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One would expect a global and intense focus on managing the adverse impacts of this phenomenon across and between all governments, the private sector and virtually all of humanity. However, this is not the case. This is because managing climate change is a complex and continuous process whose effectiveness is determined by the actions of diverse groups of individuals, communities, governments, local and international agencies all with a wide variety and, very often, conflicting agendas. Nevertheless, the scope and sophistication of policies and practices seeking to manage the various aspects of climate change continues to advance. The management of climate change manifests through the dual policy approach that employs either/or and often both the market-based and the regulatory mechanisms of climate change management.
Market-based mechanisms involve creating economic instruments to direct the flow of finance, technology and capacity-building support towards innovations and actions that mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to retard global warming and ultimately climate change [1]. The mechanisms are rooted in economic principles that seek to heighten the frugality of managing climate change through activities that do not compromise the efficacy of the embedded mechanisms. Two popular mechanisms under the market approach are the Kyoto Protocol rooted in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the International Emissions Trading (IET) [1]. The regulatory mechanisms, also called the command-and-control policies, invariably require polluters to take specific actions to reduce emissions [2]. Typically, these actions comprise the installation of particular technologies seeking to meet specific environmental management performance standards, that is, GHG emission reduction. While academics, policymakers and bureaucrats often make a distinction between these mechanisms, practice shows an overlap between the two. In fact, and largely, the two are mutually inclusive.
Although there is link between interventions related to climate change and economic indicators, there are other important indicators such as biodiversity that are difficult and perhaps not necessary to reduce to absolute monetary terms. For example, about 40% of the global economy relies on biological products, and 35% of the total jobs are dependent on ecosystem services that support sectors such as agriculture, construction, forestry, textiles and tourism [3, 4]. This indicates the complexity of variables that need consideration in any effective and efficient strategy for managing climate change. Such management, its related policies and legislation need to balance the economic, social and environmental approaches. What is important in the irrespective approaches is the timely provision of relevant data and information about potential hazards and potential benefits of climate change, globally and in specific locations. This is critical to deliver appropriate, adequate and well-timed responses. Such a delivery system equally demands a rapid, flexible and dynamic policy formulation, implementation and revision system. An important input to this system is relevant, adequate and accurate (as much as possible) data to enable the development of appropriate policies. Policymaking based on such data is the essence of evidence-based policymaking. The basis of evidence-based policymaking in the public policy space is the quest to anchor social reform programmes on pertinent and practical knowledge provided by scientific research [5]. This approach elevates the importance of collecting and analysing the appropriate and adequate amount of data, both qualitatively and quantitatively.
A traditional complaint around managing climate change, climate change adaptation in particular has been the paucity of relevant quantities of data for processing to derive trustworthy information. However, this condition has and continues to improve rapidly and definitely. A combination of rapid and incessant increases, and improvements in the sophistication, affordability, compactness and use of technology are enabling the prompt generation and analysis of copious data sets. These large sets of both structured and unstructured heterogeneous data are known as Big Data. In principle, the timely (often in real time) processing of this data accompanied by appropriate policy responses can make a difference between the ability to rapidly as well as suitably respond to the climate change hazards and costly policy reform delays.
A challenge in the policy arena is that outside absolute dictatorships, contemporary and ‘acceptable’ policy formulation, adoption and implementation processes follow a routinely lengthy bureaucratic and linear approach. These processes often exclude the views of one or other concerned group(s) through a typical accentuating of internal bargaining among small, highly placed powerful groups [6]. Actors in the policy space bargain around their personal beliefs and preferences as well as those of interest groups they represent. These beliefs and preferences may initially vary widely but are narrowed by the give-and-take practices of the bargaining process. Consequently, the policy outcomes of the process rarely advance the absolute views of single individuals but instead are a mix of views from several individuals [6]. While this is the essence of democracy, the disadvantage is that the nature of bargaining processes usually delivers suboptimal policy outcomes and often belatedly. While the importance of democracy in policymaking is acceptable, the delivery of suboptimal and delayed policy responses is problematic in dealing with dynamic and deleterious effects of phenomena such as climate change, economic development and human health, among others. Ideally, the desired policy responses must be dynamic, and more importantly, they must deliver systemic changes for efficient policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation that may lead to either to policy entrenchment or revision.
Nature is replete with forms of order and seemingly systemic changes in large complex systems. In principle, the policy formulation, implementation and revision space can draw important lessons from the collective and individual units of biological systems such as cell colonies, schools of fish, ant colonies and bird flocks. A protuberant characteristic of collective behaviour in such natural systems is the appearance of global order in which individuals harmonise their states to an extent of giving a striking impression that the group behaves as one [7]. While it is posited that group formations in systems such as insect swarms are a mere epiphenomenon of the independent interaction of each individual with an external landmark and stimuli, what matters is that the resultant order remains impressive and individual actions culminate in a collective benefit. While group formations are impressive, nature also shows deeper and long-lasting systemic changes that confer adaptation of individuals and entire ecosystems to external conditions.
