Most wanted functionalities of the service robot.
\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. 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We started from the vision of a robot helper at home. While there may be a large literature and demand for robot to help all people in particular with household chores, too many of the chores are not yet possible to technically realise. Hence, we rather considered present robot technical capabilities and started to envision the role of a home robot enabling older people to feel safe and stay longer in their homes. The result of two iterations of user-centred design is the Hobbit robot. \nFigure 1\n shows the robot and lists its main components, which will be introduced in more detail later.
\nThe service robot Hobbit designed to help older adults stay longer independent at home. Its primary functionality is coping with emergency situations, grasping objects from the floor or transporting objects to avoid falls and is a good collection of entertainment and physical and cognitive fitness functions.
The rationale behind this selection of feeling safe at home is that when an older adult falls it is necessary to transfer to a care facility. Since this is the primary cause for these transitions, any measure to increase the perceived safety at home will aid to improve the situation for the users. Consequently, we introduce a mobile robotic solution that sets out to discover falls. It does so in a proactive way to avoid falls in the first place. The concept has been developed together with professional care personnel. The result is the robot Hobbit. It provides a set of functionalities to the older adults. It uses multimodal interface based on speech, gestures and touch-screen for realising easy-to-use human-robot interaction (HRI).
\nToday, there are several service robot solutions targeting the application of an extended video phone. However, these do not include an arm to actively interact with objects in the user home. The highest developed robot with similar capability as Hobbit is Care-O-bot. It has been tested in many trials in care facilities for studying user interaction, for example, for bringing water or other assistive operations in care facilities [1]. However, this robot is too large to operate at homes; it would hardly fit through doors. Many of the remaining mobile service robots, for example, Giraff, are not able to autonomously navigate and need to be operated remotely.
\nThe main novelty was to bring a service robot into user homes that can do more than a video phone on wheels that is operated by a remote user including the navigational capacity. The designed Hobbit robot provided to the user the following functions:
Maintaining the user’s self-efficacy is addressed with exercising cognitive and physical skills (social connectedness and fitness functions).
Increasing the perceived user safety is addressed by managing a safe home including functions such as emergency detection, grasping from the floor, transporting objects, patrolling to check for the user and calling the robot.
Positive affect towards the robot is addressed using entertainment functions. This also increases the user’s well-being.
A unique setting of the Hobbit study was that users were free to select any of the functions at any time.
\nIn this contribution we report the findings of the user experiences with the Hobbit robot. The trials involved 18 users in 3 different countries spanning from the north to the south of Europe: Sweden, Austria and Greece. Since the users wdid not have any given schedules or scripts, they were free to use the robot as they wanted. The idea was to set the robot free to better find out what the users would really want from the robot rather than presenting the users with a fixed script or setting as in previous studies.
\nThe chapter proceeds as follows. After a review of related service robots for elder care, we present results of a study on what the robot should be able to do in a safe home scenario (Section 3). Section 4 presents the robot and its components and Section 5 presents the results of the user study.
\nService robots for older adults are typically aligned according to their capability to address activities of daily living (ADL) or instrumental ADL (IADL). However, typical functions of ADL/IADL are dressing, food preparation, eating, cleaning and rehabilitation or direct physical exercise activities. All these functions are very difficult to realise, and there are only a few robots in research settings progressing towards one of these functions. Hence, we took another approach to realise a useful robot. Coming from the fundamental need of feeling safe at home, we introduced a series of functions to maintain safety at home and augment this with functions to entertain and motivate the user. The intention is to create a positive effect with these socialising functions.
\nStudies can be compared on where user trials have been conducted. Indeed, very few studies go beyond tests in professional care facilities, and even fewer study longer durations, for example [2] and a recent survey in [3]. In the following we highlight recent developments. Today, many service robot projects further advance one specific functionality. For example, in GrowMeUp (http://www.growmeup.eu/), the user’s habits, preferences and routines are studied using multiple sensors on the robot and the environment. The robot is a reduced PAL platform without arms from Pal Robotics (http://pal-robotics.com). As we have seen in our user experiences, relying on an external sensor network may be feasible in specially designed homes but is not welcome by users at home and requires substantial installations and the related costs.
\nThe EU project EnrichMe (http://www.enrichme.eu) also studies the use of touch-screen and augmented user interface as a follow-up of the CompanionAble Project with Robosoft and the Kampai robot. Ambient-assisted living (AAL) functions are used by introducing radio-frequency identification (RFID) chips into objects. Project Mario (http://www.mario-project.eu/) addresses isolation, loneliness and dementia of older adults through multi-faceted interventions delivered by service robots including the use of AAL installations. The project partners use a near state of the art platform based on the Pal Robotics robot that is ‘flexible, modular friendly, low cost and close to market ready in order to realise field contributions in the immediate future’.
\nAn aspect that has to be kept in mind is that the generation of adult 70+ users included in the developments here differs from future older users in regard to experience with and acceptance of technology. Currently, literature discusses the so-called digital divide between people over 70 and younger users. This digital divide is shrinking (cf. [4]). This means it can be assumed that future older users will face less difficulty in using, for instance, web browsers and other computer tools than the older generation of today. In fact, Hanson argues that older adults form the fastest-growing group of web users. In other words, future users may be more critical with the interface but less afraid of using new technology.
\nOn the other side, age-related functional limitations affecting interaction with computers and other interactive devices will very likely stay the same for future generations of older users. These include cognitive changes with regard to short-term memory, concentration and also solving of new types of problems, as well as common perceptual impairments (sight and hearing), and finally reduced motor skills. Such perceptual and motor impairments are taken into account for the design of a user-friendly multimodal user interface (MMUI) that is to be evaluated in the user trials (based on experience from other projects with older users, such as KSERA).
\nThe contribution of the work presented here is a robot that acts fully autonomously in the home of the user - the Hobbit robot. As pointed out in this review, up to today robots have rather been remotely operated, or a small number of tasks in the user home have been studied in the user tests. Examples are projects such as Giraff++, SRS and Robot-Era. Some of the coordinators of these projects pointed out that these robots urgently need the capability of autonomously navigating in the user homes. And exactly, this is the capability developed within the Hobbit project, and it will be of good future use when moving towards longer-term tests at home.
\nStudies in service robotics repeatedly reported the requirements humans have to robots. The top are the well-known four Cs for cleaning toilet, bath, kitchen and windows. This need is confirmed even in our user trials. An older lady saw the robot and immediately responded with ‘I do not need this robot, it cannot clean windows’. This clearly indicates that this is a rather large gap between what users in general, not only older adults, would want from a robot and what robots are actually able to do today.
\nConscious of this gap and of what robots can actually perform today and what users would want, one of the motivations for running the Hobbit robot in the user homes was to get a better understanding of what services the robot could actually provide.
\nConsequently, we started from functions and services that a robot
\n\nTables 1\n–\n3\n summarise the most important results of the frequency analyses for the questions within the group of primary users (n = 113). Sample size varies for each item, due to varying numbers of answers. Not every participant answered every question. \nTables 1\n–\n3\n depict the above average percentages of ‘agree’ answers to the questions. Most users wanted their robot to be able to search and find things, grasp objects from the floor and from a shelf and also bring objects to them (\nTable 1\n). Other important functions were reminding users of appointments or phone calls and their medication.
