Classification of gemini imidazolinium surfactant on the basis of spacer group.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-111-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-992-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-112-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"acb2875b3bfc189c9881a9b44b6a5184",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11865.jpg",keywords:"Linear Operators, Normal Operators, Spectral Theorem, Applications, Differential Operators, Integral Operators, Functional Calculus, Complex Variables, Complex Analysis, Theory, Recent Advances, Latest Trends",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 20th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 7th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé is a pioneering Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé. He holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University and Aix-Marseille University. His research interests are in the field of mathematics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248271/images/system/248271.jpg",biography:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé has been teaching for many years and has a passion for researching and teaching mathematics. He is currently an Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé (NDU), Lebanon. He holds a BSc and an MSc in Computer Science from NDU, and three PhDs in Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Applied Statistics and Probability, all from Bircham International University through a distance learning program. He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. He has published twenty-three international journal articles and six contributions to conference proceedings, in addition to seven books on prognostics, pure and applied mathematics, and computer science.",institutionString:"Notre Dame University - Louaize",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Notre Dame University – Louaize",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10062",title:"Forecasting in Mathematics",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a3ad05fef0502040d2a238ad22487c0",slug:"forecasting-in-mathematics-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Abdo Abou Jaoude",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11066",title:"The Monte Carlo Methods",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d1488c96b5b4d4909e963b9a91b1632f",slug:"the-monte-carlo-methods-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11066.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"37783",title:"3-Algebras in String Theory",doi:"10.5772/46480",slug:"3-algebras-in-string-theory",body:'\nIn this chapter, we review 3-algebras that appear as fundamental properties of string theory. 3-algebra is a generalization of Lie algebra; it is defined by a tri-linear bracket instead of by a bi-linear bracket, and satisfies fundamental identity, which is a generalization of Jacobi identity [1], [2], [3]. We consider 3-algebras equipped with invariant metrics in order to apply them to physics.
\nIt has been expected that there exists M-theory, which unifies string theories. In M-theory, some structures of 3-algebras were found recently. First, it was found that by using Hermitian 3-algebra, we can describe a low energy effective action of N coincident supermembranes [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], which are fundamental objects in M-theory.
\nWith this as motivation, 3-algebras with invariant metrics were classified [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22]. Lie 3-algebras are defined in real vector spaces and tri-linear brackets of them are totally anti-symmetric in all the three entries. Lie 3-algebras with invariant metrics are classified into algebra, and Lorentzian Lie 3-algebras, which have metrics with indefinite signatures. On the other hand, Hermitian 3-algebras are defined in Hermitian vector spaces and their tri-linear brackets are complex linear and anti-symmetric in the first two entries, whereas complex anti-linear in the third entry. Hermitian 3-algebras with invariant metrics are classified into and Hermitian 3-algebras.
\nMoreover, recent studies have indicated that there also exist structures of 3-algebras in the Green-Schwartz supermembrane action, which defines full perturbative dynamics of a supermembrane. It had not been clear whether the total supermembrane action including fermions has structures of 3-algebras, whereas the bosonic part of the action can be described by using a tri-linear bracket, called Nambu bracket [23], [24], which is a generalization of Poisson bracket. If we fix to a light-cone gauge, the total action can be described by using Poisson bracket, that is, only structures of Lie algebra are left in this gauge [25]. However, it was shown under an approximation that the total action can be described by Nambu bracket if we fix to a semi-light-cone gauge [26]. In this gauge, the eleven dimensional space-time of M-theory is manifest in the supermembrane action, whereas only ten dimensional part is manifest in the light-cone gauge.
\nThe BFSS matrix theory is conjectured to describe an infinite momentum frame (IMF) limit of M-theory [27] and many evidences were found. The action of the BFSS matrix theory can be obtained by replacing Poisson bracket with a finite dimensional Lie algebra\'s bracket in the supermembrane action in the light-cone gauge. Because of this structure, only variables that represent the ten dimensional part of the eleven-dimensional space-time are manifest in the BFSS matrix theory. Recently, 3-algebra models of M-theory were proposed [26], [28], [29], by replacing Nambu bracket with finite dimensional 3-algebras\' brackets in an action that is shown, by using an approximation, to be equivalent to the semi-light-cone supermembrane action. All the variables that represent the eleven dimensional space-time are manifest in these models. It was shown that if the DLCQ limit of the 3-algebra models of M-theory is taken, they reduce to the BFSS matrix theory [26], [28], as they should [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35].
\nIn this section, we will define and classify the Hermitian 3-algebras equipped with invariant metrics.
\nThe metric Hermitian 3-algebra is a map defined by , where the 3-bracket is complex linear in the first two entries, whereas complex anti-linear in the last entry, equipped with a metric , satisfying the following properties:
\nthe fundamental identity
\nthe metric invariance
\nand the anti-symmetry
\nfor
\nThe Hermitian 3-algebra generates a symmetry,\nwhose generators are defined by
\nFrom (▭), one can show that form a Lie algebra,
\nThere is an one-to-one correspondence between the metric Hermitian 3-algebra and a class of metric complex super Lie algebras [19]. Such a class satisfies the following conditions among complex super Lie algebras , where and are even and odd parts, respectively.\n is decomposed as , where is an unitary representation of : for , ,
\nand
\nis defined by
\nThe super Lie bracket satisfies
\nFrom the metric Hermitian 3-algebra, we obtain the class of the metric complex super Lie algebra in the following way. The elements in , , and are defined by (▭), (▭), and (▭), respectively. The algebra is defined by (▭) and
\nOne can show that this algebra satisfies the super Jacobi identity and (▭)-(▭) as in [19].
\nInversely, from the class of the metric complex super Lie algebra, we obtain the metric Hermitian 3-algebra by
\nwhere is an arbitrary constant.\nOne can also show that this algebra satisfies (▭)-(▭) for (▭) as in [19].