Looking at how nature both rapidly and gradually but systemically adjusts to a plethora of stimuli and eventually achieves a ‘dynamic equilibrium’, it is arguable that managing climate change, that is, adjusting both mitigation and adaptation strategies and regimes, can learn from biological systems. A timeous and appropriate adjustment of relevant policy levers is critical for managing climate change. To this end, this chapter proposes a dynamic policy based on a learning, self-improving and self-adjusting policymaking approach that draws lessons from biological systems and it components—the essence of biomimicry. Ideally, the proposed approach was appropriate and should seek to avoid the lengthy policy cycle stages but still deliver a systemic and responsive policy to manage climate change narrowly and sustainable development broadly. The suggested and futuristic policymaking approach is cognisant of the fact that there is limited clarity around the concept of global order in many biological systems. It is also aware of fears around artificial intelligence/machine-learning phenomena as well as the contests and power dynamics in the policymaking space. Nevertheless, we posit that lessons from how natural systems both as individual and most relevantly as a system have and still evolve to adapt to changing environmental conditions carry important learning points for the proposed policymaking approach. As stated earlier changes in natural systems are both immediate as in the case of a school of fish avoiding predators and slow, for example, how the ecosystems have adapted to ionising radiation from Chernobyl [8]. Even slower is that birds of flight have evolved to have hollow bones strengthened by struts to reduce dead weight, whereas flightless birds like ostrich have more solid bones. In the case of birds of flights, bones in places with higher stresses are more solid. This principle informs the building of the shells of modern aircraft to optimise weight and strength of designs. Eliminating unrequired material means less dead weight, less fuel consumption and thus a lesser carbon footprint. Indeed Mother Nature can be a model, measure and mentor.
The need for the proposed dynamic policy model arises from a process of critical reflection focusing on policymaking and adjusting to unpredictable phenomena—climate change in this case. The reflection draws from the biggest teacher of survival tactics under challenging, unpredictable and dynamic conditions—Mother Nature.
As a methodology, critical reflection informs on ways that improve practice. It involves the ability to unearth, examine and change firmly entrenched assumptions leading to central changes in perspectives [9]. In seeking to challenge established positions and change them, critical reflection pays attention to the power dimensions of assumptive thinking. It examines how power dimensions affect the envisaged or proposed changes that may deliver desired outcomes [10]. In this chapter, the focus is challenging some tenets of the policy cycle arguing that in making or amending policy, not all components of a policy need to go through the cycle. Some important technical components can avoid the cycle if the policymaking process has mechanism to analyse and interpret relevant data that has a bearing on policy specifics, that is, codes and standards. This is the essence of the proposed learning and self-adjusting policy. In principle, such a policy can deliver an optimal policy regime provided the adjustments are driven by adequate and appropriate data.
Four traditions of thinking guide critical reflection as applied here. The first is reflexivity. This relates to how a researcher is aware of biases of analytic focus on his or her relationship to the field of study and the ways that cultural practices involve consciousness and commentary on themselves [11]. In this research, it was important to be reflexive considering our experiences as authors specifically as researchers, practitioners and concerned citizens in the climate change, sustainable development and broader social development spaces. Also important is our preference for the trans-, inter- and multidisciplinary research—a desirable approach in the sustainable development discourse. As a result, the concepts that inform the proposed policymaking approach are eclectic drawing from climate change, policymaking, biological science and computer technology. This reflects our academic training, experiences and practice.
A second consideration is reflective practice. This pertains to an awareness of the gap between theory and practice [12]. As authors, we are aware of this, often with first-hand experience on observing policymaking and its implementation and sometimes lack of implementation because of power dynamics in the policy space. The third component of critical reflection is deconstructionism. This relates to questioning the notion of generating knowledge in a progressive and nonconflictual manner [13]. Critical reflection interrogates power relations and in this case questions (and even threatens) the role of politicians, lobbyists and public service bureaucrats in the policy cycle. The fourth and final tradition of thinking in this methodology is critical social theory. Its importance to the arguments in this chapter is the argument that the use and interpretation of knowledge are social constructed [10]. This means it is possible to change or improve the same knowledge as well as its use and interpretation. This is important as the proposed model involves the use of artificial intelligence—a largely feared and in some cases a politically unpopular practice [14].
Despites these and other advantages, critical reflection also has weaknesses. Among the many weaknesses, a relevant one is that reflection is centred on individuals and not groups. Proposing a new approach to policymaking that in some cases eliminates the human element may not be everyone’s cup of tea. Nevertheless, we advance such a model noting the urgency of policies that rapidly react to both the present and potential drivers and adverse impacts of climate change avoiding some sometimes misplaced human reluctances to deal with the problem head-on. Now, it is important to emphasise that we are not in any way suggesting humans make a wholesale delegation of their role to technology. Instead, we seek to improve policymaking for the benefit of humanity, and technology has a role in that endeavour. In advancing this view, a glimpse into the dynamics of policymaking is critical.
Policies are essentially government or private organisation statements of what these entities intend to do or not to do, including laws, regulations and decisions designed to achieve defined goals [15]. Public policies essentially are government statements that outline public plans of dealing with societal problems in terms of the relevant laws, regulations or orders that seeks to influence behaviour for long-term societal collective benefits [15]. However, despite stating their objectives and the enacting of laws, public policies in particular are often late and regularly deliver suboptimal outcomes. Such outcomes and associated delays result from compromises that are necessary to accommodate the diverse views of critical and powerful/influential stakeholders active in the policymaking arena. With reference to public policy, the outcomes reflect the prevailing political system. The policy cycle is a conceptual model that outlines the formulation, implementation and revision of these plans [3, 16, 17]. The cycle comprises five political activities, namely, (i) agenda setting, (ii) policy formulation, (iii) policy adoption, (iv) implementation and (v) evaluation.