\nQuestion | \nValid sample | \nPercentage | \n
---|---|---|
Search and find | \n107 | \n86.9 | \n
Grasp from the floor | \n109 | \n86.2 | \n
Grasp from the shelf | \n105 | \n80.0 | \n
Fetch and bring | \n106 | \n79.2 | \n
Reminder (appointments or phone calls) | \n106 | \n78.3 | \n
Reminder (medication) | \n107 | \n77.6 | \n
Carry objects | \n104 | \n68.3 | \n
Follow | \n104 | \n66.3 | \n
Most wanted functionalities of the service robot.
The majority agreed that they felt safe, if the robot could call for help (see \nTable 2\n). About 61.8% of the valid sample agreed that they wanted their robot to be active at night; this percentage becomes even stronger when those who chose ‘I rather agree’ are also added. The accumulated frequency then reaches 81.8%. Only 8 of 112 PUs (7.1%) stated that they felt frightened by the idea of having a robot at home.
\nQuestion | \nValid sample | \nPercentage | \n
---|---|---|
Safe because of call for help | \n112 | \n85.7 | \n
Active at night | \n110 | \n61.8 | \n
Frightening | \n112 | \n7.10 | \n
Most wanted safety aspects of the service robot.
The idea of having the robot taking care of its own battery level is highly popular (96.4% of 112 answers). On the other hand, users like to stay in control. This is reflected in the high amount of ‘agree’ answers to the statement that the robot can only do what it is told by the user. This topic has to be considered carefully when designing autonomously triggered activities of the Hobbit system (e.g. reminders). Operation of the robot should be preferably speech based. Remote control is in the second place, followed by gestures and touch-screen (see \nTable 3\n).
\nQuestion | \nValid sample | \nPercentage | \n
---|---|---|
Self-charging system | \n112 | \n96.4 | \n
Interaction through speech | \n102 | \n88.2 | \n
Operation by speech | \n96 | \n85.4 | \n
Do what I ask for | \n113 | \n72.6 | \n
Operation by remote control | \n97 | \n68.0 | \n
Move everywhere | \n108 | \n65.7 | \n
Most wanted modes of operating the service robot.
The results presented herein mark a significant step forwards in evaluating robotic systems under real-life conditions [5]. For reasons of completeness, we shortly set the above presented functions in relation to state-of-the-art robots (see also [6]).
\nThe selections of functions that have been implemented on the robot have been extracted from multiple interactions with users, secondary users or relatives and professional caregivers. We conducted first home trials with an autonomous robot with the aim to find out what users want. Here, a lot more work is needed, and recently started projects will expand our understanding. Part of this work was that we conducted two iterations of user studies and collected user requirements [7]. These requirements give a clear picture of what older adults would want at present from a robot helper at home. Conclusions are drawn from workshops with older adults that created a longer list of requirements that have then been ranked in studies and questionnaires and correlated with technical feasibility given the present state of the art in service robotics. We used first user trials and lessons learned to verify the ranked requirements [8].
\nBefore reviewing the robot system concept (Section 4), we summarise the user requirements and relate them to other studies or care robots. The clear requirements formulated within the Hobbit project still hold. The main services that a home robot should provide to aid older adults target the following needs. Note that the items listed below are the convergence of functionalities that can actually be provided by the robot and the results of the questionnaires given in \nTables (1\n–\n3)\n:
Maintain the user’s efficacy level: this includes functions for keeping an active and fulfilled live and includes:
Social connectedness includes telephone and Internet access to alternative ways of communication such as a video call or to access weather, news and other information.
Physical and cognitive fitness includes physical exercises that have been considered on top of the initial description of work. This includes games and playing music or video or radio, a function that has been surprisingly welcome by users to play the favourite radio station.
Increase the perceived safety of the user:
A main aspect is already the physical presence of the robot and its care functions such as seeking the user and user interaction during the patrolling function.
Multimodal interaction capabilities and several ways to trigger an emergency call.
Pick-up of known and unknown objects from the floor which turned out to be an essential aspect. The normal scepticism towards the robot went away after seeing the robot picking up an object from the floor. A clean-up function further extends this capability.
The robot provided an additional safety check with the user, making her/him aware of hazards at home while proposing solutions or options to assist.
Calling the robot for help: the use of call buttons is an effective means to call the robot for any task at any time.
Functions for the user’s well-being: here, we summarise services that are nice to have and will actually assist to accept the platform and keep it in use. In the Hobbit idea, we had drawn out many of these functions as elements to make the user feel good and possibly even create a bonding to the robot such that it is trusted and used and the previous two aspects are reached to an even better degree. Examples of these functions are:
A first personalisation of the robot is executed in the initialisation phase. The users set initial parameters, which could be changed later. Additionally, the robot and basic guidelines for operating it are introduced.
Learning new objects and findings these objects are welcome features for the users and regarded as a great commodity.
An important functionality that extends the functionalities provided in Hobbit is the pick-up from high locations. Grasping objects from places high up that cannot easily be reached will be investigated in EU project RAMCIP, though robot costs are expected to be considerable higher. In Hobbit we regard this functionality as a future module and a possible extension of the basic robot platform.
Entertainment ranges from games over music to surprising the user. All these functions aim at increasing the user acceptance.
Reward functionality is a means to enhance the user binding with the hypothesis to improve the acceptance by the user.
In summary, the Hobbit robot provides a rich repertoire of functions, where several are novel and have been tested with users or at home for the first time.
\nThe main components of the robot have already been depicted in \nFigure 1\n. The robot platform used for the home trials has differential drive kinematics developed by MetraLabs: a floor-parallel depth camera for purposes of navigation, a head mounted 120 cm above the ground to the level of the height of a sitting person, a touch-screen mounted at an angle in front of the torso or the robot and on the right side of the robot a manipulator to pick up objects. The head contains two screens to present the robot’s eyes and an RGBD camera (ASUS Xtion). This configuration is an improvement of the previous Hobbit version and implements the lessons learned in a series of previous user trials (see also for details [9]). The main dimensions have been reduced to follow user requests. The height of the Hobbit robot is now 125 cm, and it has a width of maximum 56 cm at the point where the shoulder of the arm sticks slightly out beyond the robot. Other features will be discussed in Section 5 when discussing the hull or individual features of the upper body and the head.