\nThe classical Lie super algebras satisfying (▭)-(▭) are and . The even parts of and are and , respectively. Because the metric Hermitian 3-algebra one-to-one corresponds to this class of the super Lie algebra, the metric Hermitian 3-algebras are classified into and Hermitian 3-algebras.
\nFirst, we will construct the Hermitian 3-algebra from , according to the relation in the previous subsection. is simple and is obtained by dividing by its ideal. That is, when and .
\nReal is defined by
\nwhere and are and anti-Hermite matrices and is an arbitrary complex matrix. Complex is a complexification of real , given by
\nwhere , , , and are , , , and complex matrices that satisfy
\nComplex is decomposed as , where
\n(▭) is rewritten as defined by
\nwhere and .\n(▭) is rewritten as
\nfor
\nAs a result, we obtain the Hermitian 3-algebra,
\nwhere , , and are arbitrary complex matrices. This algebra was originally constructed in [8].
\nInversely, from (), we can construct complex . (▭) is rewritten as
\nThis algebra is summarized as
\nwhich forms complex .
\nNext, we will construct the Hermitian 3-algebra from . Complex is decomposed as . The elements are given by
\nwhere is a complex number, is an arbitrary complex matrix, and are complex symmetric matrices, and , , and are complex matrices.\n(▭) is rewritten as defined by\n, where , and\n
Explicitly,
\n(▭) is rewritten as
\nfor
\nwhere and are given by
\nAs a result, we obtain the Hermitian 3-algebra,
\nfor , , , where , , , , , and are n-vectors and
\nIn this section, we review the fact that the supermembrane action in a semi-light-cone gauge can be described by Nambu bracket, where structures of 3-algebra are manifest. The 3-algebra Models of M-theory are defined based on the semi-light-cone supermembrane action. We also review that the models reduce to the BFSS matrix theory in the DLCQ limit.
\nThe fundamental degrees of freedom in M-theory are supermembranes. The action of the covariant supermembrane action in M-theory [36] is given by
\nwhere , , and .\n is a Majorana fermion.
\nThis action is invariant under dynamical supertransformations,
\nThese transformations form the supersymmetry algebra in eleven dimensions,
\nThe action is also invariant under the -symmetry transformations,
\nwhere
\nIf we fix the -symmetry (▭) of the action by taking a semi-light-cone gauge [26]
we obtain a semi-light-cone supermembrane action,
\nwhere ,\n, and\n.
\nIn [26], it is shown under an approximation up to the quadratic order in and but exactly in , that this action is equivalent to the continuum action of the 3-algebra model of M-theory,
\nwhere and is the Nambu-Poisson bracket. An invariant symmetric bilinear form is defined by for complete basis in three dimensions. Thus, this action is manifestly VPD covariant even when the world-volume metric is flat.\n is a scalar and is a Majorana-Weyl fermion satisfying (▭). is a Levi-Civita symbol in three dimensions and is a cosmological constant.
\nThe continuum action of 3-algebra model of M-theory (▭) is invariant under 16 dynamical supersymmetry transformations,
\nwhere .\nThese supersymmetries close into gauge transformations on-shell,
\nwhere gauge parameters are given by . and are equations of motions of and , respectively, where
\n(▭) implies that a commutation relation between the dynamical supersymmetry transformations is
\nup to the equations of motions and the gauge transformations.
\nThis action is invariant under a translation,
\nwhere are constants.
\nThe action is also invariant under 16 kinematical supersymmetry transformations
\nand the other fields are not transformed. is a constant and satisfy . and should come from sixteen components of thirty-two supersymmetry parameters in eleven dimensions, corresponding to eigen values 1 of , respectively. This supersymmetry consists of remaining 16 target-space supersymmetries and transmuted 16 -symmetries in the semi-light-cone gauge [26], [25], [40].
\nA commutation relation between the kinematical supersymmetry transformations is given by
\nA commutator of dynamical supersymmetry transformations and kinematical ones acts as
\nwhere the commutator that acts on the other fields vanishes. Thus, the commutation relation is given by
\nwhere is a translation.
\nIf we change a basis of the supersymmetry transformations as
\nwe obtain
\nThese thirty-two supersymmetry transformations are summarised as and (▭) implies the supersymmetry algebra in eleven dimensions,
\nIn this and next subsection, we perform the second quantization on the continuum action of the 3-algebra model of M-theory: By replacing the Nambu-Poisson bracket in the action (▭) with brackets of finite-dimensional 3-algebras, Lie and Hermitian 3-algebras, we obtain the Lie and Hermitian 3-algebra models of M-theory [26], [28], respectively. In this section, we review the Lie 3-algebra model.
\nIf we replace the Nambu-Poisson bracket in the action (▭) with a completely antisymmetric real 3-algebra\'s bracket [21], [22],
\nwe obtain the Lie 3-algebra model of M-theory [26], [28],
\nWe have deleted the cosmological constant , which corresponds to an operator ordering ambiguity, as usual as in the case of other matrix models [27], [41].
\nThis model can be obtained formally by a dimensional reduction of the BLG model [4], [5], [6],
\nThe formal relations between the Lie (Hermitian) 3-algebra models of M-theory and the () BLG models are analogous to the relation among the super Yang-Mills in four dimensions, the BFSS matrix theory [27], and the IIB matrix model [41]. They are completely different theories although they are related to each others by dimensional reductions. In the same way, the 3-algebra models of M-theory and the BLG models are completely different theories.
\nThe fields in the action (▭) are spanned by the Lie 3-algebra as , and , where and . represents a metric for the 3-algebra. is a Majorana spinor of SO(1,10) that satisfies . is a Levi-Civita symbol in three-dimensions.
