lateralized liner. The lateralized liner has increased polyethelene in the medial portion of the implant and circumferential coverage. It is important to note that the lateralized liner will increase offset and length based on the acetabular implant position. In cases where the acetabular component is horizontal then the lateralized liner will increase overall hip length and in contrast in a vertical acetabular component orientation the lateralized liner will primarily increase offset. The lateralized liner should be considered when the abductor soft tissues are lax and the surgeon has already used a high offset implant [116]. It is important to note that a lateralized acetabular liner will increase the body weight moment arm and has been shown to increase joint reactive forces and thereby increase polyethelene wear rates [117].
In cases where the surgeon wishes to maintain a mildly malpositioned acetabular component an oblique liner may be used. When available, this option can become important in both primary and revision situations. The oblique acetabular insert has 180 degrees of coverage and reorients the range of motion in the direction of the obliquity [10]. Some surgeons have found this liner option to be quite useful in hip dysplasia since these patients may have highly irregular bone stock. This liner option allows the surgeon to place the acetabular component in a position that maximizes bony contact while reorienting the range of motion to a more functional “safe zone” [118].
Constrained liners are designed to physically lock the femoral head into the acetabular liner with the use of a metal ring [119]. These liners allow the surgeon the greatest amount of hip stability with the most amount of stress at the bone/implant interface. Surgeons should be aware that these liners are not indicated in situations with implant malposition or hip impingement. The primary indication for these constraint liners is neuromuscular disorders, abductor deficiency or intraoperative multidirectional instability without hip impingement or implant malposition [113]. This increased constraint is commonly used in more difficult hips and has been shown to have higher revision rates from several mechanisms of failure [120]. Locking ring failure from polyethelene wear or repetitive impingement and aseptic loosening causing cup migration or pull out are known failure mechanisms [88, 121, 122].
Dual Mobility (DM) articulations were first designed by Bousquet in 1974. This design capitalizes on the principle of low friction arthroplasty, which favors a small femoral head, and the improved stability given with increasing the femoral head size [123]. The DM articulation achieves both increased stability and decreases wear by featuring two articulating surfaces within a fixed acetabular shell. These shells articulate with a large polyethylene ball; within the polyethylene ball sits another small (generally 22–28 mm) metallic femoral head. The benefits of DM include reduced rates of instability while maintaining longevity [124].
Modern DM articulations offer modular highly polished liners that are compatible within prior titanium acetabular shell designs. Prior generations—sometimes referred to as anatomic DM—featured monoblock cobalt chrome acetabular components. A unique challenge of these anatomic components was implantation due to difficulty with verification of component seating. The primary benefit of a monoblock component is a theoretical decrease in metal ions due to the disappearance of differing metal interfaces; however, short term series have not found significant differences to date [125, 126, 127].
Perhaps the most pertinent application for a dual mobility liner is in the setting of femoral neck fracture. Femoral neck fractures present within a patient cohort of generalized muscular insufficiency, recurrent falls, spasticity from immobility, neurologic disorder, and cognitive decline. Dislocation rates for total hip arthroplasty within femoral neck fractures have been published as high as 9% but can be lowered to 1.2% with the use of a dual mobility construct [124, 128, 129, 130, 131]. New literature has interestingly shown lower instability rates in DM total hips constructs over traditional hemiarthroplasty cohorts [129, 132]. It is therefore recommended to utilize DM constructs in total hips for femoral neck fracture [132, 133].
Fixed Spinopelvic alignment and its implications on hip stability has become an increasingly studied topic. In normal anatomy, the pelvis dynamically tilts posteriorly to increase acetabular coverage during a seated position to allow femoral clearance. In contrast while the patient is in the standing position the pelvis assumes a more neutral orientation [134, 135]. This native motion protects against femoral dislocation with hip flexion; however, patients with rigid spinopelvic alignment have repeatedly demonstrated to be at an increased risk of instability [136]. Dual mobility articulations have demonstrated significant improvement in hip stability within patients with fixed spinopelvic pathology [137].
Increasing data suggests that modern DM implants have longevity and appropriate wear characteristics; despite having two articulating surfaces which increases the risk of volumetric wear [138]. Limited retrieval studies demonstrate a wear rate similar to traditional cementless liners at 15 years [139]. Furthermore, systematic review suggests overall survivorship of 98% at mean followup of 8.5 years (2 to 16 years). The most common cause of revision was aseptic loosening at 1.3% followed by intraprosthetic dislocation at 1.1% [124]. Overall, DM total hip arthroplasties are a viable option with a proven track record of longevity and an ideal clinical application for patients at increased risk of instability.