\nA key element of the development of the Hobbit robot set out to reduce the costs of the hardware costs to a minimum. For example, laser sensors are rather expensive and only operate in one plane. Replacing them with RGBD camera has the advantage that their cost will be lower and they provide full 3D perception. Hence, we can test the feasibility to cope with all the functionality needed at home and with lower price to reach closer to the expected costs of presenting a robot for home robotics. The hardware components sum up to 16,000 Euro. \nFigure 1\n presented the Hobbit robot with its main components. Navigation is autonomous and uses virtual laser scans from RGBD images. The robot operates using a multimodal user interface (MMUI) that comprises a graphical user interface (GUI) with touch-screen, automatic speech recognition (ASR), text to speech (TTS) and gesture recognition interface (GRI). The robot has functions for edutainment (music, radio, audiobooks, pre-installed web radio and services, games and cognitive fitness functions), reminders, video phone service, control of a manipulator, access to an ambient-assisted living (AAL) environment (e.g. call buttons) and emergency call features. The robot’s functionalities included automatic emergency detection (e.g. patrolling and detecting persons lying on the floor), handling emergencies (communication with relatives) and supportive fall prevention measures (transporting small items, picking up objects from the floor, searching for objects the robot had been taught by the user).
\nIn the following we structure the results into the aspects regarding the robot usage (usability, acceptance and affordability) and issues related to the robot hardware, software and development. Before presenting the results, we summarise the design and methods used to evaluate the user trials.
\nThe user trials have been conducted in three countries, and users tested the robot for 3 weeks each. The trials took place in Austria with seven end-users, in Greece with four end-users and in Sweden again with seven end-users. In total, the trials included 18 primary users (PUs) and 16 secondary users (SU). The trials were carried out in the user homes with the robot interacting autonomously for 3 weeks with the user. All trials took place in private homes of single-living senior adults. Each trial with one user lasted 3 weeks. In total, the robot was deployed for 372 days. Assessment by means of qualitative interviews and questionnaires took place at four stages of each trial: pre-trial, midterm, end of trial and posttrial (i.e. 1 week after the trial had ended). Results of the qualitative interviews as well as perceived safety measured by the falls efficacy scale (FES) [10] are reported. Eighteen elderly users participated in this study, and 16 (14 female) were included for statistical analysis (two participants had to be excluded because of missing data). The mean age was 80 years, ranging from 75 to 89 years. Qualitative data were organised using NVivo (QSR International). Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS by means of descriptive statistics and non-parametric methods (Friedman ranking test).
\nWe used a multi-method approach for testing the most important evaluation criteria: (1) usability; (2) acceptance, which includes the mutual care (MuC) concept [11]) and (3) affordability. This testing followed an intricate evaluation procedure with regular updates using the inputs of the reviewers of the project and the first experiences of the pilot user tests [9]. The method mix used contained interviews; questionnaires; cultural probing with the older adults before, during and after the trials; and the continuous logging of all interaction data in the Hobbit robot (see \nFigure 2\n). Qualitative, quantitative, cultural probing and logging data were preprocessed and analysed according to state-of-the-art scientific rules and procedures. Detailed results of the field trials will be reported.
\nOverview of trial procedure and evaluation materials.
As outlined above, results were gained from questionnaires; interviews; cultural probing with the participants before, during and after the trials; and continuous logging of all interaction data in the Hobbit robot. Qualitative, quantitative, cultural probing and logging data were preprocessed and analysed according to state-of-the-art scientific rules and procedures. Detailed results of the field trials will be reported. The most important results of the user trials related to the three main quality criteria were:
Usability: users agreed that Hobbit is easy to use and intuitive to handle. The option to use different input modalities was perceived as very helpful for PUs. There was, however, some lack of functionality, since not all functions worked all the time. This was acceptable for a prototype but obviously needs to be improved.
Acceptance was ambivalent among users. In general the attitude towards the robot was positive and did not change. The emotional attachment weakened over the duration of the trials, mainly due to the technical problems. This also indicates that some of the expectations of the users could not be fulfilled. A more important finding is that the reciprocity was not perceived by the primary users. This indicates that the mutual care approach needs some refinement to become effective.
Affordability: The results of the user trials indicate that the Hobbit robot is with its current price of 16,000 Euro—not yet affordable for the target users. While this is more than a magnitude cheaper than other similar robots, it is too expensive. On the other hand, a robot arm would be cheaper but is not wanted. Only a complete Hobbit robot with a pan/tilt head, a manipulators and functions for pick-up and for learning objects will all be valuable for PUs.
Using the qualitative data of the user trails, we can obtain insights on how the users like the different functions Hobbit provides. The users mostly appreciated the function to pick up objects, where picking up from the floor has rates with the highest value. Other highly welcome functions are detecting potential emergencies (adding to the feeling of perceived safety), the transport of objects, the cognitive and physical fitness functions and to be present to the user reminders. Although the pick-up function sometimes had failures and only worked without any difficulties for 18% in total of 372 days, users still saw the high potential. If this function would be available, users would want it. All in all, speed of operation of the robot system is not as good as it should be. Neither voice commands nor gestures operated to the expectations of the users. Consequently, the touch-screen has been used more often. To conclude, quantitative data shows that the perceived safety for the users, which is obtained using the Falls efficacy scale (FES) measure, did not increase along the user tests (p = 0.265).
\nFinally, the mutual care (MuC) concept, which has been proposed to foster the acceptance and improve the use of robot, has been detected to have rather little consequence. A cause for this unexpected result may be with high probability that the technical functioning of the robot is not yet high enough. Hence, there is considerable work ahead. While the trials indicate a first proof of concept, there needs to be more added reliability of all the robot operations. The good finding is that navigation is autonomous and with a service rate of over 98% was rated as sufficient by users. Hence, we provided a very good start for gaining acceptance by the users. Let us now have a closer look at the next step of technical improvements.
\nA general conclusion is that robots such as Care-O-bot or Giraff are too big to be operated at homes. Users expect to be sitting when interacting with the robot. Consequently, robot height should be about a sitting height of a person. Ideal is about 120 cm. So, Hobbit is still 5 cm too high but comes close to the ideal. Interestingly, the only robot so far at this height is Pepper of SoftBank Robotics.
\nHome robots may first be used in the homes of older adults. In these envinronments many things have been accumulated over the years, hence space is sparse. Ideally, the robot footprint does not exceed a diameter of 40 cm, which is technically difficult to reach including an arm. The shape of the robot may be rectangular; however, to simplify the robot’s navigation capabilities, our findings propose a cylindrical shape. This will make rotating behaviours simpler and allows an easier navigation through doors, which have been found to be as narrow as 60 cm, in particular in Sweden. Finally, a recommendation is to build the robot manipulator within the hull of the robot. It then will not collide with furniture or doors and walls when the robot is rotating or moving in the apartment.
\nA difficulty in many homes is not even floors and thresholds. Thresholds as high as 25 mm were encountered many times. We resolved the issue temporarily with ramps. However, it would be better to devise an efficient solution based on wheels to surpass small thresholds. Additions to the apartment are not always welcome by the users. Some examples of coping with thresholds are shown in \nFigure 3\n.
\nSeveral examples of mats and ramps to make the floor flat enough for a wheeled robot.
The battery duration of the Hobbit turned out to be sufficient. It lasted for about 8 hours of continuous robot uptime. A user will not use the robot this long. Users got tired after about 2 hours and sent the robot to go to the recharge station. Furthermore, for reasons of safety, the robot must always have a battery level of at least 30% to make sure that it can patrol the user home, locate the user and if necessary has enough power to initiate and operate through a full emergency scenario. The present implementation based on voltage was not ideal to reliably report remaining battery status. The battery status was not transparent for the user. Ideally, it should estimate the remaining run time.