\nFinite dimensional Lie 3-algebras with an invariant metric is classified into four-dimensional Euclidean algebra and the Lie 3-algebras with indefinite metrics in [9], [10], [11], [21], [22]. We do not choose algebra because its degrees of freedom are just four. We need an algebra with arbitrary dimensions N, which is taken to infinity to define M-theory. Here we choose the most simple indefinite metric Lie 3-algebra, so called the Lorentzian Lie 3-algebra associated with Lie algebra,
\nwhere (). are generators of . A metric is defined by a symmetric bilinear form,
\nand the other components are 0. The action is decomposed as
\nwhere we have renamed\n,\n,\n,\n,\n, and\n.\n correspond to the target coordinate matrices , whereas are auxiliary fields.
\nIn this action, mode; , or does not appear, that is they are unphysical modes. Therefore, the indefinite part of the metric (▭) does not exist in the action and the Lie 3-algebra model of M-theory is ghost-free like a model in [42]. This action can be obtained by a dimensional reduction of the three-dimensional BLG model [4], [5], [6] with the same 3-algebra. The BLG model possesses a ghost mode because of its kinetic terms with indefinite signature. On the other hand, the Lie 3-algebra model of M-theory does not possess a kinetic term because it is defined as a zero-dimensional field theory like the IIB matrix model [41].
\nThis action is invariant under the translation
\nwhere and belong to . This implies that eigen values of and represent an eleven-dimensional space-time.
\nThe action is also invariant under 16 kinematical supersymmetry transformations
\nand the other fields are not transformed. belong to and satisfy . and should come from sixteen components of thirty-two supersymmetry parameters in eleven dimensions, corresponding to eigen values 1 of , respectively, as in the previous subsection.
\nA commutation relation between the kinematical supersymmetry transformations is given by
\nThe action is invariant under 16 dynamical supersymmetry transformations,
\nwhere .\nThese supersymmetries close into gauge transformations on-shell,
\nwhere gauge parameters are given by . and are equations of motions of and , respectively, where
\n(▭) implies that a commutation relation between the dynamical supersymmetry transformations is
\nup to the equations of motions and the gauge transformations.
\nThe 16 dynamical supersymmetry transformations (▭) are decomposed as
\nand thus a commutator of dynamical supersymmetry transformations and kinematical ones acts as
\nwhere the commutator that acts on the other fields vanishes. Thus, the commutation relation for physical modes is given by
\nwhere is a translation.
\n(▭), (▭), and (▭) imply the supersymmetry algebra in eleven dimensions as in the previous subsection.
\nIn this subsection, we study the Hermitian 3-algebra models of M-theory [26]. Especially, we study mostly the model with the Hermitian 3-algebra (▭).
\nThe continuum action (▭) can be rewritten by using the triality of and the decomposition [8], [43], [44] as
\nwhere fields with a raised index transform in the 4 of SU(4), whereas those with lowered one transform in the . () is an anti-Hermitian gauge field, and are a complex scalar field and its complex conjugate, respectively. is a fermion field that satisfies
\nand is its complex conjugate.\n and are Levi-Civita symbols in three dimensions and four dimensions, respectively.\nThe potential terms are given by
\nIf we replace the Nambu-Poisson bracket with a Hermitian 3-algebra\'s bracket [19], [20],
\nwe obtain the Hermitian 3-algebra model of M-theory [26],
\nwhere the cosmological constant has been deleted for the same reason as before. The potential terms are given by
\nThis matrix model can be obtained formally by a dimensional reduction of the BLG action [8], which is equivalent to ABJ(M) action [7], [45]
The Hermitian 3-algebra models of M-theory are classified into the models with Hermitian 3-algebra (▭) and Hermitian 3-algebra (▭). In the following, we study the Hermitian 3-algebra model. By substituting the Hermitian 3-algebra (▭) to the action (▭), we obtain
\nwhere and\n\nare Hermitian matrices. In the algebra, we have set , where is an integer representing the Chern-Simons level. We choose in order to obtain 16 dynamical supersymmetries.\n is given by
\nBy redefining fields as
\nwe obtain an action that is independent of Chern-Simons level:
\nas opposed to three-dimensional Chern-Simons actions.
\nIf we rewrite the gauge fields in the action as and , we obtain
\nwhere and are the ordinary commutator and anticommutator, respectively. The parts of decouple because appear only in commutators in the action. can be regarded as auxiliary fields, and thus correspond to matrices that represents three space-time coordinates in M-theory. Among arbitrary complex matrices , we need to identify matrices () representing the other space coordinates in M-theory, because the model possesses not but symmetry. Our identification is\n
where and are Hermitian matrices and real scalars, respectively. This is analogous to the identification when we compactify ABJM action, which describes N M2 branes, and obtain the action of N D2 branes [50], [7], [51]. We will see that this identification works also in our case. We should note that while the part is Hermitian, the part is anti-Hermitian. That is, an eigen-value distribution of , , and not determine the spacetime in the Hermitian model. In order to define light-cone coordinates, we need to perform Wick rotation: . After the Wick rotation, we obtain\n
where is a Hermitian matrix.
\nIt was shown that M-theory in a DLCQ limit reduces to the BFSS matrix theory with matrices of finite size [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35]. This fact is a strong criterion for a model of M-theory. In [26], [28], it was shown that the Lie and Hermitian 3-algebra models of M-theory reduce to the BFSS matrix theory with matrices of finite size in the DLCQ limit. In this subsection, we show an outline of the mechanism.
\nDLCQ limit of M-theory consists of a light-cone compactification, , where , and Lorentz boost in direction with an infinite momentum. After appropriate scalings of fields [26], [28], we define light-cone coordinate matrices as
\nWe integrate out by using their equations of motion.