Agenda setting deals with selecting societal problems that require addressing through public policy interventions. Such problems could be local issues such as discernible crime levels, public transport concerns or global issues such environmental degradation and international trade and standards. Power dynamics and asymmetries in the cultural, political, social, economic or ideological arenas are important for either including or excluding societal issues in and from policy agendas [18, 19]. This implies that some important societal problems may not make it to the policy agenda especially those not championed by powerful constituencies as individuals and/or groups of elected or bureaucracy public officials, the media and the interest groups [18, 20]. An issue that makes it to the policy agenda then proceeds to the next process of policy formulation. This is the stage at which discussions seek to define the courses of action for dealing with particular societal challenges.
The related discussions take place in government bureaucracies, legislative bodies (i.e. parliament) interest group offices and public meetings, that is, special commissions, among other platforms [21]. Visible activities of policymaking inter alia include parliamentary debates, exchange between parliament and the executive and public policy enquiries. Power dynamics remain in play at this stage. For example, interest groups may work with the executive, parliament or even the senior civil servants to formulate policy. Some parliamentary representatives may owe the success of their campaigns to the financial backing of interest groups who expert particular policy positions as a return on their investment. This approach excludes other groups that may have different interests and views on the policy agenda. After policy formulation, policy adoption, which essentially is the official recognition of a policy, follows. This essentially is an exclusive domain of explicit actions of government institutions. Adoption is dependent on the majority of relevant actors such as parliamentarians, either as individuals, representatives of particular groups or along party lines accepting the proposed policy [22]. The political systems play an important role in the policy adoption process. Absolute dictatorship, veto or other forms of executive powers can be used either to accept or reject a policy as earlier formulated or with modifications.
Accepted policies proceed to the implementation stage with the conversion of new laws and programmes into practice. A critical component of public policy implementation is capable and capacitated civil service in the bureaucratic structures of government. Implementation involves the interpretation of policy documents into operational frameworks. To this end, there is a need of clarity of policy objectives particularly where are the contestations around a particular. Ambiguity and conflict result in policy implementation challenges [23]. In addition, an accurate translation of policy documents into operational frameworks avoids the bureaucratic drift phenomenon [24], which is the shifting of policy away from its objective and towards the preference of the bureaucracy. After a period of implementation, it becomes necessary to evaluate the efficacy of the policy. This serves to ascertain if or not a policy has or is attaining its stated objectives. Evaluation examines if a policy has resulted in changes in practices and behaviours, satisfied needs such as increasing financial savings, addressing traffic congestion or addressing environmental concerns or has systematically addressed core societal problems and not mere symptoms of the problem(s). More important is that evaluation serves as feedback mechanism to either modify the existing policy for improved efficacy and identifying new challenges that in turn enter the policy cycle commencing with agenda setting. This gives rise to an interminable policy cycle. Alternatively, policy evaluation can lead to the termination of some policies.
The journey from agenda setting to policy adoption can be long. For example, in the international arena, the contribution of different countries in mitigating GHG is a hotly contested issue. The glimmer of hope that emerged after the Paris Agreement (COP 21) has somewhat been extinguished by the Donald Trump administration in the United States of America. Meanwhile GHG emissions continue to grow and with that global warming and ultimately climate change with its adverse impacts. In an ideal world, climate change needs the rapid development of a policy regime that manages climate change. More importantly, the policy must be evidence-driven and be flexible to rapid changes as dictated by emerging knowledge. Even more important is that the policy regime must confer systemic changes. This is a tall order in a globe with diverse interests and views. Nature often delivers on systemic changes that deliver widespread optimal outcome. Can policymaking learn from nature?
The growing severity of the impacts of climate change demands a rapid and vast array of policy actions that both mitigate and adapt humanity and indeed all other flora and fauna to the impacts of these changes. The focus of mitigation is reducing or eliminating the increase of anthropogenic GHG emissions into the atmosphere. Adaption seeks to assist the world live with the inevitable climate change adverse events arising from global warming due to historic and present high GHG emissions. The question for many who seek to manage the climate change challenge is how to navigate the highly contested mitigation and adaptation policy and practice space. Contestations in this arena arise because managing climate change carries a mix political, economic and environment considerations around which humans rarely share similar views concerning the best options in maximising utility.
As debates continue, contestation sharpen and diminish, there is a growing focus on how humans can emulate nature’s ability to heal itself as well as to adapt to environments both harsh and otherwise. This mimicking is the essence of the science of biomimicry. The term biomimicry emerges from a combination of the word
The core idea is that nature, imaginative by necessity, has already solved many of the problems we are grappling with. Animals, plants, and microbes are the consummate engineers. They have found what works, what is appropriate, and most important, what lasts here on Earth. After 3.8 billion years of research and development, failures are fossils, and what surrounds us is the secret to survival [25].
The essence of this assertion is that nature is replete with examples that can inform human activities, in this case on climate change mitigation and adaptation. This biomimicry operates in three distinct but interlinked levels of (i) organism level mimicry, which mimics a specific organism; (ii) the behaviour level, which focuses on how an organism behaves to its larger environment and (iii) ecosystem level mimicry [26].
An example of organism level biomimicry is that of the Teatro del Agua outdoor theatre in the Canary Islands, which mimics the Namib desert beetle
While mimicking individual organisms or their behaviour may benefit efforts seeking to manage climate change, greater benefits accrue if the mimicry is systemic, that is, it covers an entire ecosystem. This approach is concerned with how systems in all individual organisms, the environment and its resources work and interact as a collective. Any important theoretical construct of the ecosystem level biomimicry is the ecosystem principle. The principles (Table 1) are an overly simplified representation of how ecosystems operate.