\nAnother more practical issue is the docking station. It needs to be small, since there is not much space in the homes of older adults, as stated above. It may contain markers for improving robust docking behaviour, but we simply used a trapezoid shape, which turned out to be sufficient. \nFigure 4\n depicts the docking station.
\nDocking station (black) and the robot wrapped in plastic for temperature tests.
Another practical issue is a way to stop the robot at any time. While we use a hardware on/off button, a practice showed that there should also be a ‘cancel’ hardware button or switch that would allow the user to cancel immediately whatever activity the robot is doing at any given moment. The advantage of this button is also that this could be done remotely so that the user does not have to approach the robot. This will be a simple add-on and put the user in charge of the robot at any time.
\nHobbit was equipped with safety edges (see \nFigure 5\n) at the base plate and the tablet’s base plate. They are electrically interconnected with the main electronics forcing the Hobbit robot to stop when it is colliding with obstacles or humans. In this case the electro-conductive inner sides of the safety edges are pressed together, and the resulting signal leads the main electronic to stop the drive motors.
\nSafety bumper all around the base plate (left, only the front view of the robot is shown) and (right) tablet base bumper (the black rubber band below the tablet).
The main bumper (\nFigure 5\n(left)) is at the floor and also assures that the user cannot get under the robot, e.g. with the foot. However, in a few cases, shelves would protrude just above the bumper. To address this it would be helpful to design a second bumper at 20 cm height so kitchen cupboards with cabinet plinths are not in a risk to be hit. For a commercial product, a low-cost solution for the bumper needs to be determined.
\nAt present the robot has no sensors pointing backwards; only the bumper goes all way around. However, an infrared or sonar sensor such as additional sensor and further forward-looking sensor could be added. With the additional sensor at a height of 20 cm and a better localisation and mapping method, this issue could also be handled.
\nAt night users would want Hobbit to be silent and dark. As a consequence, Hobbit should not have any lights on when it is not active or sleeping in the charging station. The LEDs at the switches of Hobbit, the touch-screen on the charging station and even the eyes of Hobbit are too bright at night when the user wants to sleep. Similarly, when the user presses the Away/Sleep button, the robot should not radiate light.
\nThe outside hull to cover all the body is essential for the presentation of the robot. It is important to have a good first impression as well as high functionality. The design carried out in Hobbit turned out to be very good and provided all the features necessary, for example, the drinking bottle mounted low on the robot for emergency cases.
\nAs a start of the investigations into the Hobbit robot, several workshops had been conducted with older adults for indicating the requirements from the side of the users to the robot hull. \nFigure 6\n shows some of the example robot models created. Often modelled characteristics are soft but washable and hygienic materials, a slim body and two arms. Due to practical reasons and cost issues, only one arm has been realised. For all the functionality integrated in the top part of the hull and head, see the next section.
\nThree of the proposals for the robot design from workshop participants using simple materials to build up a robot model. Note the common characteristics of soft materials, a slim body and two arms (the model of the left robot does not have arms but the description of the user).
An issue regarding a safe robot motion is the mounting of the robot arm on the platform. Ideally, the entire arm should be within the limit of the footprint of the robot base platform. This is a challenge for the technical components: mobile arms of small size and reasonable payload do not yet exist. It also needs to be taken into account that during arm motion planning the arm motion will come out of the base footprint and hull. But it needs to be considered for avoiding self-collisions and collisions with the environment. Moving the arm and specifically the shoulder in a few centimetres is actually possible and is feasible in a final robot system concept.
\nThe design itself has been very good. A further functional improvement regards the practicability to mount and unmount the hull in cases of changes. This is of particular interest for earlier phases where this needs to be done more often but also for a product to allow good maintainability. For Hobbit we rather had the design and then considered how to best split up the hull for manufacturing as well as practical issues. In the next version, this aspect needs to be included into the design considerations already at design time.
\nOne more issue of practical use, in particular in the phase of testing the robot and when introducing the robot to first home and user trials: data of the platform should be easy to access, for example, via a service socket. This is relatively easy to achieve by adding the necessary sockets, for example, USB to copy data rapidly or attach a keyboard, to add a network if there is a WLAN error or to connect a display to the system if the XPC does not start, or it is needed to change settings in the BIOS. This socket could be included into the design considerations such that it can be easily accessed without removing the hull. This will considerably simplify and speed up the development of the platform behaviour and performance.
\nFurthermore, the hull should be included in the heating concept, for example, to use materials that provide a better cooling or the use of ventilation slots that were not foreseen in Hobbit because of the risk of liquids by transporting water. In particular during the summer trials, the robot produced too much heat, and this was felt to be negative by the users.
\nAs the last section of future improvements, we investigate more detail how the active head of the Hobbit robot worked and what could be improved. The active head in itself actually turned out to be very useful. Note that users had indicated that there should be a head to make clear where to talk to. A main function the head and upper torso of the robot serve is to give the user a feeling of active presence of Hobbit. \nFigure 7\n gives more details about the upper body and the head. The key function of the active head is to enlarge the field of view of the otherwise limited RGBD sensor. With the head it now covers different functions including the detection of obstacles and humans, the recognition of gestures, the recognition of objects and the detection and manipulation of objects for pick-up from the floor. Blue Danube Robotics (www.bluedanuberobotics.at) designed and produced the active head.
\nThe upper body and the head of Hobbit. Also, depicted are the main components and functionalities.
Besides increasing the field of view, the head serves several other important functions. We list the most important ones (see also [6]):
\nAttending to the user: an active head naturally presents the direction into which the robot is facing. The older adults in the user trials intuitively understood where the robot is looking. This renders the head motion very efficient: users immediately understood if the robot was busy with navigation when looking straight down or grasping/searching an object when looking around. When approaching the user, the robot would raise the head, and using human torso and face detection focuses the user. No additional means such as lights of verbal communication is necessary.
Faster search operations: the active head does not need further robot motion to look all around. Moving the entire platform is much more expensive and all measures than simply moving the head. Also, with the up and down motion, near and far views can be sampled. There is the drawback that reliable operation needs a calibration of the pan/tilt motion. However, in the near future, we will present an automatic and continuous calibration function simply from moving the head.
Detecting obstacles for reliable and safe navigation: the robot looks straight down when navigating. This allowed us to cover in more detail the ground in front of the robot. This is of particular interest when approaching a user, since hitting a foot is definitely not allowed with older adult users. It also covers the part of the blind area in front of the robot from the bottom RGBD camera for detecting walls and localisation. The touch-screen is the limit at present. But one might think of a detachable touch-screen or tablet, which further increases the operational range.
The present field of view (FOV) of typical RGBD sensors is about 58° horizontally and 43° vertically. A FOV with this limitation is presented by more or less all RGBD cameras including the Kinect. Sensors with other measurement principles such as time of flight (TOF), for example, the KinectOne, have about the same limitation. It may be interesting for sensor developers to think about this or to provide a direct integration with an active pan/tilt unit as proposed here.