\nA matrix compactification [52] on a circle with a radius R\nimposes the following conditions on and the other matrices :
\nwhere is a unitary matrix.\nIn order to obtain a solution to (▭), we need to take and consider matrices of infinite size [52].\nA solution to (▭) is given by , and
\nBackgrounds are\n
in the Lie 3-algebra case, whereas\n
in the Hermitian 3-algebra case.\nA fluctuation that represents parts of and is
\nEach is a matrix, where is an integer. That is, the (s, t)-th block is given by .
\nWe make a Fourier transformation,
\nwhere is a matrix in one-dimension and . From (▭)-(▭), the following identities hold:
\nwhere is a trace over matrices and .
\nNext, we boost the system in direction:
\nThe DLCQ limit is achieved when , where the "novel Higgs mechanism" [50] is realized. In , the actions of the 3-algebra models of M-theory reduce to that of the BFSS matrix theory [27] with matrices of finite size,
\nwhere .
\nA supersymmetric deformation of the Lie 3-algebra Model of M-theory was studied in [53] (see also [54], [55], [56]). If we add mass terms and a flux term,
\nsuch that
\nto the action (▭),\nthe total action is invariant under dynamical 16 supersymmetries,
\nFrom this action, we obtain various interesting solutions, including fuzzy sphere solutions [53].
\nThe metric Hermitian 3-algebra corresponds to a class of the super Lie algebra. By using this relation, the metric Hermitian 3-algebras are classified into and Hermitian 3-algebras.
\nThe Lie and Hermitian 3-algebra models of M-theory are obtained by second quantizations of the supermembrane action in a semi-light-cone gauge. The Lie 3-algebra model possesses manifest supersymmetry in eleven dimensions. In the DLCQ limit, both the models reduce to the BFSS matrix theory with matrices of finite size as they should.
\nWe would like to thank T. Asakawa, K. Hashimoto, N. Kamiya, H. Kunitomo, T. Matsuo, S. Moriyama, K. Murakami, J. Nishimura, S. Sasa, F. Sugino, T. Tada, S. Terashima, S. Watamura, K. Yoshida, and especially H. Kawai and A. Tsuchiya for valuable discussions.
\nThe use of surfactants has been increasing due to their enormous applications in the field of chemistry. They belong to the organic compound group used in oil recovery, pharmaceuticals, nanoscience, biological activity, fabric softener, antibacterial and anti-foaming agents, and other technologies [1, 2]. Gemini is categorized as a surfactant and was first used by Menger in 1990 [3]. The word gemini means dimeric, an amphiphilic molecule, earlier it used to be synthesized by joining the two discrete surfactant molecules by a rigid spacer. It contains two terminal hydrocarbon tails (short or long); two polar head groups (cationic, anionic, or nonionic); and a spacer (short or long, flexible or rigid) [4]. The gemini surfactant has an efficiency of self- assembling at low concentration. In assessment with other surfactants, the gemini surfactant shows better surface activity. The presence of two polar groups and two terminal tails also made it more hydrophobic and hydrophilic as compared to monomeric surfactant systems. The substantial qualities of gemini viz., economic efficiency, flexibility, and functionality lead to its speedy demand in the field of research as well as in industry for examination and the use of it in various products. They also have other enhanced properties like low critical micelle concentration, wetting properties, efficient for high adsorption process, low surface tension, vesicle formation, helps in reduction of interfacial tension, and have the quality for aggregation [5]. The variation in the physicochemical properties of the gemini surfactant can be achieved by changing the characteristics in the structure. The cationic gemini surfactant has a wide range of purposes in the synthesis of nanorods, nanoparticles, construction of porous material, the formation of skincare products, drug development, gene therapy, and in antimicrobial process. Some examples of cationic gemini surfactants are piperidinum, pyridinium, imidazolium, imidazolinium, amino acid, and pyrrolidinum [6] (Figure 1).
Gemini surfactant [
As per the conducted studies, the spacer in the gemini surfactant has played a significant role in aggregation property. Examination conducted by Wanger et al. on cationic Gemini surfactants showed that spacer group has effect on the aggregation properties in aqueous solution. The use of hydrophilic compound and flexible spacer group helped in the formation of closely packed micelle structure as compared to the surfactant with rigid spacer group and hydrophobic compound. The micelle formation leads to decrease in surface tension of gemini surfactant which helps in increasing the surface area of surfactant. Therefore, use of hydrophilic compound and flexible spacer is in favorable condition for a better version of gemini surfactants. On gemini quaternary ammonium surfactants Zana et al. observed the behavior of association due to the spacer group in aqueous solution. Studies were conducted by Grosmaire et al. [7] on gemini surfactant spacer group to check the importance of carbon number on the micellization enthalpy for alkanediyl-α, ω-bis (dimethyl alkyl ammonium bromide) surfactants showed that the values of ΔHom were strongly dependent on the spacer carbon number. In the transmission electron microscopy, the carbon position of C12-C-C12 reflected the thread-like formation of micelle when concentration was less than 2% wt. and when the solution contained C12-3-C12 with 7% wt.; the micelles shape was elongated. To cover better surface area, the formation of micelle concentration is crucial in surfactant as it lowers the surface tensions and hence, the minimum amount of gemini surfactant can be used in formulation process and for the applications.