Ecosystem principle | Ecosystem components |
---|---|
Ecosystems are dependent on sunlight | Energy is drawn from sunlight The sun carries spatial and time management means |
Ecosystems optimise the system and not its individual components | Matter is cycled Energy is transformed Materials and energy are applied for multiple functions |
Ecosystems carry various apparatuses, associations and information | Diversity enables resilience Relationships are complex and are arranged and work in varied hierarchies There is complementarity and cooperation in ecosystems Ecosystems are subject to emerging trends and events Ecosystems self-organise |
Ecosystems are in harmony to and hinge on local conditions | Ecosystems often use local materials Ecosystems exploit locally available and abundant prospects |
Ecosystems adapt and evolve | The rates and levels of ecosystem adaptation and evolution differ Ecosystem are in a constant flux of a balanced non-equilibrium Ecosystems self-correct and self-heal |
Ecosystems create conditions that sustain life | Functional ecosystems enhance biospheres Ecosystem functions and outputs are environmentally benevolent |
An important point from the table is that an ecosystem is a function of all individual organisms in a locale, their behaviour as individuals and relative to other organisms both of their kind and not of their kind within that system. More important and relevant to this chapter is the point that ecosystems seek to optimise the entire system rather than its components. This is important because it many mean that one component of the system may have to compromise its individual absolute efficiency to deliver a system-wide optimal outcome. The key to such an outcome is using limited resources only for functions that are critical and leaving the rest for others to do the same [4]. Mjimba [31] refers to such an approach as the concept of separating real needs and wants in redefining a new path to sustainable development.
Mimicking ecosystems can focus on both the function and process strategies of ecosystems. The functions of ecosystems relate to services that include the provision of food and medicines, soil formation, detoxification of gases and liquids and climate regulation, among others [32]. The focus on process strategies relates to ecosystem aspects that confer resilience to these systems. This pertains to how ecosystems work both at individual and collective levels, the inherent relationships in the system with the related feedback loops that deliver the capacity and capability of an ecosystem to self-correct and self-heal [4].
An understanding of the theories of evolution and/or adapting suggests that the self-correction and self-healing manoeuvres of an ecosystem make use of past and present data such as the weather (i.e. temperature, humidity and wind currents) to ensure that the ecosystem remains optimal. An analogous situation to such adjustments is the behaviour of animals like fish, birds and locusts moving in large numbers.
Moving group of such animals have to balance the need (or nature) to maintain close proximity simultaneously with their ability to change both direction and speed as a unit while avoiding colliding with both other group members and physical structures in their environment [7, 33]. This type of behaviour resides in the biological driven response of the individual animals, which manifest as a self-organised system [7]. The formations of these self-organised systems differ between and within the different types of birds, fish or insects as determined by the reasons for their movement and the population size of the group. For instance, in birds, a turn may or may not result in changes in the shape, density and volume of the flock and the positions individual birds take up in the flock [7]. Similarly, schools of fish change their formations based on the size of the schools. Very large schools of up to and more than 10,000 fish have subformations within the entire group. The entire school formations and its subformations change in response to predators and other external influences [33]. An important and relevant observation is that the reaction of individuals that actually sense either danger or an opportunity triggers similar reactions by other group members that may not have sensed the hazard or opportunity [33]. Humans too sometimes conform to this coordinated collective behaviour [34]. For example, the etiquette on the escalators up or down the City of London underground railway network is that as the escalator moves one can stand on the right-hand side and walk on the left-hand side. Largely this enhances the overall human traffic movement efficiency by decreasing the number of movements to avoid collisions. This is also apparent in the flows of people moving in opposite directions in a street or other constricted spaces. Often the people extemporaneously organise themselves into lanes of uniform walking direction to enhance easier movement. What is interesting is that such arrangements develop without particular individuals either managing or broadcasting these activities or relevant information about them so that others may follow.
In all these forms of self-organised systems, the observed changes are (often) systemic and seek to optimise efficiencies for the entire system rather than its components. This is different from the aforementioned compromises that deliver suboptimal outcome in the conventional policymaking process of democratic societies. Another important feature of such systems is their ability to receive data continually, process this data to generate information that triggers adjustments that deliver rapid changes again seeking at attaining (eventually) optimal outcomes for the systems. Based on these and other observation propose the development of a policymaking machinery that learns and self-adjusts. Such machinery would be appropriate for managing some aspects of dynamic challenges such as those of climate change. This proposal rests on using recent technological developments to drive some aspects of policymaking. We focus on two developments here, Big Data and artificial intelligence, and use these to propose a biomimicry-based policy cycle model for managing the challenges presented by the climate change phenomenon.
Before we proceed to the model, a minor detour is inevitable as a foundation for the proposal. This detour briefly outlines the concept of artificial intelligence (AI). A growing discussion in the world of computer science is around the types of computer intelligence. Terms that include, cognitive computing, machine learning and deep learning, are the focus of this chapter around artificial intelligence (AI). Often, there is an interchangeable use of these terms in daily language. However, the terms differ although refer to related things.
Cognitive computing refers to the sensory subdivision of machine intelligence that is used. Sensors and algorithms are used to enable computer to ‘see’, ‘hear’ and ‘feel’ [35]. Through image sensors computers can see, microphones facilitate their hearing ability and the text-to-speech and speech-to-text technologies permit computers to interconnect with humans using natural (human) language through programmes such as Alexa, Siri, Cortana and Google Assistant.