\nNevertheless, the present active head serves the purpose of attending to many different tasks such as viewing the floor in search of objects for possible pick-up, detecting obstacles during navigation, checking tables for objects that the user can ask for, the detection of persons, the recognition of gestures or user activities and the search for the user to increase her perceived feeling of safety. Particularly, in the last task, finding the user, a large FOV is needed. While the human visual FOV covers about 180°, the present head set-up needs three viewing directions to cover the same range. Still, with present camera resolution and the added advantages of an active head as listed above, we see this as the best set-up for a future home robot.
\nThe functionality of an active gaze direction to show the user where the robot looks helps to create a bonding with the user as indicated by the trials. More work in this direction is ongoing, for example, [1, 12]. What is still missing are robots that robustly and smoothly focus onto the user in their natural environment at home. Another interesting point is that there is often a fixed approach to the user. However, at home, the exact location of chairs changes, and hence the location of the sitting user changes. This renders necessarily an adaptive approach to the older adult. In Ref. [13] a laser distance measure to the legs of a single user was used [13]. However, a more flexible and accurate method including the recognition of the user is asked for at-home robotics.
\nLet us give a few more insights to improve the head and robot operation. At present the faces are partially black and white. A completely dark face better hides the dark holes from the camera, whoever may not look appealing. Hiding the camera behind glasses disrupts camera accuracy and calibration. At present there is not perfect solution yet.
\nAnother useful option is remote accessibility using a secure Internet link. It provides developers to keep track of the robot and, if any problems are encountered, to rapidly check without the need to physically reach the robot test site. Similarly, the hull should be easily detachable. If problems with the robot hardware need to be resolved, this will prove very useful.
\nAn addition that may be necessary, depending on the environment, is ultrasonic sensors (US). In the cases we encountered, this was not necessary, but transparent surface is not visible to optical cameras such as the RGBD sensors and needs a complementary sensor modality such as US. Similarly, at present we did not have any sensors on the robot’s backside. This was resolved by not driving backwards except out of the docking station, where it was known that there is space and the user was verbally notified that this would happen. An option is to increase the range of the active head to also look backwards. Another option is to add more US.
\nFinally, let us conclude with an important finding regarding the robot’s safety. From the experiences in Hobbit and also other robot projects at home and in office settings, there are many cases where stairs lead downwards. While looking down at the floor is an option, this is a safety critical aspect, and, hence, it should have at least two if not three complementary measures to assure that the robot is driving forwards on safe ground. Floor detectors that use infrared sensors and blocking areas in the navigation software are too easy to realise options to considerably enhance the robot’s operational safety. All needs to be integrated into the navigation system, but it will prove useful. As a manufacturer of a mobile robot clearly said, it will be able to fall down but only once.
\nThis chapter presented the newly developed service robot called Hobbit. We built Hobbit with the purpose of assisting older adults and to improve their perceived feeling of safety at home. The ultimate goal is to make users stay longer in their homes by using new information technology and new solutions such as smart environments (including ambient-assisted living (AAL)). Besides fostering the feeling of safety, we also set out to improve the feeling of self-efficacy, that is, one’s own ability to complete tasks. We set out to achieve this by providing a rich set of functions to the user. We provided methods for emergency detection including the patrolling to regularly locate the user and start an interaction and the detection of emergency situations as a means to directly react if needed, and we provided proactive functions to avoid falls in the first place. These measures included to keep the floor free of clutter, to transport items so the user can walk with hands free, a set of fitness functions to stay active with cognitive and physical exercises and the option to freely set reminders, also with the idea to stay as active as possible.
\nAfter the summary of the questionnaires highlighting the functionality, safety and operation features that older adults would want, we presented the Hobbit platform and its technical components. We then presented details of the results of a longer study of the Hobbit robot in the wild—in the homes of 18 older adults. The study lasted for 3 weeks each. Another specific highlight of the study was that the robot was navigating autonomously, a difference to other present robots operating at home.
\nOf particular interest in the user trails was that the users could freely select what they wanted to do with the robot. This is a considerable change over other studies, for example, with robots such as Kampai or Care-O-bot, where the sequence of trials is scripted and repeated at a set times. An example is the reminder to drink, which in a single test run may be fun for the user; however, the repeated reminder to drink will be rejected by users. In the free setting, this is different, since users select what they would want. For example, users set the reminders all by themselves or with the help of the person.
\nIn conclusion, the mutual care (MuC) concept, which has been proposed to foster the acceptance and improve the use of robot, has been detected to have rather little consequence. A cause for this unexpected result may be with high probability that the technical functioning of the robot is not yet high enough. Hence, there is considerable work ahead. While the trials indicate a first proof of concept, there needs to be more added reliability of all the robot operations. The good finding is that navigation is autonomous and with a service rate of over 98% was rated as sufficient by users. Hence, we provided a very good start for gaining acceptance by the users. This all indicates that reliability is a prerequisite for user acceptance. It will take next steps to work both on the hardware and the software to reach a higher level of reliability not only for navigation but also the other functionalities. Of particular interest are approaches that cope with automatic calibration of sensors, actuators and the sensor-actor combination. This encompasses the mobile platform and the sensors for navigation as well as the active head and the mobile manipulator. It also includes the reliable detection of drivable floor. As many of these capabilities could be reached with adequate software, it will strongly add to the cost-effective concept provided by the Hobbit platform as presented here.
\nAnother important aspect of Hobbit is the HRI. Considering that it should be effective, our main insights are that the active head proved to be paramount to present information about the robot status and, thus, it facilitates HRI in itself. Furthermore, the active RGBD sensors of the head drastically enlarges the field of view of the otherwise restricted camera, and it serves several robot functions for navigation, search and grasping objects. Actually, the active head was found as the key element of intuitive and easy-to-use HRI: the head viewing direction directly indicates what the robot is doing. Augmented with verbal output, the robot lets the user always know what it is doing, and for the user, it is obvious when she can address the robot or not, because it is busy when looking down. Additionally, the adaptive approach to the user and the direct facing of the user create attention: the user knows that now the robot is ready to be addressed and accept the next command. In summary, it would be good to give active robot heads more attention. Remember, as depicted in \nFigure 6\n, users wanted a head. It is the obvious part of the robot to speak to. Hence, it largely facilitates HRI. To be more fluent, it should be given more research and development work. Furthermore, increasing head range to even look back may alleviate the need for sensors in the back and further increase safety aspects.
\nTo conclude, the Hobbit study in the wild shows a mixed picture. While certain functionalities such as grasping objects from the floor and searching for objects do not provide sufficient reliability, other functions such as navigation, docking, entertainment, reminders and the fitness function proved to be very useful and welcome by the users. Users saw the great potential of such a robot: the capability to pick up something from the floor and to transport and find objects is very highly evaluated. They would not want a cheaper robot with reduced functionality, e.g. without an arm. It is rather that they would want a few more functions such as searching for objects.