The imidazolium is one of the varieties of cationic gemini Surfactant hence named gemini Imidazolium Surfactants. The nature of imidazolium is inherent and has greater potential than any other conventional surfactant. It has a self-aggregation tendency because of the high polarization nature of its head group. Researchers are focusing on imidazolium for advanced applications and for generating an enhanced variety [8]. Studies were conducted by Bhadani et al. for the synthesis of gemini surfactants taken from cardanol oil. They synthesized two sequences of imidazolium and pyridinium based upon phenoxy ring. The hydroxyl substituted pyridinium gemini surfactants with inconstant tail length and the other sequence with a variable length of the spacer group containing hydroxyl groups in their hydrophobic carbon chains for synthesis process [9, 10]. The synthesis of the gemini surfactant with variable length of the spacer comprising hydroxyl groups in their hydrophobic carbon chains Gemini surfactant has reported by P. Patial et al. [11]. They further assessed the surface properties of the synthesized surfactants [7, 12]. This carbon chain length is useful factor in the efficiency of surfactant, shorter the length of carbon chain, higher the suppressive efficiency of gemini surfactant [13].
Gemini imidazoline surfactant fascinated the researchers and many industries towards it due to their distinct molecular structure. The bonding groups involvement is the crucial aspect in gemini surfactant for the modification of structure which affects the interface and solution properties [13, 14]. Conventional imidazolinium surfactant used to form with a polar imidazolinium head group and a long hydrocarbon tails, it used to be single chain structures whereas the Gemini imidazolinium surfactants are made up of two polar imidazolinium head group and two tails of hydrocarbon in which head groups are linked by a spacer [15]. It has enhanced surface-active properties than the conventional surfactants like corrosion inhibition, dispersibility, low critical micelle concentration, and hold better qualities as a softening agent [13, 16, 17, 18]. The Gemini surfactants are formed by adding two monomer surfactants with a binding group where the length of the monomer end chain can vary in length. It can be anionic, non-anionic, or cationic whereas the binding group varies in length and can be inflexible, soft, aromatic, or aliphatic. Other distinct chemicals and physical properties of gemini imidazoline surfactants are lower kraft point, the ability of self-assembling, high density, compatibility, inimitable rheological properties, etc. It has some other applications in drug delivery, nanoscience, and nanotechnology, molecular biology, in porous constituents, biological activity, etc.
The applications of imidazolinium such as antistatic agents, fabric softener make it a demanding surfactant in detergent industries as well as the laundry industries due to the immense number of properties like dispersibility, viscosity, desirable storage stability and fabric conditioning [16] (Figure 2).
Gemini imidazoline surfactant [
As per the researches, the adaptation of various methods for synthesis and designing has been adopted which leads to the variation and enhancement in the synthesis methods and a better product. Some of the researchers prepared the gemini imidazolinium surfactant by microwave synthesis process that enhanced synthesis efficiency and also studied their surface properties. The microwave synthesized the surfactant in 5–10 minutes with a better yield of 80–91% as compared to conventional method i.e. thermal condensation which produced 75–80% [19, 20, 21, 22]. The comparative study has also been done by Jianbin Huang on gemini and Bola, and the role of cephalic groups was found to be important as they alter their properties. A. Migahed et al. studied about the ligand length and its effect on the sustained release performance. The analysis showed that the shorter the length of the ligand, the better would be the effect of the sustained release [17]. Huaivu Yang et al. studied the relationship between sustained release and temperature and concluded that sustained release is directly proportional to the temperature [23]. A study done on emulsifier properties of gemini surfactants and applied it to emulsified asphalt and concluded that the minute quantity of gemini surfactant can be used in emulsified asphalt. Zhang Guanghua’s et al. confirmed the sustained release effect on tinplate by synthesizing it. Yangiiang et al. studied the anti-corrosion properties of gemini surfactants and found that the surfactant works better during slow compound release [24]. All these studies analyzed the aspects of sustained release, surface properties, and length of the interval. Few of the methods used for synthesis helped in increasing the instability [25].
The gemini surfactants were compared with other single chain molecules, in which the gemini molecule structure was ambiguous. This was further studied to check the uniqueness and sustained release performance of gemini imidazoline surfactant. The comparison has been done between single- chain molecule and gemini imidazoline surfactant to observed the variations more precisely. The outcomes showed the great inhibitve efficiency in HCl solution as compared to single chain molecule. It also showed the better inhibitive effect on copper in HCl solution. The different concentration of gemini surfactant were taken to check the effect of concentration on inhibition property and it results that the inhibitive efficiency was higher when the concentration of HCl solution was less whereas for better inhibitive effect the concentration of gemini imidazoline surfactant must be more [25].
Gemini imidazoline surfactant can by classified on the basis physicochemical characterisitics.
Gemini imidazolinium belongs to the cationic gemini group but they are also amphoteric in nature. The imidazolinium gemini surfactant are dimeric molecules formed by two head groups associated with the spacer group and two hydrophobic tails [26] (Figure 3).
Gemini imdazoline surfactant.
The head group in the gemini imidazolinium surfactants contains the positive charge. It possesses long alkyl group, two polar imidazolinium head group and two tails of hydrocarbon in which head groups are linked by a spacer. They are soluble in organic solvents and dispense in water, eg., imidazoline-based dissymmetric bis-quaternary ammonium Gemini surfactant [26, 27, 28].
The rigidity, length, polarity of the spacer can vary and leads to the variation in the structure of the gemini imidazoline surfactant as well as the in the surface properties [30, 31] (Table 1).
S.NO | Spacer properties | Characteristics | Sub-division |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Length | The surface activity of the surfactant varies with the number of carbon atoms present in the spacer group. Shorter the length of the surfactant better is the surface activity of gemini imidazoline surfactant. |
|
2. | Rigidity | Shows higher surface activity. This can effect the aggregation of surfactant. |
|
3. | Polarity | Polarity affects the Critical micelle concentration of the surfactant |
|
Classification of gemini imidazolinium surfactant on the basis of spacer group.
The variation in the hydrocarbon chain/tail can change the properties of surfactant. The chain can have two identical hydrophobic tails and two non-identical hydrophobic tails [30].