To optimize hip stability, attention should be drawn to the soft tissue integrity and tensioning around the hip. Approaches that utilize the lateral decubitus position require meticulous capsular repair. Critics have stated capsular repairs will ultimately fail or lead to an unnecessary increase in surgical time; however, this repair has demonstrated less blood loss, decreased dislocations, and better functional outcome scores [140, 141]. In contrast, supine approaches have not shown this increased benefit [142]. Schwartz et al. published a randomized controlled trial regarding capsular repair vs. capsulectomy utilizing the direct anterior approach noting no difference in outcomes [143]. The increased stability from the direct anterior muscle sparing approach maybe from the preservation of the short external rotators or from the fluoroscopic guidance of intraoperative implant positioning. Ultimately, the data is unclear whether capsular retention and repair is necessary for post-operative hip stability using the direct anterior approach.
Even when the femoral and acetabular components are appropriately oriented, restoration of length and offset are needed to recreate the mechanical advantage of the abductors [144]. Abductor tensioning is affected by the sizing and positioning of both the femoral and acetabular components. Poor abductor repair, failure of trochanter osteotomies, and destruction of the greater trochanter from fracture or osteolysis will adversely affect this tensioning [145]. In severe cases of abductor deficiency, soft tissue transfers may be needed to increase strength and stability of the hip joint. A transfer of the anterior ½ of the gluteus maximus to the greater trochanter has been described to increase lateral stability and to assist with Trendelenburg gait [146]. It is also possible to perform transfers such as transferring the anterior half of the gluteus maximus to the greater trochanter to increase lateral stability and to assist with issues of Trendelenburg gait [147].
Although rarely required for a primary hip arthroplasty, a greater trochanteric osteotomy is indicated to remove well fixed implants for hip revisions. Robust fixation of this osteotomy is crucial to avoid trochanteric nonunion which can result in pain, hip weakness, and hip instability [148]. In cases of abductor weakness or trochanteric nonunion, an advancement may be considered. Dennis and Lynch describe a greater trochanter advancement surgery specifically in patients who have postoperative hip weakness and instability [146].
Hip precautions have often been utilized to help aid in prevention of dislocation in the acute postoperative period. This is often done in patients who undergo a posterior approach where the short external rotators and the posterior capsule is compromised. Many physicians use these precautions. A recent prospective randomized trial from Journal of Arthroplasty 2022 examined 346 consecutive patients all via posterior approach to the hip with a mean follow up of 2.3 years. This study demonstrated that if intraoperative hip stability was obtained at 90 degrees of flexion 45 degrees internal rotation and 0 degrees of abduction, postoperative hip precautions are no longer necessary. This study, however powerful, excluded patients with previous lumbar fusion, scoliosis or abductor insufficiency [149]. Mounts 2022 study is in accordance with another recently published a systematic review that included 6900 patients. This study demonstrated no statistically significant decrease in dislocations with the use of posterior hip precautions [150].
Since anteriorly based approachs are often regarded as a more stable approach post operatively, surgeons have questioned the need for precautions post operatively. Talbot et al. studied 499 cases of primary total hip arthroplasty done through an anterolateral approach and documented the dislocation rate when restrictions were not imposed. There were 3 early dislocations (within 6 weeks of surgery) all of which were close reduced, and every patient subsequently achieved a stable hip without further intervention [151]. Restrepo et al., also demonstrated a 0.16% dislocation rate which is significantly lower than the 2% overall that was found to occur within the 1st year by Maratt et al. in anterior and posterior approaches [34, 152]. The evidence for hip precautions after an anterior-based hip approach seems to be in favor of not requiring restrictions.