\nThese results clearly give advice for future research directions. The robot hardware itself needs to be drastically reduced in size, rather 40 cm in diameter than 56 cm in the diagonal. The robot height should be slightly reduced to 120 cm. A height has been nearly reached to good effect in Hobbit. The only other robot with this height is Pepper at present. Other robots are higher. The smaller robot size will also make it easier to navigate in the typically tight spaces in the homes of older adults.
\nBased on the results from the questionnaires and interviews, the reminder functions, picking up objects and bringing objects, are all highly validated by users and thus need to be considered as high-priority user requirements. Picking up objects and bringing objects need an arm and some sort of gripper. Users wanted the gripper and saw, in particular, the advantage of picking up things from the floor.
\nThere are a few other clear misses in the present Hobbit robot. One that most users would want is a speech interface. It clearly needs to be part of Hobbit’s user interface. Speech recognition and output therefore need to be state of the art, without ignoring the final objective of the project of affordability of Hobbit. The technical problem at present is distant speech recognition. While speaker into a headset or the mobile phone provides good recognition results, a microphone mounted on the robot, the large distance to the user and the noise of the robot itself are all factors to limit speech recognition drastically. While on the one hand an improvement of distant speech recognition can be expected, another option may be to equip Hobbit with a mobile phone as a natural interface to the robot. While considerations for this solution have been made, the main issue to solve is that the mobile phone could be replaced. Hobbit will need a functionality to search for it using RFID chips and sensor or other means.
\nAnother aspect that is of need for future developments is an adaptive behaviour from Hobbit. Depending on the preferences of the user (i.e. an individual user profile), the amount of autonomous, proactive behaviour of the robot needs to differ. Ways of adapting to the user profile are to be developed for every function from approaching the user, to the times and frequency when the robot should approach the user. Ideally, this is learned from the first trial interactions. Though, this will require substantially more research and improved capabilities of the robot to fully understand the user.
\nFinally, the Hobbit study with letting the robot be operated with any prescripted operations showed that older adults are indeed very interested in new technology and that a robot at home has very high potential. Although the present price tag may be too high, users clearly indicate that the full functionality is of the highest value and should be pursued in further developments.
\nThis research has received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreements No. 288146 Hobbit and No. 610532 Squirrel and funding from the Austrian Science Fund under grant ALOOF No. I1856-N30. Thanks to Andreas Bley of MetraLabs for the picture of the robot docking station.
\nIntensive immigration to the island is a tremendous environmental adaptation achieved by
The Ryukyu Islands are one of the oldest oceanic islands to which Pleistocene people immigrated, comparable with the islands of Southeast Asia [1, 11]. Early modern humans inhabited this area no later than 30,000 years ago and probably earlier than 36,500 years ago [1, 11, 12]. The Paleolithic sites cover most of the relatively large islands of this area (Figure 1, Table 1). The human remains found in this area consist of male and female adults, and children [13, 14, 15, 16]. These facts suggest the intentional voyages of early modern humans with their families to the islands.
\nPaleolithic sites of the Ryukyu archipelago. The white circle represents the sites with stone tools, and the black circle represents the sites with human remains. The dark gray area represents the current land, and the light gray area represents the contour at 120 m depth.
Region | \nSite | \nIsland | \nArea of the island | \nAge of the oldest layer | \nArtifacts | \nHuman remains | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Northern Ryukyus | \nTachikiri | \nTanega-shima | \n444 km2\n | \n35k | \nCobble tools,grinding stones, polished adze blades, flakes | \n\n |
Yokomine C | \nTanega-shima | \n444 km2\n | \n35k | \nCobble tools, grinding stones, flakes, anvil stones | \n\n | |
Central Ryukyus | \nTsuchihama-Yaya | \nAmami-O-shima | \n712 km2\n | \n>30k? | \nShale flakes | \n\n |
Kishikawa | \nAmami-O-shima | \n712 km2\n | \n30k? | \nChert flakes | \n\n | |
Amangusuku | \nTokuno-shima | \n248 km2\n | \n>30k? | \nChert flakes | \n\n | |
Garazo | \nTokuno-shima | \n248 km2\n | \n>30k? | \nGranite and sandstone cobbles | \n\n | |
Yamashita-cho Cave 1 | \nOkinawa | \n1,207 km2\n | \n36k | \nSandstone cobbles | \nPartial infant | \n|
Sakitari Cave | \nOkinawa | \n1,207 km2\n | \n35k | \nShell artifacts and sandstone (whetstone) (23k~20k) Quartz flakes (16k~14k) | \nPartial adults and infants (14k~16k, 23k, 30k) | \n|
Minatogawa | \nOkinawa | \n1,207 km2\n | \n20k~23k | \n\n | Four adults | \n|
Shimojibaru | \nKume-jima | \n56 km2\n | \n18k | \n\n | Infant | \n|
Southern Ryukyus | \nPinza-abu | \nMiyako | \n158 km2\n | \n29k~32k | \n\n | Partial adult(s) | \n
Shiraho-Saonetabaru Cave | \nIshigaki | \n223 km2\n | \n27k | \n\n | Four adults and more (18k~27k) | \n
Paleolithic sites of the Ryukyu Islands.
In Australia, researchers found evidence of the oldest voyage in the world from the islands of Southeast Asia; that voyage occurred earlier than 50,000 years ago [17, 18]. The maritime technology for open sea fishing seems to have been developed prior to the journey, as reported in the case of Timor [19]. Although the use of aquatic resources by early modern human developed before Out-of-Africa, much earlier than 100,000 years ago [20, 21, 22], the populations who came to Islands Southeast Asia (ISEA), in the course of the worldwide dispersal of early modern humans, may have developed much more extensive uses of marine resources [19, 23, 24, 25, 26].
\nDeveloped maritime technology and flexible resource usage would have enabled Paleolithic people to advance into the island environment beyond the tropical zone. The Ryukyu Islands consist of relatively small islands that are distributed on the margins of the tropical to temperate zone, and which are isolated from each other and mainland Japan. Natural resources such as stone materials and terrestrial animals differ among the islands. Between 30,000 and 36,500 years ago, Paleolithic people immigrated to these variable islands, which spread over 1200 km. Their entry into these diverse environments for a relatively short period provides evidence of the malleable behavior of the early modern humans who adapted to these islands. The purpose of this paper is to review the Paleolithic archeological sites of the Ryukyu Archipelago and to clarify how people adapted to sub-tropical remote islands with limited resources, especially in contrast with the ISEA, thus providing the basis for the global distribution of Paleolithic people.
\nThe chain of Ryukyu Islands stretches roughly 1200 km between Kyusyu Island of Japan and Taiwan in the west Pacific. More than 150 relatively small islands (<1207 km2) are dispersed from the northeast to the southwest at roughly 27° north in latitude (Figure 1). A dry and sandy climate generally exists at this latitude around the world, but the Ryukyus are covered with subtropical forests nourished by the hot and humid atmosphere created by the Kuroshio ocean current.