Li et al. (1997) synthesized the Gemini imidazoline by a commercial process by taking 46.7 g of triethylene tetramine hydrate (0.25 mol), 146.6 g of oleic acid (0.52 mol) and added them in toludende (100 cm3) (DIAGRAM). With continuous stirring of the solution, it was heated until it reached to the toluene boiling point (120–130 C) almost for 3 hours. After that toluene azeotrope or water was collected from the reaction and temperature has been raised to 160–170 C at 12-16th hour of reaction by simultaneous removal of toluene from the Barrett distilling receiver. Thin layer chromatography was done to check the compounds in the reaction by taking chloroform/methanol (80: 20) as solvent and spot visualized using iodine. The completion of condensation reaction was checked by the TLC plate as the spot disappearance corresponding to the monoamides and diamides resulted in its completion. The reaction further continued till 16 hours for the collection of all byproduct water and yielded 96% of product which further recrystallized for the identification and structure confirmation from chloroform [32].
The two compounds Diethylenetriamine and lauric (molar ratio of 1:1.2) mixed with the xylene, which behaved as a solvent and kept at 140°C. Zinc powder has been added as a catalyzer. The Diethylenetriamine added into the flask at a slow rate and left for the reaction for 2 hours. Later, this flask was connected with the water separator at 200°C for 8 hours. A specific volume of water has been evaporated as per the theoretical calculation after the solvent were removed using the distillation method with the temperature maintained at 140°C to obtained the imidazoline intermediate is oily in nature and yellow in color. The distillation process was performed again to obtain the Single-chain imidazoline quaternary ammonium salt. The temperature was controlled around 80–90°C for 5 hours with the addition of dimethyl- carbonate in it with the same molar quantity as imidazoline intermediate. In this product, some amount of 1,3-dibromopropane has been added as half molar volume compared to intermediate and left for 8 hours for the reactivity, resulted in a sticky liquid of red-brown. Decreased the temperature to 50°C, after that added the less quantity of acetone to it, filtrated out to extract the zinc powder. Solution kept untouched until the crystal appeared, and lifted with sucking filtration and washed with acetone for numerous times. The obtained product was the Gemini imidazolinium surfactant that is solid khaki. (LG is 1,3-di(1-methyl-1-ethylamino-2-n-undecyl-4,5-dihydro-imidazoline) propane Gemini which is the Gemini cationic imidazoline surfactants based on lauric acid and LM is 1-enthylamino-2-n-undecyl-4,5-dihydro-imidazoline which is the cationic monomeric surfactants based on lauric acid [25] (Figure 4).
Synthesis of LG [
Migahed et al. (2018) synthesized the Gemini imidazole compound by taking the 0.2 mol dicarboxylic acid (aspartic or glutamic) in 100 ml of xylene, which was further mixed with the 0.4 ml of diethylenetriamine followed by refluxed process kept for 3 hours with the addition of catalyst PTSA in 0.1% amount at 140 C. Xylene has been removed from the solution after the required amount of water (0.2 mol) was obtained in the Dean-Stark tube. The resultant product was processed with diethyl ether for required amide compounds. For next 6 hours, the temperature of the reaction has been raised to 200 C. cool down the solution when collected water reached to the desired amount to obtain the Gemini compounds [17].
He further processed the obtained Gemini compounds for the synthesis of Gemini di-quaternary ammonium compound. The 1 mol compound was refluxed with 2 mol of dodecyl chloride in ethanol for 3 days. After that, ethanol was distilled off from the solution. Di- quaternary ammonium chloride has been obtained as resultant which was washed with the diethyl ether. The characterization and structure confirmation was done by FTIR (ATI Mattson series FTIRTM) revealed the functional groups of the compound [17].
A 250-ml four-necked flask was taken in which lauric acid with the twofold amount (in mol) and triethylenetetramine were charged and temperature maintained at 160 C for reaction under atmospheric nitrogen for 1.5 hours. Temperature has been raised to 200 C and heated for 1 hour and again raised to 250 C and heated for 1.5 hours. This process resulted in the formation of a light-yellow solid. This product further washed with ethanol, petroleum ether, and ethyl acetate (1:1:1 ratio) and resulted in bisalkyl-bisimidazoline [21] (Figure 5).
Synthesis of Bisalkyl-bis-imidazoline intermediate [
The intermediate of imidazoline was taken in a 250 ml four-necked flask and mixed with the two times the theoretical amount of sodium 2-chloroethanesulfonic acid. Isopropyl alcohol or water mixture was added to it with continuation for 8 hours at 80–90 C. simultaneously, the pH of the solution has been around 8–9 by mixing the 10 wt.% NaOH solution. The supernatant liquid of the obtained product was taken in a beaker and mixed with 95% of alcohol for recrystallization. With the use of anhydrous alcohol, unreacted salts were removed from the solution. Thus, it resulted in the final product by removing the amide using chloroform [21] (Figure 6).
Quaternization of the Bisalkyl-bis-imidazoline intermediate [
Tripathy et al. (2016) has synthesized the imidazoline using microwave synthesizer. Different compounds were taken in the beaker such as diethylenetriamine (20 mmol), fatty acids (Myristic acid, stearic acid, Lauric acid, Palmitic acid and Oleic acid- 40 mmol) and calcium oxide (20 g). The reaction was occurred at appropriate temperature as set in microwave. Later on, the mixture was cool down at room temperature. Then it further processed by adding the 80–100 ml of ethyl acetate and boiled, the remaining mixture was filtrated out and dried using vacuum. The optimization has been done and product was yielded at its maximum. The characterization and purity of the product was analyzed by spectrum [33].
The synthesis of cost effective gemini imidazoline has also been reported by using waste frying oil like rapeseed oil, soyabean oil etc. The gemini imidazoline thus prepared have been analyzed for their surface active and performance properties. When compared to their monomeric counterparts, these geminis were found to be many folds superior to their corresponding monomeric counterparts [33].