To conclude, the surgeon must correctly identify the etiology of the instability to direct treatment. Early postoperative instability is likely due to component malpositioning or acute infection [116]. In cases of late stage instability the surgeon should consider component subsidence, aseptic loosening, osteolysis, indolent infection or the development of an adverse local tissue reaction (ALTR). Acute infection may be challenging to diagnose if obvious wound complications are not present [153, 154]. Both acute and chronic infection can present with loosening of one or both the acetabular and femoral components which may require staged revision. Another important cause of instability is aseptic loosening from polyethylene debris leading to macrophage induced osteolysis. This can ultimately lead to movement or dislodging of the implants which should be closely evaluated and may require revision surgery. Osteolysis can destroy available bone stock requiring the surgeon to become facile with bone grafting, cages, or even custom triflange implants for the acetabulum [155]. In the case of femoral bone loss there may be a need for diaphyseal engaging implants, bone grafting or even proximal femoral replacement [156]. Another potential cause of instability is the development of an ALTR from metal on metal (MOM) bearing surfaces. Diagnosis of ALTR is made from clinical history, radiography and serum metal ion levels. If surgery is deemed necessary, additional information may be obtained from ultrasound and metal artifact reduction sequence magnetic resonance imaging (MARS-MRI) to evaluate soft tissue destruction and possible need for augments or constraint due to abductor deficiency. Ultimately if serum ion levels continue to rise or patient functionality declines the patient will require revision surgery [157]. Although post-operative hip instability frequently requires revision surgery it is important to identify the root cause. This will allow the surgeon better surgical preparation, more readily available implants and the ability to manage infection with possible staged surgery or prolonged IV antibiotics.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
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\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
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\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
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\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
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\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
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Women are diagnosed with PTSD approximately twice as often as men. In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",doi:"10.5772/65410",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3432,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. 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Also, differences in self-rated health vary depending on other psychosocial and demographic variables. The present study reviews the main differences in women’s and men’s health as well as the most relevant factors that may account for them.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"María Pilar Matud",authors:[{id:"189729",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Matud",slug:"m.-pilar-matud",fullName:"M. Pilar Matud"}]},{id:"52503",doi:"10.5772/65457",title:"Gender and Leadership",slug:"gender-and-leadership",totalDownloads:4127,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The topic of leadership has been addressed and applied for millennia. Yet, it is only within the past 80 years that leadership has been a topic of serious discussion. It is important to understand variables relevant to effective leadership. Gender is one such variable that must be examined with regard to optimizing leadership effectiveness. The topic of gender and leadership deserves serious and thoughtful consideration and discussion because of professional, political, cultural, and personal realities of the twenty‐first century. Women and men have been, are, and should be leaders. Gender must be considered to determine how each leader can reach maximum potential and effectiveness. The FourCe‐PITO conceptual framework of leadership is designed to help guide leadership development and education. The present chapter uses this conceptual framework of leadership to discuss how consideration of gender may affect and optimize leadership development and effectiveness. 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I am giving examples from my developmental psychology research where the split-sample analysis by gender showed amazing and often unexpected effects.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Chris Lange-Küttner",authors:[{id:"190245",title:"Prof.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Lange-Küttner",slug:"chris-lange-kuttner",fullName:"Chris Lange-Küttner"}]},{id:"53721",doi:"10.5772/66093",title:"Professional Women's Experience of Autonomy and Independence in Sindh-Pakistan",slug:"professional-women-s-experience-of-autonomy-and-independence-in-sindh-pakistan",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter summarises the part of findings of my doctoral studies at the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK. In this case study, there are elements of both qualitative and quantitative approaches; the former is the principal approach to this research while the latter works as complementary. Participants of the research were divided into two categories: academic and non‐academic. Forty semi‐structured interviews (20 from each category) and 100 survey questionnaire (50 from each category) were collected. This research argues that existing concepts of ‘autonomy’ and ‘independence’ may not be useful indices/indicators for measuring the social status or position of women in Sindhi society, due to variations in understanding or the meanings attributed to these concepts across the globe. Findings argue that these professional women perceived concepts of ‘autonomy’, ‘independence’ and ‘individuality’ categorically different than those of Westernised understandings. This research asserts that Sindhi society, similarly to that of Tamil society, emphasises social groups rather than individuals. Hence, ‘collective identities’ are the essence of Sindhi society; however, individuals find their autonomy, independence and individuality in the context of ‘others’, which means to be more responsible for group's interests.