Simplified, machine learning is knowledge computers gain from old data and historical trends identifying patterns that humans cannot identify [36]. This form of machine intelligence uses colossal amounts of data to generate patterns recognised by computers and thereafter used to differentiate objects from each other, for example, distinguishing between male and female humans or cats and dogs including the different breeds of these animals. The deep learning branch of machine intelligence involves using neural networks that mimic the physiology and function of the human brain [36, 37]. The networks include several layers of neurons that permit computers to learn from historical data and thereafter apply in a way similar to how a human brain thinks [36]. This is the most advanced form of machine learning which is increasingly becoming the favoured approach in training computers.
AI refers to machines acting in ways that seem intelligent [35]. This is through enabling decision-making capabilities to computers. The intention of AI is for computers to make decisions that address specific problems just as humans do every day [35]. Computers use recommendation engines for this purpose, whereas narrow AI is a machine-based system designed to address a specific problem such predicting election results [15, 35, 37]. AI applications work in several branches that include machine learning, natural language processing and robotics. Our proposal is to extend the application of AI into the policymaking space to inform climate change mitigation and adaptation based on models adapted from natural systems through the process of biomimicry. This is a proposal for a dynamic policymaking model. The quintessential proposition of the model is the sequence of quick interventions that incorporate rapid and automated feedback loops that reinforce learning in the policy cycle so that the policy remains in a state of dynamic self-improvement as shown in Figure 1 (the Mjimba-Sibanda dynamic policy model).
The Mjimba-Sibanda dynamic policy model. Source: Authors.
The first stage of the model entails an analysis of natural biological systems using the biomimicry lens in order to understand the strategies that nature has evolved over aeons. The appropriate and relevant strategies are turned into design principles that are no longer limited to the biological context. These general design principles are used to inspire the development of a base policy. To update the policy continually, whenever defined factors change, the abstracted principles are modelled to produce algorithms that mimic the behaviour of the natural biological system, including in terms of having specific variables for the algorithm. The algorithm’s input is Big Data from both the public domain and relevant databases for public policy. Artificial intelligence leverages the sensing of relevant data input, computing the historical and live data in order to adjust the policy and to provide feedback to improve the modelling of the algorithm. Most attractive is that computing the Big Data can enable the prediction of future scenarios. In principle, this means avail an opportunity to anticipate future challenges and adjust the policy to avoid or adapt to those changes before they even manifest. Adjusting to avoid such changes is the essence of climate change mitigation, and adjusting to manage the impacts of the changes relates to climate change adaptation- anticipatory adaptation. The desired policy adjustment can either be automatic, which is desirable in some cases, or be an outcome of debates that are characteristic of the democratic policymaking process.
New ideas and innovations often struggle to gain traction particularly when benefits around them are obscure or disputed both rightly or wrongly. Cognisant of this fact, two examples illustrate plausible applications of the proposed model in both climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation. Before presenting the examples, a brief recap of some tenets of the biomimicry-policymaking nexus that informs the Mjimba-Sibanda dynamic policy model may be in order.
First, it is important to remember that biomimicry applies to three main typologies: mimicking form, process or system. Mimicking form entails emulating (not exact copying) a particular shape in order to achieve a particular function. Second, mimicking a system requires understanding of dynamics of complex interactions. In nature, an ecosystem illustrates such complex system. In natural ecosystems, the concept of waste does not apply because everything is either raw material or food for another and everything is recyclable in a closed resource loop. In such systems, there is co-evolution and co-development. The analogous human concept is the circular economy [38]. The Kalundborg Industrial Park in Denmark illustrates this concept through the co-location of complementary industries that exchange resources that include water, heat, gas, fertiliser and fly ash [39]. Here, we take the view of policy development as being analogous to co-evolving mutualistic relationships in a thriving ecosystem. In that regard, policy development has to seek greater benefits of systems and not components of systems. Let us now revert to the examples of two cases relating to climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Carbon sequestration is a plausible intervention of climate change mitigation. Forests such as the Amazon forests are significant and natural sequestration arenas. However, since the 1970s, over 18% of the Amazon rainforests have been destroyed mainly for agricultural, timber logging and mining, among other activities. This has removed a significant carbon sink. In addition, these forests provide habitat for about a quarter of the world’s terrestrial species and account for about 15% of terrestrial photosynthesis, whose by-product is the oxygen that humans and other animals breathe. Part of climate change mitigation seeks to retard and halt the further destruction of these forests. AI can help understand the relationships among various parameters such as rainfall, humidity, wind, temperature and floods. In addition, AI can also project changes in the acreage of critical forests projecting how these changes affect ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration. The relative changes in these parameters can be used for policy modelling seeking to enact automatically more stringent policy and legislation prescripts that can reduce the rate of depletion and promote regeneration of natural forests. The optimisation of natural systems such as the hydrological cycle, natural runoff, percolation and evaporation rates could provide benchmarks for what ideal conditions policy may seek to foster. An advantage of applying the proposed model in such a scenario is that the policy relies on both current and predicted possible conditions based on current deforestation rates. In addition, the generation of stringent conditions relies less on human judgement with AI generating the interrelations among species and components and, most important, making specific policy adjustments seeking to halt or mitigate present and future hazards.
Regarding climate change adaptation, machine intelligence such as AI and machine learning can predict possible future scenarios including the timing of their manifestation. Big Data fed into machine learning could help predict, for example, the areas with the likelihood of coastal flooding associated with climate change-related sea level rises. A dynamic policy could prescribe future actions such as land rezoning to stop further construction or the introduction of new building codes in areas with highest exposure to natural hazards and high probability of such risks manifesting. Similarly, the policy could define insurance models and levels of disaster preparedness triggered automatically should sea levels reach specified thresholds. This would enable various groups such as residents, investors, insurance providers and emergency services such as the police, hospitals and disaster units to be better prepared.