Tripathy et al. (2016) synthesized gemini imidazoline by the reaction of monomeric imidazoline and di iodoalkyl carbonated under microwave irradiation. Synthesis of di (iodoethyl) carbonate as quaternizing has been achieved by mixing the iodo alkanol and diphenyl carbonate (1:2 molar ratio) acted as carbonate exchange reaction in acetone at room temperature [22]. The resultant product was recrystallized by adding ethyl acetate and acetone (50:50) in it. The obtained product was Gemini imidazoline which further characterized by spectral analysis [33].
Compound (I)N-(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)-N, N-dimethyl alkylammonium chloride was formed by constantly mixing the N, N-dimethyl alkylamine hydrochloride, N, N-dimethyl alkylamine, and epichlorohydrin (1:1:1 molar ratio) for 14 hours in absolute ethanol. A light-yellow mixture has been obtained due to subsequently rotary evaporation of the ethanol. This product was further processed by repeated recrystallization from n-hexane and acetone to attained the white solid crude product. As per the study of this paper, compound (I) produced around 84.30% with the melting point of 47–48°C. The dissymmetric bis-quaternary ammonium salt with imidazoline ring (compound (II)) was synthesized using alkyl imidazoline and N-dimethyl alkylammonium chloride, N-(3-chloro-2-hydroxypropyl)-N in isopropanol by keeping under the reflux for 10 hours and by putting the excess amount of alkyl imidazoline (10%). The resultant appeared as a waxy compound product. This product was further recrystallized with absolute acetone to obtain the desired compound in the form of a white solid with a melting point of 69–70°C. The characterization of the final product was performed to check the surfactant surfaces using Mass spectra and infrared spectrum, and 1H NMR (JNM ECP 600 MHz spectrometer) [34] (Figure 7).
Synthesis of imidazoline-based dissymmetric bis-quaternary ammonium Gemini surfactant [
Surface tension is the necessary exertion which is obligatory for the enhancement of the surface area of a liquid due to intermolecular force. Surfactant helps in reducing the surface tension of the liquid. An increase in the concentration of surfactants leads to a decrease in surface tension. Gemini imidazoline surfactant-containing stearic acid solution increased in the concentration from 0.1813 to 0.3626 g/l whereas the surface tension decreased from 42.8 to 28.6 mN/m. Again, the process repeated, the concentration of surfactant increased up to 0.6250 g/l leads to a decrease in the surface tension to 27.6 mN/m and a final increase in the concentration to 1.25 g/l and 2.5 g/l but the surface tension remained unchanged [22].
In the same study, the CMC values of 1% aqueous solution of gemini surfactants were found in the range from 0.0016 to 0.0032 mol/l that depends on the alkyl chain length (Figure 8). Greater the chain length of hydrophobic alkyl moiety, greater the CMC values of surfactant solutions [22].
Variation in surface tension and CMC values with hydrophobic chain [
An arrangement in which scattered particles of one substance dispersed to another substance is known as dispersion phenomena. Surfactants help in stabilizing the dispersion phenomena. Cationic gemini imidazoline surfactant showed stable and good dispersion capability. Gemini imidazoline surfactant-containing stearic acid had a cloudiness of about 4.8 ml that decreased with time. After 5 minutes, it was 3.6 ml and decreased to 3.0 ml after 10 minutes [20, 22]. The trend was found same when the gemini surfactants of different length of hydrophobic chain have been studied but in addition it was also revealed that decrease in the chain length of hydrophobic group increases the dispersibility of surfactants but the stability of dispersion was found to be decreased (Figure 9).
Dispersibility of gemini surfactants based on different fatty acids.
Cationic surfactants are used as fabric softening agents. The most common cationic surfactants which are used for softening agents are quaternary ammonium salts, imidazolinium salts, etc. [35]. The softening of surfactants decreases with the decrease in the length of the chain of the alkyl group. When compared with surfactants, it showed that surfactant-containing oleic acid had moderate softening behavior whereas fatty and highest alkyl chain has less softening. Fabrics treated with surfactants found to be soft as compared to untreated fabrics. Therefore, gemini imidazoline surfactants make the fabrics soft.
The surface-active agent present in solutions helps in the formation of micelles and this phenomenon is named as Micellization. This phenomenon occurs in critical micellar concentration or slender concentration. The surfactants can lower down the surface tension of the molecule which occurs due to the free monomer concentration and starts the micelle formation. This micelle formation in the solution is termed as critical micelle concentration. CMC is determined by the surface tension of the surfactant. An increase in concentration leads to a decrease in the surface tension until it reaches the critical micelle concentration. It was determined by plotting the graph of surface tension against the algorithm concentration of the surfactant. Critical micelle concentration and surface tension decreased with an increase in the length of the alkyl chain [10]. Zhang et al. research showed the CMC value of Gemini surfactant as 3.2_10_4 mol/L (194.9 mg/L) as per the graph reading in which surface tension plotted against log molar concentration of the surfactant and the breaking point revealed the mentioned value [6].
The capability of a liquid to comes in contact with a surface of a solid and maintains it; this process is known as wettability. The adhesive and cohesive interaction helps in maintaining the interaction between liquid to solid and liquid to liquid. This property of gemini imidazoline surfactant increases with a decrease in the hydrophobic group length in the chain present in the surfactant. Whereas, the fall in the concentration of gemini imidazoline surfactant resulted in a decreased in the rewet ability and vice-versa [1, 20].
Surfactants are used as corrosion inhibitors; they act as a protector on metal surfaces from corrosion. The gemini surfactants are amphiphilic, hence develops an affinity at metal/metal oxide–water interfaces for adsorption phenomena which leads to creating a barrier on metals and metal oxides surfaces and inhibits corrosion [36]. Imidazoline plays a vital role in corrosion inhibition as the imidazoline ring bond with the planar alignment to the surface of the metal. Further studies showed that the imidazoline inhibits the corrosion by blocking, activating, and using energy-related aspects together [37, 38].