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mukesh Kumar Khatwani",authors:[{id:"196384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Khatwani",slug:"mukesh-khatwani",fullName:"Mukesh Khatwani"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"52503",title:"Gender and Leadership",slug:"gender-and-leadership",totalDownloads:4125,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The topic of leadership has been addressed and applied for millennia. Yet, it is only within the past 80 years that leadership has been a topic of serious discussion. It is important to understand variables relevant to effective leadership. 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In this review, we outline the evidence of gender differences related to PTSD, and the factors of resilience and susceptibility differ between men and women.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Jingchu Hu, Biao Feng, Yonghui Zhu, Wenqing Wang, Jiawei Xie\nand Xifu Zheng",authors:[{id:"190985",title:"Dr.",name:"Xifu",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",slug:"xifu-zheng",fullName:"Xifu Zheng"},{id:"194981",title:"BSc.",name:"Yonghui",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yonghui-zhu",fullName:"Yonghui Zhu"},{id:"194982",title:"MSc.",name:"Wenqing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"wenqing-wang",fullName:"Wenqing Wang"},{id:"194985",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingchu",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"jingchu-hu",fullName:"Jingchu Hu"},{id:"194986",title:"MSc.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Feng",slug:"biao-feng",fullName:"Biao Feng"},{id:"194987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jiawei",middleName:null,surname:"Xie",slug:"jiawei-xie",fullName:"Jiawei Xie"}]},{id:"52472",title:"Gender and Health",slug:"gender-and-health",totalDownloads:3430,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Research has found differences between women and men in some health indicators. Women’s life expectancy is higher than men’s, but research on differences in morbidity has proved less consistent than on the differences in mortality. These differences vary in terms of the type of health indicator used, the life cycle period analyzed, and even the country where research is conducted. Generally, men have more life-threatening chronic diseases at younger ages, including coronary heart disease, as well as more externalizing mental health problems and substance use disorders. Women present higher rates of chronic debilitating conditions such as arthritis, frequent or severe headaches, gallbladder conditions, and also more internalizing mental problems such as affective and anxiety disorders. Results of research on the differences between women and men in self-rated health have also highlighted the complexity of gender differences in health. Although several studies have shown that women have poorer self-rated health than men, this is not the case in all countries. Also, differences in self-rated health vary depending on other psychosocial and demographic variables. The present study reviews the main differences in women’s and men’s health as well as the most relevant factors that may account for them.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"María Pilar Matud",authors:[{id:"189729",title:"Prof.",name:"M. Pilar",middleName:null,surname:"Matud",slug:"m.-pilar-matud",fullName:"M. Pilar Matud"}]},{id:"53212",title:"Broken Dreams—Balancing Self and Family Well-Being: The Experiences of Women Immigrants to Hamilton, ON",slug:"broken-dreams-balancing-self-and-family-well-being-the-experiences-of-women-immigrants-to-hamilton-o",totalDownloads:1512,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the preliminary analysis of a study conducted in Hamilton, ON. It explores the intersection of women’s immigration, integration and mental health. Their perceptions of what is needed from them in relation to the various challenges/changes that moving to a new country entails is a particular focus of this research. To begin with, the term “women immigrant” (WI) is used, rather than immigrant women as commonly used—as the participants were women long before they became immigrants. Indeed immigration is one of their many experiences and it is a significant marker in their lives, but it does not define their identity.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Mirna Carranza",authors:[{id:"189735",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirna",middleName:null,surname:"Carranza",slug:"mirna-carranza",fullName:"Mirna Carranza"}]},{id:"52314",title:"Gender Difference in the Perception of Guilt in Consumer Boycott in Brazil",slug:"gender-difference-in-the-perception-of-guilt-in-consumer-boycott-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1804,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to analyze consumer boycott from the perception of men's and women's guilt on a specific case involving Nike company through partners in its supply chain in China. The study was conducted with 281 consumers in the city of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in 2012. In the process of validating a scale of consumer boycott in Brazil, the 13 items of the original scale were kept, but were grouped in different factors. The emerged factors were perception of guilt, influence from others, boycott efficiency, and purchase frequency. Testing relationship among demographic variables and these factors, only gender was significant on perception of guilt. In this sense, we seek in psychology, psychoanalysis (also briefly in anthropology and history), features that could explain the reasons why women feel guiltier than men, and thus are more likely to boycott.",book:{id:"5472",slug:"gender-differences-in-different-contexts",title:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts",fullTitle:"Gender Differences in Different Contexts"},signatures:"Breno de P.A. Cruz, Ricardo José Marques Pires-Jr. and Steven D. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:26,paginationItems:[{id:"83087",title:"Role of Cellular Responses in Periodontal Tissue Destruction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106645",signatures:"Nam Cong-Nhat Huynh",slug:"role-of-cellular-responses-in-periodontal-tissue-destruction",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Periodontology - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11566.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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