At first glance, the two examples may appear far-fetched and impractical. However, the plethora of late but well-intended and sometimes incoherent policies in many disciplines suggest that a systemic and self-adjusting policy regime is ideal to deal with the dynamics and nuances of issues such climate change. This holds in majority of policies that relate to climate change adaptation. Traditionally, these have often appeared after adverse events have occurred, instead of manifesting pre-the event to minimise damage. Even in the mitigation drive, the various actions arguably react to events that are avoidable, that is, driving reforestation instead of avoiding deforestation. The Mjimba-Sibanda dynamic policy model seeks to avoid this by taking a proactive policy approach to managing climate change. The approach takes the ‘evidence-based’ policymaking position by using large amounts of data to change both timeously and appropriately the relevant policy standards, codes and other parameters. The advantages of such dynamic policies are available elsewhere. Although the advantages do not necessarily use machine learning and do not draw from biomimicry, they nevertheless apply in this argument.
One important example of dynamic policy is in Kenya. Following the disputed 2007 elections, the feuding parties in the country eventually agreed to a negotiated settlement that culminated in a Government of National Unity (GNU) that comprised representatives of the various political parties. The political parties designed reforms for a more democratic political dispensation. Due to the prevailing mistrust at the time, the parties agreed that the implementation of the new Constitution, which came into effect in 2010, would include self-executing mechanisms. For example, certain provisions that required the President to ratify Bills by a specific date were set to become the responsibility of the Chief Justice if the President did not act accordingly. Similarly, if the Chief Justice reneged in signing the same within a defined period, the said provisions could automatically become law. Compelled by these conditions, on 27 August 2011 the then President signed 15 out of 27 Bills that were to meet the 1-year deadline [40]. Elsewhere, and using computer technology, the development of the blockchain-based smart contracts phenomenon offers interesting cases for the proposed Mjimba-Sibanda model. A blockchain is a distributed data structure replicated and shared among the members of a network [41]. Smart contracts are instruments that coded to automatically execute when certain criteria are met [41]. Merging the blockchain and smart contracts innovations gives rise to decentralised self-executing and self-enforcing contracts. Similarly, the proposed Mjimba-Sibanda model envisages future-oriented self-executing mechanisms aiming to manage climate change. Its criteria for executing changes will be a continuous computation of biological, climatic, physical and other data to generate policy that drives best practice concerning both climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Tying it all up, it is important to note that the current state of affairs in the management of climate change is in part because of human frailties in the process of making policy that can respond effectively to this challenge. Most concerning in this regard is that sometimes humans are reluctant to take decisions that may interrupt established but destructive practices and adopt new and seemingly inconvenient practices that may present long-term benefits. In addition, sometimes humans struggle to gather, analyse and link varied and vast amounts of data to generate information that appropriately informs policy and practice. This condition extends to many disciplines of social and economic development. The Mjimba-Sibanda dynamic policy model seeks to avoid some of these human shortcomings. The model proposes to combine lessons from biological systems, with the new concepts of Big Data and machine learning/artificial intelligence to define critical policy components that can aid the management of climate change.
As stated earlier nature learns and adapts both in the short and long terms. Mother Nature is the biggest teacher on earth. Through biomimicry, humans learn to emulate nature both at individual and system levels. However, lessons from nature are numerous and nuanced to an extent that the human mind may not adequately decipher the relations in these lessons. Modern computer technology serves to address this shortcoming, and the rise of artificial intelligence, especially machine learning, among other related concepts, offers an opportunity for improved decision-making to improve human conditions on earth. At this point it is important to allay fears of machines taking over the human-decision function.
Our belief is that humans working with machines, each contributing what it is good at, can produce outcomes that are much better than when humans and machines working separately. Furthermore, our position is that even in democratic societies, there are policy shifts that need to, can and must avoid the bargaining vagaries of the policy cycle and shift automatically when the relevant and adequate amounts of data accurately and appropriately generates credible information to develop fair, transparent and equitable policies. This is important in an environment which data generation and analysis are happening with greater speeds, the severity and frequency of climate change-linked extreme weather events are increasing and political expediency is sometimes overriding genuine environmental concerns with long-term detrimental effects. In such a scenario, rapid and to an extent automatic policy shifts are important. What is critical is that automatic changes in one area or department should in turn trigger relevant policy changes across government departments, private, public sectors and industries to deliver a system-wide change that avoids policy incoherencies and conflicts. Where human intervention can override machine decisions, the process should be transparent to all relevant stakeholders to prevent abuse by those with the overriding capability and authority. More important is that all overrides must always leave an auditable and public trail log of who effected the changes and the corresponding rationale.
The journey towards a new policymaking approach begins!