A property of surfactants at the interface. Emulsification is a process that forms an emulsion between two immiscible liquids such as oil suspended in water [36]. Emulsification is an important property for gemini imidazolinium surfactants for the formation of the emulsion. The emulsification power of a surfactant varies with the length of the spacer group. It is directly proportional to the spacer chain length. Stable emulsions are required in drug formulation, cosmetics, solubilizations, etc. [5].
The antimicrobial activity of surfactants based upon the surface-active properties, hydrophobic chain length, and concentration. Gawali et al. (2019) synthesized the cationic Gemini surfactants and mentioned their application. The synthesized Gemini surfactants were assessed to check the biocidal activity contrary to a variety of bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis,
The R = C7H15 [2-Octyl-1-diethylenediaminimidazoline based gemini surfactant (GSCTDH)] and R = C11H23 [2-dodecyl-1-diethylenediaminidazoline based gemini surfactant (GSLTDH)] compounds showed good microbial activity. The R = C13H27 [2-Tetradecyl-1-diethylenediaminimidazoline based gemini surfactant (GSMTDH)] surfactant was inactive for
The gemini imidazoline surfactant with quaternary imidazolinium salts is used as a dispersant, emulsifiers, bleach agent, ant-static agent, and fabric softener as they show the better result as compared to the traditional surfactant and also have a mild effect on clothes, to eyes, and their biodegradability. Gemini imidazoline surfactant solubility is low in water [21]. They can be used for drug entrapment, oil recovery, also a probable vehicle for the transference of bioactive particles, for cleaning purpose, used as aerosol application [43].
Zhuang et al. examined the corrosion inhibition property of gemini imidazoline surfactant on copper. They synthesized the imidazoline gemini surfactant using saturated fatty acids and studied the property by electrochemical method. Copper was taken in NaCl solution and according to the work, it showed that various factors like pH, surfactant concentrations, and length of carbon change affects the suppressive efficiency. The inhibition effect was better with the increase in gemini imidazoline surfactant concentration whereas suppressive efficiency is more when the length of the carbon chain is short [13].
Yang et al. synthesized the gemini imidazoline surfactant by adding oleic acid with triethylenetetramine (2:1). They studied the inhibition of carbon dioxide corrosion by linear polarization resistance in sparged beaker testing and concluded that the less concentration of gemini imidazoline was effective as corrosion inhibition when compared with traditional imidazoline and emulsion tendency was less than traditional imidazoline. The synthesized gemini imidazoline with oleic acid has improved film persistency, Higher surface activity, lower critical micelle concentration than traditional imidazoline. Therefore, this is a better surfactant as it is polluting the environment less than conventional imidazoline and also have better corrosion inhibition property [44]. Obot et al. also studied the corrosion inhibitors and concluded that the imidazoline based gemini surfactants are good corrosion inhibitors [37].
Gemini Imidazolinium surfactants have antistatic property, maintain the softness of fabrics. The studies showed that that the antistatic property of gemini quaternary ammonium salt surfactant helps in reducing the polyester fabric resistance to 107 Ω.S-HSJ-18and resulted in displaying the finest softening effect which leads to the low down the polyester fabric stiffness to be less than 2 mN·m. The pre-treatment process with KH560, cross-linking monomer N-hydroxymethyl acrylamide (MAM) and N, N-methylene bisacrylamide (MBA) of thermal setting fabric exhibited the greatest outcome for cross-linking that changed the wetting time of the fabric which could be more than 120 min and might stays the same after washing the fabric three-time i.e. 90 mins [45].
Li et al. developed the nanoparticles with a combination of silver and gemini imidazoline surfactants. The silver (Ag) nanoparticles well dispersed in nature were taken for the synthesis with novel imidazoline Gemini surfactant quaternary ammonium salt of di (2-heptadecyl-1-formyl aminoethyl imidazoline) hexane diamine at room temperature. Characterization of Ag nanoparticles was done by X-ray diffraction, Transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared, and UV- absorption spectra. The result revealed the enhanced micellized aggregation of gemini imidazoline surfactant in water as well as the Ag particles and the coordination and adsorption phenomena between the Ag nanoparticles and the imidazoline surfactant. It can act as environmentally friendly nanoparticles due to the modification in the surface of synthesized Ag nanoparticles. The developed Ag nano product act as a metal catalyst for methyl orange reduction reaction because of the active adsorption between methyl orange particles and Ag nanoparticles [46].
Gemini imidazolines are the surfactants that have been continuously getting explored for their varied application. At the one end where, the pendant structure of imidazoline surfactants make them easily absorbable on to the polar surface on the same tome the fatty alkyl chain imparts hydrophobicity thus defending so many polar surfaces by the adverse environmental impact and increase the life of surfaces. Presence of two surfactants molecules with in the molecule, drastically minimize their CMC values thus making the surfactants cost effective. Heterocyclic atom present in the ring of hydrophilic group imparts antimicrobial properties in the molecule thus making the surfactants suitable as antimicrobial agents. Furthermore, their existence in various forms like cationic, amphoteric, nonionic increase their applicability in various more industrial sectors.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Since the first patients were treated in the 1950s, technology and clinical applications have evolved as evidenced by the increasing number of proton therapy centers and patients being treated throughout the world. This chapter will review the history of proton therapy providing a detailed overview of the cyclotron and synchrotron techniques used and how they have advanced with time.",book:{id:"10231",slug:"proton-therapy-current-status-and-future-directions",title:"Proton Therapy",fullTitle:"Proton Therapy - Current Status and Future Directions"},signatures:"Ameer L. 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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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