\nPreviously, the Ryukyu Islands were at the eastern end of the Eurasian continent. The tectonic plate movements of the Eurasian and Philippine plates formed the deep ocean basin named the “Okinawa trough” to the west of the Ryukyus and divided the islands from the continent. This geological event probably occurred no later than the early Pleistocene [27]. Today the islands are divided into three parts by the sea, which is over 1000 meters deep: the northern, central, and southern Ryukyus. Some of the northern Ryukyu Islands were connected to the Kyushu Island of Japan during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) around 20,000 years ago. The fauna and prehistoric culture of these islands were closely related to those of Kyusyu. By contrast, the central and the southern Ryukyus were isolated throughout the Pleistocene.
\nThe islands now are located at the margin of two biogeographic areas: the Oriental and Sino-Japanese regions [28]. The fauna and flora of the Ryukyus gradually shifted from Sino-Japanese species to Oriental species from the north to the south. The basis of the terrestrial fauna was formed before the isolation from the Eurasian Continent in the early Pleistocene [29, 30, 31].
\nNearly two million years of isolation have fostered many of the islands’ endemic animals. Today, the fauna of the Ryukyus consists of many endemic small animals but lacks large and middle-sized animals except for the wild boar. The late Pleistocene fauna throughout the islands has not been studied thoroughly; it has only been cursorily reviewed by several authors [31, 32, 33]. The consensus is that the Pleistocene fauna was similar to the existing fauna of each island. There were several middle-sized animals that are now extinct: one or two species of middle-sized deer and a species of middle-sized tortoise. They became extinct almost simultaneously at the end of the Pleistocene, but the precise timing of extinction is not known yet.
\nThe flora of the Pleistocene Ryukyus was shrouded in mystery. Kuroda and Ozawa (1998) studied pollen samples obtained from a boring core specimen extracted from Izena Island, which is northwest of Okinawa Island [34]. They suggested that the evergreen broad-leaved forest reduced in size and the pine tree became dominant during the LGM. However, the composition of the terminal-Pleistocene fossil-amphibian species of the southern area was similar to the modern fauna of the northern broad-leaved evergreen forest area of Okinawa Island [35]. A dominance of forest species is also reported among avifauna [36, 37], reptiles, and mice [38, 39, 40] at the Minatogawa site, a terminal-Pleistocene site of Okinawa Island (Figures 1 and 2, Table 1). Based on the composition of these fossil species, we can assume that a large area of Okinawa Island was covered with a broad-leaved evergreen forest during the late Pleistocene and even the LGM period.
\nOverviewed stratigraphy of the Minatogawa site. The uppermost part of the fissure deposit contained Holocene Jomon. The lower level (layers III and IV) contained late Pleistocene animal and human fossils. Although only medium-sized animals are drawn in the figure, many small animal fossils were found in the lower deposit.
Limestone is widely dispersed throughout the Ryukyu Islands, especially in the southwestern half of them. Karstic caves are well suited for preserving bone remains, and there are many Pleistocene fossil sites. Paleolithic research in the Ryukyu Islands began with the discovery of human bone fragments that were mixed with extinct animal fossils in several karstic caves [13]. After the discovery of these partial human fossils, researchers began an exhaustive survey for Paleolithic human remains. In 1970, four well-preserved adult human fossils were discovered at the Minatogawa site, Okinawa Island. The Minatogawa human fossils were about 20,000 years old based on the Carbon-14 dating of the charcoal obtained in their vicinity (Figure 2) [14, 41, 42]. Their morphological features and phylogenetic positions were investigated primarily through morphological studies. The Minatogawa human had many morphological traits such as relatively short stature, short clavicles, and a slender upper body with relatively robust lower limb bones. They differ from those of Jomon people, the Holocene hunting-gathering-fishing people who lived in the Japanese Archipelago including the Ryukyu Islands, from 3000 to 15,000 years ago [43, 44, 45]. Despite these differences, the Minatogawa people were previously considered ancestors of Jomon and modern Japanese people, based mainly on the morphological characteristics of the skull [14, 44, 45].
\nIn the 2000s, researchers conducted a more detailed comparison of the Minatogawa human fossils and a relatively larger sample of Jomon and modern Japanese people using newly developed methods such as three-dimensional scanning and computed tomography. These studies indicated that there are many differences between the Minatogawa humans and the Jomon/Modern Japanese people even in the skull morphology, including the length and thickness of tooth roots [46], the three-dimensional morphology of the glabellar region [47], the shape of the braincase [48], and the mandible shapes [49]. If there are so many differences, we may need to reconsider the traditional hypothesis that the Minatogawa people were a direct ancestor of Jomon and modern Japanese people.
\nGenetic analysis of modern Okinawan people also suggests the weakness of the relationship between the Pleistocene and Holocene populations of the Ryukyu Islands. Sato et al. indicated that modern Okinawan people diverged from the continental group (Han Chinese) more recently than 15,000 years ago, based on a comparison of the modern Okinawan genome [50]. If so, the Paleolithic people who had lived in the Ryukyus before this divergence would have little or no genetic contribution to the present population of Okinawa.
\nThen, is there an affinity between the Minatogawa people and the surrounding populations? Kaifu et al. suggested that their slender mandible morphology may be similar to that of the modern Australo-Melanesian who are found throughout parts of Southeast Asia and Oceania today [49]. A morphological study of the recently unearthed 27,000-year-old human skull from Shiraho-Saonetabaru Cave in Ishigaki Island suggests a possible relationship between Paleolithic Ryukyu Islanders and prehistoric Southeast Asians. Kono et al. pointed out that the Paleolithic skull of the Shiraho-Saonetabaru showed a morphological similarity to that of the Mesolithic Vietnamese [51]. This result coincides with the results of ancient mtDNA analyses of two other Paleolithic human bone fragments obtained from the same site. The haplotypes B4 and R were obtained in the mtDNA analyses [52]. The current center of the distribution of haplotype B4 is in Southeast Asia, and that of haplotype R is an ancestral haplotype of the haplogroup that includes European, Southeast Asian, and Australian Aboriginal people [52].
\nIn summary, these results indicate that Paleolithic people traveled to the Ryukyu Islands through Southeast Asia after leaving Africa. They appear to have little or no similarity with the Holocene populations of the Japanese Archipelago in terms of morphological and genetic traits. However, morphological and genetic research of Paleolithic people from this area is still underway. The recent excavation at Sakitari Cave indicates that Paleolithic people occupied Okinawa Island almost continuously from 30,000 to 13,000 years ago (Figure 3). Studies of the other Paleolithic individuals excavated from Shiraho-Saonetabaru Cave and the human bones recently discovered in Sakitari Cave near the Minatogawa site will provide insight into this problem in the near future.
\nSection of trench I and pit 1 of Sakitari cave. Partial human remains and animal remains consumed by humans were obtained from layers I to III. Artifacts were unearthed from layers I and II (see also
In contrast to the relatively good preservation of human bone, few artifacts have been found from the Paleolithic sites of the Ryukyu Islands. Small amorphous flakes made of chert, quartz, and shales and sandstone cobble tools were found at several sites. Notably, several types of flake tools, which are often discovered at Paleolithic sites in mainland Japan, are restricted to islands north of Tokunoshima (Table 1). No chipped stone tools of Paleolithic age have been found from Okinawa or other southern islands.