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The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]},{id:"70448",title:"Switched Reluctance Motor Drives: Fundamental Control Methods",slug:"switched-reluctance-motor-drives-fundamental-control-methods",totalDownloads:1105,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The switched reluctance motor has been gaining interest both at the academic and industrial levels. Its most appreciated characteristics are the nonuse of rare elements and the low construction price. The control of the switched reluctance motor is not as easy as other traditional machines. In the control, it is necessary to reduce the torque ripple as much as possible, which has been the most studied problem in the field. This chapter aims to give the reader a concise but focused knowledge on how the switched reluctance motor can be controlled. Fundamental control methods and their impact in the motor performance are described. A simulation section is presented, where the simulation files are provided for the reader. The simulations are based on the theory described and have the advantage of using a non-linear switched reluctance motor model from a real motor.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Manuel Fernando Sequeira Pereira, Ana Mamede and Rui Esteves Araújo",authors:[{id:"31663",title:"Prof.",name:"Rui",middleName:"Esteves",surname:"Araújo",slug:"rui-araujo",fullName:"Rui Araújo"},{id:"272832",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana Camila",middleName:null,surname:"F. Mamede",slug:"ana-camila-f.-mamede",fullName:"Ana Camila F. Mamede"},{id:"289589",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"manuel-pereira",fullName:"Manuel Pereira"}]},{id:"48933",title:"Active and Reactive Power Control of Wound Rotor Induction Generators by Using the Computer and Driver",slug:"active-and-reactive-power-control-of-wound-rotor-induction-generators-by-using-the-computer-and-driv",totalDownloads:2441,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a power control system for a wound rotor induction generator has been explained. This power control system has realized a control method using a rotating reference frame fixed on the air-gap flux of the generator. Application of such a system allows control of the active and reactive power of generators independently and stably. So, a two-step process is presented here. The first step is to acquire the complex power expression (and thus the active and reactive power expressions) for an induction machine in space vector notation and in two-axes system. Then, a computer aided circuit is given to realize the power and current control by analyzing them. Also, the results of an experiment given in literature are shown to be able to compare the results.",book:{id:"4688",slug:"induction-motors-applications-control-and-fault-diagnostics",title:"Induction Motors",fullTitle:"Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics"},signatures:"Fevzi Kentli",authors:[{id:"174723",title:"Prof.",name:"Fevzi",middleName:null,surname:"Kentli",slug:"fevzi-kentli",fullName:"Fevzi Kentli"}]},{id:"48929",title:"Open-End Winding Induction Motor Drive Based on Indirect Matrix Converter",slug:"open-end-winding-induction-motor-drive-based-on-indirect-matrix-converter",totalDownloads:2395,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Open-end winding induction machines fed from two standard two-level voltage source inverters (VSI) provide an attractive arrangement for AC drives. An alternative approach is to use a dual output indirect matrix converter (IMC). It is well known that IMC provides fully bidirectional power flow operation, with small input size filter requirements. Whilst a standard IMC consists of an AC–DC matrix converter input stage followed by a single VSI output stage, it is possible to replicate the VSI to produce multiple outputs. In this chapter, an open-end winding induction machine fed by an IMC with two output stages is presented. Different modulation strategies for the power converter are analyzed and discussed.",book:{id:"4688",slug:"induction-motors-applications-control-and-fault-diagnostics",title:"Induction Motors",fullTitle:"Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics"},signatures:"Javier Riedemann, Rubén Peña and Ramón Blasco-Giménez",authors:[{id:"174336",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Riedemann",slug:"javier-riedemann",fullName:"Javier Riedemann"},{id:"174648",title:"Dr.",name:"Rubén",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"ruben-pena",fullName:"Rubén Peña"},{id:"175684",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Blasco-Gimenez",slug:"ramon-blasco-gimenez",fullName:"Ramón Blasco-Gimenez"}]},{id:"48819",title:"Induction Generator in Wind Power Systems",slug:"induction-generator-in-wind-power-systems",totalDownloads:4186,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Wind power is the fastest growing renewable energy and is promising as the number one source of clean energy in the near future. Among various generators used to convert wind energy, the induction generator has attracted more attention due to its lower cost, lower requirement of maintenance, variable speed, higher energy capture efficiency, and improved power quality [1-2]. Generally, there are two types of induction generators widely used in wind power systems – Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator (SCIG) and Doubly-Fed Induction Generator (DFIG). The straightforward power conversion technique using SCIG is widely accepted in fixed-speed applications with less emphasis on the high efficiency and control of power flow. However, such direct connection with grid would allow the speed to vary in a very narrow range and thus limit the wind turbine utilization and power output. Another major problem with SCIG wind system is the source of reactive power; that is, an external reactive power compensator is required to hold distribution line voltage and prevent whole system from overload. On the other hand, the DFIG with variable-speed ability has higher energy capture efficiency and improved power quality, and thus dominates the large-scale power conversion applications. With the advent of power electronics techniques, a back-to-back converter, which consists of two bidirectional converters and a dc-link, acts as an optimal operation tracking interface between DFIG and loads [3-5]. Field orientation control (FOC) is applied to both rotor- and stator-side converters to achieve desirable control on voltage and power [6,7].",book:{id:"4688",slug:"induction-motors-applications-control-and-fault-diagnostics",title:"Induction Motors",fullTitle:"Induction Motors - Applications, Control and Fault Diagnostics"},signatures:"Yu Zou",authors:[{id:"174152",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Zou",slug:"yu-zou",fullName:"Yu Zou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"738",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81947",title:"Wind Tunnel Test of Icing Distribution on the Leading Edge of a 2D Blade Airfoil for Wind Turbines",slug:"wind-tunnel-test-of-icing-distribution-on-the-leading-edge-of-a-2d-blade-airfoil-for-wind-turbines",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104987",abstract:"As clean and renewable energy, wind energy has been widely used in the world. The wind turbine is a kind of rotating machinery, which can convert wind energy into mechanical energy and electrical energy. Wind turbines sometimes face a variety of extreme weather conditions, such as icing, heavy snow, lightning, sand storm, and so on, which affect the safety operation of wind turbines. In the present study, icing events on the blade surfaces of wind turbines are focused, and the wind tunnel test of icing was carried out on a 2D blade with NACA0018 airfoil used in wind turbines. In the icing tests, three kinds of ambient temperatures were selected, including −5 °C, −10 °C, and −15 °C, and two kinds of wind speeds were decided, including 5m/s and 10m/s. The icing distributions on the blade surface at the different attack angles were tested and recorded by a high-speed camera for several minutes. The ice accretion and distribution characteristics at the leading edge of the 2D blade airfoil were acquired and analyzed. The findings can provide a reference for the research on the icing mechanism and the de- and anti-icing of wind turbines.",book:{id:"11162",title:"Rotating Machines",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11162.jpg"},signatures:"Yan Li, Zhongqiu Mu, Zhiyuan Liu, Wenfeng Guo, Fang Feng and Kotaro Tagawa"},{id:"80796",title:"SOFC-Gas Turbine Hybrid Power Plant: Exergetic Study",slug:"sofc-gas-turbine-hybrid-power-plant-exergetic-study",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103002",abstract:"The combined solid oxide fuel cells and gas turbine hybrid system is known to be a promise alternative for power generation with high efficiency. This paper presents the third part of the parametric study of a Solid Oxide Fuel Cell/Gas Turbine (SOFC/GT) hybrid system generating 120 MW Net power. The studied parameters are Pressure P, pre-reformed fraction Xr, extraction fraction fs, H2 flow, and air flow. Their effects on the performances of SOFC-GT hybrid system are investigated. The Engineering Equations Solver (EES) simulation is established to analyze the SOFC-GT exergetic and energetic system performances. The results show that increasing the air and fuel flows enhance system exergy. In contrary, the pressure at the SOFC and the extraction fraction negatively affects the exergy performance of the hybrid plant. It is also found that the combustion chamber, pre-reformer, and SOFC represent the greatest exergy destroyers.",book:{id:"11162",title:"Rotating Machines",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11162.jpg"},signatures:"Salha Faleh and Tahar Khir"},{id:"80787",title:"A Review of Signal Analysis Methods and Their Applications in the Reversible Pump Turbine",slug:"a-review-of-signal-analysis-methods-and-their-applications-in-the-reversible-pump-turbine",totalDownloads:66,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102883",abstract:"This chapter summarizes the signal analysis methods and their applications in the field of reversible pump turbine, including time-domain analysis, time-frequency analysis, mode decomposition and de-noising. The time-domain analysis methods include the time-domain statistical parameters, correlation analysis and chaos evaluation. The time-frequency analysis methods include the short-time Fourier transform, Hilbert-Huang transform and VMD-Hilbert transform. Furthermore, the signal mode decomposition and signal de-noising will be introduced together with the related evaluation indexes. The applications of the aforementioned methods are demonstrated based on both the simulated ideal signals and the measured signals from the prototype reversible pump turbines.",book:{id:"11162",title:"Rotating Machines",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11162.jpg"},signatures:"Hao Li, Xianghao Zheng, Yuning Zhang, Jinwei Li and Yuning Zhang"},{id:"80709",title:"Research on Operation Characteristics of Heater Directly Driven by Vertical Axis Wind Turbine",slug:"research-on-operation-characteristics-of-heater-directly-driven-by-vertical-axis-wind-turbine",totalDownloads:39,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102801",abstract:"Direct heating of wind turbine is a form of heating production using wind energy. Because of its low requirements for wind quality, relatively simple device structure and high heating efficiency, the wind turbine-driven heating devices can take the place of traditional fossil energy for winter heating and achieve the purpose of reducing carbon emissions to a certain extent. Through the heater experimental platform constructed at Northeast Electric Power University, it is concluded that the liquid stirring heater can operate at 7 m/s, however; the efficiency is extremely low in the low-temperature environment. The permanent magnet eddy current heater must operate at the wind speed above 13 m/s, but it also can operate normally under the low-temperature condition. Combining the advantages and disadvantages of the two experimental devices and setting the vertical axis wind generator as the original motor, the heating efficiency of the two types of heating devices are analyzed under different working conditions, and then the adaptability of the wind turbine and the heating efficiency of the heating device are also studied.",book:{id:"11162",title:"Rotating Machines",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11162.jpg"},signatures:"Tieliu Jiang, Shengwen Wang, Lidong Zhang and Zhongbin Zhang"},{id:"80030",title:"Comparative Analysis of Transient Dynamics of Large-Scale Offshore Wind Turbines with Different Foundation Structure under Seismic",slug:"comparative-analysis-of-transient-dynamics-of-large-scale-offshore-wind-turbines-with-different-foun",totalDownloads:105,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101730",abstract:"In this paper, a structural dynamic response comparison between jacket foundation large-scale offshore wind turbines (OWTs) and monopile ones under wind and seismic loads is demonstrated. The interaction between flexible soil and pile foundation is described by Winkler soil-structure interaction (SSI) model. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) 5 MW large-scale OWT is studied via the finite element model. The structural transient dynamic response of these two structures under normal operating conditions at rated wind speed and earthquake is calculated. The results show that under the action of seismic and turbulent wind, the jacket has better wind and seismic resistance, and the displacement of the top of the tower is small, which can effectively protect the blades and the nacelle. Compared with monopile, the range of the Mises equivalent stress amplitude of the jacket wind turbine was reduced and the average value was decreased at the time of the seismic. The study also found that the existing jacket design will have a local strain energy surge.",book:{id:"11162",title:"Rotating Machines",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11162.jpg"},signatures:"Peilin Wang, Minnan Yue, Chun Li, Yangtian Yan, Kailun Niu and Xinyu Pei"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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