\nAll the stone materials were available at surrounding area of each site, and no obvious oversea transportation of stone material is known in the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands. It seems a strange phenomenon since Paleolithic people came across the sea to the Ryukyu Islands and probably were familiar with maritime technologies, including oversea voyage [1, 11]. In mainland Japan, Paleolithic people translocated obsidians beyond the sea [53]. Although the possible oversea transportation of wild pigs more than 20,000 years ago is suggested in the southern and the central Ryukyus [31, 54], it is controversial as discussed later.
\nThe small amorphous flakes and cobble tools are not suitable for typological study or analysis of usage. The Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures of the northern Ryukyus were closely related to those of Kyusyu Island, Japan, as mentioned above. However, the cultures of the central and southern Ryukyus have little in common with them. In the Holocene, the Jomon and subsequent mainland Japanese cultures influenced the prehistoric cultures of the central Ryukyus. In the southern Ryukyus, endemic prehistoric culture continued until 1000 years ago. After the tenth century, the inhabitants eventually constructed a cultural network throughout the Ryukyus. Cultural exchange across islands was difficult in prehistoric times. In summary, the Paleolithic people and culture of the central and the southern Ryukyus seem different from those of mainland Japan, probably because of the difficulty in oversea voyage between the islands.
\nThe material culture of the Paleolithic Ryukyu Islands was a mystery until the authors and colleagues found a variety of shell artifacts and stone tools in the Paleolithic sediments of Sakitari Cave, Okinawa Island (Figure 4) [16, 55, 56]. The shell artifacts uncovered from the 20,000 to 23,000-year-old sediments (layer II) of Sakitari Cave consist of fishhooks, two types of scrapers, and two types of beads. The fishhooks were made of
Isolated human teeth and artifacts obtained from layer II (20,000–23,000 years ago; a–p) and layer I (13,000–16,000 years ago; q–v) of Sakitari cave. (a) Human tooth (right lower third molar), (b) shell fishhook, (c–i) bivalve shell scraper (
The Sakitari assemblage is unique in its lack of stone tools. There were three 13,000-year-old amorphous quartz flakes [55] and a 23,000-year-old tiny fragment of sandstone, which probably was used to grind fishhooks [16]. The Paleolithic stone artifacts of Sakitari Cave consist of only these four items, while many more shell artifacts were unearthed from the same sediments (Figure 4). Paleolithic shell flakes were reported in
However, Sakitari assemblage is quite unique in the dominance of shell artifacts. It probably is linked to the distribution of stone and shell materials on the island. There is no good stone material for making tools except the low-quality chert and small-sized quartz, which are available only in the northern half of Okinawa Island. In contrast to this stone distribution, shells are abundantly available on the island, especially in the coastal area. Sakitari Cave is located at the southern end of Okinawa Island, a stone-poor region. At present, it is about 2 km inland from the nearest coast, and it was 5–6 km away from the coast around 20,000–23,000 years ago. Therefore, the Paleolithic people of Sakitari Cave were able to access the coast easily and collect shells and other marine products such as fish. The unique material culture of Sakitari Cave was suitable for the island environment, and it represents the behavioral plasticity of the Paleolithic people and their capacity to adapt to the stone-poor, shell-rich island environment of Okinawa.
\nThe behavioral plasticity of Paleolithic people is observable in their material culture and hunting-gathering actions. The Paleolithic people in Sakitari Cave mostly consumed freshwater crabs (Japanese mitten crab) and freshwater snails. They also ate small vertebrates such as mice, birds, lizards, snakes, frogs, and fish (freshwater and marine). The food waste in Sakitari indicates that small, nocturnal animals living in or near the river were dominant. As in the general example of island fauna, the fauna of Okinawa Island lacks large terrestrial mammals (Figure 5). At the first stage of human arrival, there were two species of middle- or small-sized deer and one species of a middle-sized tortoise [33], but they went extinct probably earlier than 30,000 years ago [42, 54]. Based on the limitedness of the terrestrial fauna, some researchers theorize that Paleolithic people were unable to maintain their population on the small island [61, 62]. However, research of the Sakitari remains revealed that the Paleolithic people maintained their population for nearly 20,000 years by consuming small, aquatic animals, which generally are highly reproductive and densely inhabited the area compared to large and middle-sized mammals. This unique, effective use of animal resources enabled the Paleolithic hunter-gatherers to live on relatively small islands for a long time.
\nTerrestrial and freshwater animals of Okinawa Island.
The extensive consumption of marine resources was reported in ISEA [19, 23, 24, 25, 26]. Paleolithic immigrants who came to this area developed diverse fishing and shellfishing activity. The exploitation of variety of marine resources may be one of the factors that enabled Paleolithic migration to the variety of islands. As indicated by the studies on human remains and shell artifacts, relation between Okinawa and ISEA is suggested again in the viewpoint of aquatic resource usage. However, dominance of the freshwater animals is the unique point of Paleolithic Okinawa. One reason may be the limited terrestrial animals, and another reason may be seasonality. The oxygen isotope study on freshwater snails indicated that these freshwater animals were consumed mainly in autumn [16]. Paleolithic people of Okinawa may have used more marine resources in other seasons, though we do not have any evidence at present.
\nAnother notable behavior of Paleolithic Ryukyu Islanders is the possible translocation of wild pigs earlier than 20,000 years ago. Researchers have reported that the Pleistocene translocation of animals occurred in Cyprus around 11,000 years ago [63] and Manus Island around 13,000 years ago [64]. In the case of the Ryukyu Islands, after the extinction of the endemic deer between 30,000 and 35,000 years ago, wild pigs appeared and increased in number around 20,000 to 27,000 years ago [31, 39, 54, 65]. Because Okinawa Island was isolated from the Eurasia continent, mainland Japan, and the remaining Ryukyu Islands during the Pleistocene [27], the increase in the wild pig population might have resulted from people translocating pigs onto the islands from elsewhere [31, 54, 66]. However, one difficulty in this scenario is the recent analysis of the mtDNA of extant wild pigs which showed that the current Ryukyu wild pig population (
Paleolithic people immigrated to the Ryukyu Islands more than 36,000 years ago. Morphological and genetic studies of Paleolithic human fossils from this area have indicated that they probably came through Southeast Asia in the course of the worldwide dispersal of early modern humans. The common use of shell tools including fishhooks and the remarkable consumption of aquatic resources as foods by Paleolithic Ryukyu Islanders suggest the relation to the ISEA.
\nHowever, Paleolithic Okinawan culture was unique in dominance of marine shell artifacts and biased consumption of freshwater animals. This unique lifestyle adapted to the stone-poor and shell-rich environment of the island, where there were limited terrestrial animals. The adaptive lifestyle on Okinawa, which is a relatively small oceanic island, suggests the plasticity of Paleolithic people’s behavior. Their behavioral plasticity may be one of the driving forces that enabled
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/77681",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"77681"},fullPath:"/profiles/77681",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()